REPORT

ON
HYBRID COMPOSITES
BY
2022A4PS1463G - Cheryl Chaudhari - B E Mechanical
Prepared in partial fulfillment of Study Project,
Course Nos. ME F266

AT
BIRLA INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY & SCIENCE, PILANI
October, 2024

1
Abstract:

This report investigates the microstructural and mechanical changes

induced by Friction Stir Processing (FSP) and Friction Stir Welding
(FSW) in aluminum alloys, focusing on the 6063-T5 aluminum alloy.
The study begins with an exploration of the microstructural zones
created during FSP/FSW, including the weld nugget (WN),
thermomechanically affected zone (TMAZ), heat-affected zone (HAZ),
and base metal (BM). Detailed analysis of grain size, precipitate
behavior, and phases across these zones was conducted using optical
microscopy and electron backscatter diffraction (EBSD). The hardness
distribution within the welded region was measured using Vickers
hardness testing, with emphasis on the effects of tool rotation speed and
heat generation. Results show a reduction in hardness in the weld region
compared to the base material, primarily due to precipitate dissolution
and dynamic recrystallization. The study concludes by identifying key
process parameters that influence the microstructure and mechanical
properties, offering insights for optimizing FSP/FSW processes for
enhanced performance. This research contributes to a deeper
understanding of the relationship between friction stir processing
conditions and the resultant material properties, particularly in high-
performance applications.

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Content:

Chapter 1: Introduction ……………………………………………… 4

Chapter 2: Friction Stir Welding and Processing …………………… 6
Chapter 3: Microstructure of friction stir processed/welded region … 9
Chapter 4: Hardness of the friction stir processed/welded region…… 13
Chapter 5: Optical Microscopy ……………………………………… 16
Chapter 6: Conclusion ………………………………………………. 19

References …………………………………………………………… 21

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Chapter 1: Introduction
Friction Stir Welding (FSW) is a revolutionary solid-state welding process that has transformed
the joining of metals, particularly aluminum alloys, since its invention in 1991 by The Welding
Institute (TWI) in the UK. Unlike traditional fusion welding methods that involve melting and
solidifying materials, FSW operates below the melting point of the base material. This
distinction brings several advantages, including the elimination of common welding defects like
porosity, cracking, and distortion, making FSW an increasingly popular method in industries
such as aerospace, automotive, marine, and railway construction.

FSW operates using a rotating tool with a specially designed pin and shoulder that plunges into
the material at the joint line. The frictional heat generated between the tool and the material
softens the metal without melting it. The softened material is stirred around the tool, resulting in
a solid-state joint that exhibits superior mechanical properties compared to traditional welded
joints. Due to this unique mechanism, FSW produces joints that are stronger, more durable, and
less prone to defects than those produced by fusion welding.

The initial application of FSW was focused on aluminum alloys, which are widely used in
industries requiring lightweight, high-strength materials. Over time, the process has evolved to
include other metals and alloys, such as magnesium, titanium, and copper, making it a versatile
technology for joining dissimilar materials as well. The simplicity and effectiveness of FSW
have made it an attractive alternative for welding materials that are otherwise difficult to join
using conventional methods.

One of the major advantages of FSW is the superior joint quality it produces. FSW joints are
characterized by fine, equiaxed grain structures in the weld nugget or stir zone, which contribute
to the mechanical strength and fatigue resistance of the joint. The process also results in minimal
distortion, which is particularly important in applications where dimensional accuracy is critical,
such as in aerospace and automotive manufacturing. Furthermore, FSW eliminates the need for
filler materials, shielding gases, and flux, making it an environmentally friendly process with
reduced emissions and resource consumption.

FSW is widely used in high-performance applications, particularly in industries where safety and
reliability are paramount. In the aerospace industry, for example, FSW is employed to join
critical components of aircraft and spacecraft, where the integrity of the joints directly impacts
the safety and performance of the vehicle. Similarly, in the automotive industry, FSW is used to
join lightweight aluminum components that contribute to improved fuel efficiency and reduced
emissions. In the marine and rail industries, FSW is applied to join materials that must withstand
harsh environmental conditions, such as saltwater corrosion and mechanical fatigue.

Microstructurally, FSW is a complex process that significantly alters the base material. The
material undergoes intense plastic deformation and thermal cycling, leading to grain refinement
in the weld nugget. This refined grain structure is a key factor in the improved mechanical
properties of FSW joints. The process generates different zones within the material, including the
stir zone (SZ), thermomechanically affected zone (TMAZ), and heat-affected zone (HAZ). Each

4
of these zones experiences varying levels of heat and mechanical deformation, resulting in
distinct microstructural characteristics.

The stir zone, where the most significant plastic deformation and dynamic recrystallization
occur, typically exhibits the finest grains. This zone is surrounded by the TMAZ, where the
material is deformed but not fully recrystallized. Beyond the TMAZ lies the HAZ, where the
material is only affected by the heat generated during welding, with no visible plastic
deformation. The base metal remains unaffected in regions farther from the weld. Understanding
the microstructural evolution in each of these zones is crucial for optimizing FSW parameters
and improving the mechanical properties of the joints.

Key process parameters, such as tool design, rotational speed, and welding speed, play a crucial
role in determining the quality of FSW joints. The design of the tool’s pin and shoulder
significantly impacts material flow and heat generation, while the rotational speed and welding
speed determine the thermal and mechanical conditions in the weld zone. Higher rotational
speeds generally lead to increased heat generation, while higher welding speeds reduce the
overall heat input. Balancing these parameters is essential for achieving optimal weld quality,
minimizing defects, and ensuring consistent mechanical properties.

Despite its many advantages, FSW also faces challenges and limitations. One of the primary
challenges is tool wear, especially when processing harder materials such as steel or titanium.
The durability and design of the tool are critical factors in maintaining weld quality over
extended periods of use. Additionally, while FSW is highly effective for materials with relatively
low melting points, such as aluminum, it faces difficulties when applied to materials with higher
melting points, or very thin sections, where controlling the heat input becomes more challenging.

In conclusion, Friction Stir Welding represents a significant advancement in solid-state welding

technology, offering a range of benefits, from improved joint quality and mechanical properties
to environmental advantages. Its application in critical industries like aerospace, automotive, and
marine underscores its importance in modern manufacturing. However, to fully harness the
potential of FSW, a deep understanding of its process parameters, microstructural evolution, and
mechanical behavior is essential. This report aims to explore these aspects in detail, with a focus
on the microstructural and hardness changes that occur during friction stir processing and
welding, particularly in aluminum alloys. By investigating these factors, this study seeks to
contribute to the optimization of FSW processes for enhanced performance and broader
application across various industries.

5
Chapter 2: Friction Stir Welding and Processing
2.1 Overview of Friction Stir Welding (FSW)

Friction Stir Welding (FSW) is a solid-state joining process, invented by The Welding Institute
(TWI) in 1991. This revolutionary technique welds materials without melting, offering
advantages over traditional fusion welding methods. Initially applied to aluminum alloys, FSW is
now used across a range of materials due to its ability to minimize defects, improve joint quality,
and provide superior mechanical properties.

In FSW, the materials to be joined are softened and stirred together by the heat generated from a
rotating tool, which moves along the joint line without reaching the melting point of the
materials. The process results in a high-strength, defect-free weld.

2.2 Process Description

FSW involves a specially designed rotating tool composed of a pin and shoulder. The tool is
plunged into the material at the joint line, creating frictional heat through its rotation. This heat
softens the material, causing it to undergo plastic deformation, which allows for solid-state
bonding as the tool traverses along the weld line. No melting occurs during the process, which
helps maintain the material's structural integrity.

The main steps of the FSW process are:

 Plunging: The tool is inserted into the material at the joint line.
 Frictional Heating: Heat is generated due to the friction between the tool and the
workpieces.
 Material Stirring: The softened material is stirred and mixed around the rotating pin,
forming a strong joint.

2.3 Advantages of Friction Stir Welding

FSW provides several key advantages over traditional welding methods, including:

 High-Quality Joints: FSW produces defect-free welds with superior mechanical

properties. The welds exhibit high strength, low distortion, and excellent fatigue
resistance.
 Environmental Benefits: FSW is an environmentally friendly process. It does not
require filler materials, flux, or shielding gases, reducing waste and emissions.
 Versatility: FSW is applicable to a wide variety of materials, including aluminum,
magnesium, copper, titanium, and even dissimilar material combinations.

2.4 Key Applications

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FSW has been adopted across multiple industries due to its ability to create high-strength,
reliable joints in various materials. Some notable applications include:

 Aerospace and Automotive Industries: FSW is widely used to join lightweight alloys
critical for improving fuel efficiency and reducing emissions.
 Marine and Rail Industries: The process is employed in the construction of ships and
trains, where high-strength and corrosion-resistant joints are essential for structural
integrity.

2.5 Microstructural Evolution in Friction Stir Welding

One of the critical aspects of FSW is its influence on the material's microstructure. The intense
plastic deformation and frictional heat generated during the process cause significant grain
refinement in the weld zone, improving the mechanical properties of the joint. The
microstructural evolution in FSW can be divided into three primary zones:

 Stir Zone (SZ): The area directly affected by the tool's rotation, where material
undergoes dynamic recrystallization.
 Thermomechanically Affected Zone (TMAZ): The region adjacent to the stir zone,
where material is plastically deformed but not fully recrystallized.
 Heat-Affected Zone (HAZ): The area surrounding the weld that experiences temperature
changes but no mechanical deformation.

2.6 Process Parameters in Friction Stir Welding

Several process parameters affect the quality of the weld, including tool design, welding speed,
and rotational speed.

 Tool Design: The design of the tool's pin and shoulder is crucial for controlling heat
generation, material flow, and joint quality. Various tool geometries, such as threaded or
tapered pins, are used to optimize the welding process.
 Welding Speed and Rotational Speed: The speed at which the tool moves along the
joint line (welding speed) and its rotational speed significantly influence the temperature
distribution, material flow, and microstructure of the weld. Higher rotational speeds
generally increase heat input, while higher welding speeds can reduce heat input.

2.7 Important Formulae in Friction Stir Welding

One important formula in FSW is the general expression for heat generation, which relates to the
efficiency of the process and power input:

𝑄 =𝜂⋅𝑃

Where:

 Q is the heat generated,

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  η is the efficiency of heat generation,
 P is the power input, which is influenced by the rotational speed and tool design.

2.8 Challenges and Limitations of Friction Stir Welding

While FSW offers numerous advantages, there are some challenges and limitations:

 Tool Wear: Tool wear is a significant concern, especially when welding harder
materials. The durability of the tool material and its design are critical factors in
maintaining weld quality over time.
 Material Limitations: FSW may face limitations when welding very high melting point
materials or extremely thin sections. Special considerations must be made to address
these challenges effectively.

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Chapter 3: Microstructure of the Friction Stir Processed/Welded
Region
3.1 Zones in the Friction Stir Processed/Welded Region

In Friction Stir Welding (FSW) and Friction Stir Processing (FSP), the processed/welded region
can be divided into four distinct zones, each exhibiting different microstructural characteristics:

1. Weld Nugget (WN)/Stir Zone (SZ): The zone where the material experiences the most
intense plastic deformation and dynamic recrystallization. This results in a fine, equiaxed
grain structure.
2. Thermomechanically Affected Zone (TMAZ): Adjacent to the WN, this region is
subjected to both mechanical deformation and heat, but without complete
recrystallization. The grains here are elongated and deformed but not fully refined.
3. Heat-Affected Zone (HAZ): Located further from the tool, this zone is affected by the
heat generated during the process but does not undergo any plastic deformation. The
grain structure remains similar to the base material, though thermal exposure may cause
some microstructural changes, such as precipitate coarsening.
4. Base Metal (BM): The region farthest from the tool where no significant thermal or
mechanical effects occur, and the grain structure remains unchanged from the original
material.

In certain materials like aluminum, where thermal sensitivity is lower, the HAZ may not be
distinctly visible, and the transition from TMAZ to BM may appear more gradual.

3.2 Identification of the Zones

The different zones can be identified through a combination of visual and microscopic
examination:

 Base Metal (BM): Coarse, undeformed grains characteristic of the original material.
 Heat-Affected Zone (HAZ): A transition zone where the material is exposed to heat but
retains its initial microstructure, with some thermal alterations, such as grain coarsening.
 Thermomechanically Affected Zone (TMAZ): Deformed grains are visible, but the
material has not fully recrystallized. This zone lies between the HAZ and the WN.
 Weld Nugget (WN)/Stir Zone (SZ): The zone where dynamic recrystallization occurs,
characterized by fine, equiaxed grains formed due to intense plastic deformation and high
temperatures.

3.3 Nominal Grain Size in Each Zone

The grain size varies significantly across the different zones based on the amount of heat and
mechanical deformation experienced:

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  Base Metal (BM): In the base metal, the grain size is typically coarse, around 134 μm,
ranging between 90 to 190 μm depending on the material and its prior processing history.
 Weld Nugget (WN)/Stir Zone (SZ): The grain size in this zone is significantly reduced
due to dynamic recrystallization. The nominal grain size in the WN can be as small as a
few micrometers, with finer grains achieved at lower tool rotation speeds.
 Thermomechanically Affected Zone (TMAZ): Grains are larger than in the WN but
smaller than in the BM. The exact size depends on processing conditions, but this zone
typically exhibits elongated grains that have undergone deformation but not
recrystallization.

3.4 Phases and Alloying Elements in the FSP/Welded Region

In friction stir processing or welding, the phases and distribution of alloying elements change
due to the heat and mechanical effects:

 Base Metal (BM): In alloys like 6063-T5 aluminum, the base material contains dense,
needle-shaped precipitates (e.g., Mg2Si), which are typically large, around 1 ± 0.23 μm.
 FSP/Weld Nugget (WN): In the WN, these precipitates dissolve or reduce in density due
to the high temperatures involved in the process. The dissolution of precipitates results in
the formation of dislocations, which facilitate grain refinement and dynamic
recrystallization.

3.5 Procedure for Obtaining the Microstructure

To analyze the microstructure of the friction stir processed/welded region, the following
procedure is commonly followed:

1. Sample Preparation:
o Specimens are sectioned, mounted, polished, and etched using appropriate etching
solutions to reveal grain boundaries and precipitates.
2. Microstructure Analysis:
o Optical Microscopy (OM) is initially used to observe the general grain structure.
o Electron Backscatter Diffraction (EBSD) provides detailed information on
grain size, shape, and orientation.
o Transmission Electron Microscopy (TEM) is used for high-resolution analysis,
particularly to observe dislocations, precipitates, and sub-grain structures.

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 Fig: 3.1: OM Microstructure of 6063 alloy BM

3.6 Magnification for Microstructural Observation

The magnification used to study the microstructure depends on the feature being examined:

 Optical Microscopy (OM): Typically used at lower magnifications (100x to 500x) to

observe the overall grain structure.
 Electron Backscatter Diffraction (EBSD): Allows for detailed grain boundary mapping
at higher magnifications (up to 5,000x).
 Transmission Electron Microscopy (TEM): Used at very high magnifications (over
10,000x) to observe fine features such as dislocations, precipitates, and grain boundary
phases.

3.7 Microstructural Changes Due to FSP/FSW

The microstructure of the base material undergoes significant changes due to friction stir
processing or welding. The key reasons for these changes include:

 Dynamic Recrystallization: The severe plastic deformation and frictional heat generated
during the process result in dynamic recrystallization within the stir zone, leading to grain
refinement. The fine, equiaxed grains in the WN are a direct consequence of this process.
 Dissolution of Precipitates: In aluminum alloys, the heat generated during the process
causes the dissolution of precipitates (e.g., Mg2Si). The reduced density of these
precipitates leads to dislocation formation, which contributes to grain boundary migration
and the transformation of low-angle boundaries (LABs) into high-angle boundaries
(HABs).

3.8 Discussion of Microstructural Changes in Literature

Authors typically discuss the microstructural changes due to FSP/FSW by linking the process
parameters (e.g., tool rotation speed, welding speed) to the observed transformations in the
material. For instance:

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  Tool Rotation Speed: At lower rotation speeds, the heat generated is less, leading to
finer grain structures in the WN. As the tool speed increases (above 700 rpm), grain size
stabilizes, and further increases in speed do not significantly affect grain size.

Fig: 3.2 Average grain size for different rotation speeds

 Precipitate Behavior: The dissolution of precipitates is a critical factor in grain

refinement. Authors often use EBSD data to show how the precipitate distribution
changes in different zones, from dense precipitates in the BM to their near-complete
dissolution in the WN.

The style of explanation in these discussions typically involves a clear cause-and-effect

narrative, where the influence of each process parameter is carefully correlated with the
microstructural evolution observed. Quantitative data (e.g., grain size, precipitate density) is used
to substantiate these findings, providing a robust framework for understanding the
microstructural transformations induced by FSP/FSW.

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Chapter 4: Hardness of the Friction Stir Processed/Welded Region
4.1 Hardness Values in Different Zones of the FSP/Weld Region

The hardness across the friction stir processed (FSP) or welded region varies significantly
depending on the microstructural transformations in each zone:

 Base Metal (BM): The hardness in the base metal is generally higher compared to the
friction stir processed/welded region. This is because the base material retains its original
microstructure, including precipitates that contribute to its overall hardness.
 Weld Nugget (WN)/Stir Zone (SZ): The hardness in this zone is typically lower than
that of the base metal due to the dissolution of strengthening precipitates and grain
refinement. The lowest hardness is often observed at approximately 30 mm from the
weld nugget center. However, the hardness in this zone can be improved with increased
tool rotation speeds.
 Thermomechanically Affected Zone (TMAZ): The hardness in the TMAZ is usually
higher than in the WN, but still lower than in the base metal. This zone experiences
deformation but without full recrystallization, resulting in intermediate hardness values.
 Effect of Tool Rotation Speed: As tool rotation speed increases, the hardness values in
the weld zone tend to increase as well. At speeds around 700 rpm or higher, the hardness
improves, but it remains less than that of the base material.

4.2 Type of Hardness Measurement in the FSP/Weld Region

The hardness of the friction stir processed or welded region is typically measured using the
Vickers hardness test. This method is widely used for metallurgical studies, particularly for
microhardness testing in small regions such as the weld nugget, TMAZ, and HAZ.

The Vickers hardness test is preferred for its accuracy in determining hardness in areas where
fine microstructural changes occur, such as in the FSP region. It provides a reliable measure of
the material's resistance to deformation, making it suitable for examining the hardness changes
caused by FSP.

Fig: 4.1 Microhardness test results of the FSP zone and BM

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4.3 Force and Time Period for Hardness Testing

While specific details regarding the force and time used in the hardness tests in the studied
materials are not provided, typical Vickers hardness testing procedures apply a force ranging
from 0.5 kgf to 1 kgf. The force is usually applied for a period of 10 to 15 seconds to achieve
accurate and consistent measurements.

This load and time period ensure that the indentation created by the diamond pyramid in the
Vickers hardness test can be measured precisely, giving a reliable representation of the material's
hardness in different zones of the FSP or welded region.

4.4 Hardness in the FSP/Weld Region Compared to the Base Material

Generally, the hardness of the FSP/weld region is lower than that of the base material. This
reduction in hardness can be attributed to several key factors:

 Reduction of Precipitate Density: In alloys like 6063-T5 aluminum, the base metal
contains precipitates such as Mg2Si that strengthen the material and contribute to its
hardness. During the friction stir process, the heat generated leads to the dissolution of
these precipitates. As the density of these hardening precipitates decreases, the overall
hardness in the weld zone is reduced.
 Grain Refinement: While the grain refinement caused by dynamic recrystallization can
enhance strength, it does not fully compensate for the reduction in precipitate density.
The refined grains in the weld nugget may lead to increased ductility, but the hardness
remains lower compared to the base material due to the loss of strengthening precipitates.

4.5 Microstructural Reasons for Hardness Changes in the FSP/Weld Region

The hardness of the base material changes as a result of friction stir processing due to two
primary microstructural phenomena:

1. Dynamic Recrystallization: The intense heat and mechanical deformation during FSP
lead to dynamic recrystallization in the weld nugget, resulting in a refined grain structure.
However, while grain refinement typically enhances mechanical properties like ductility
and toughness, it may not significantly increase hardness, particularly when precipitates
dissolve due to high temperatures.
2. Precipitate Dissolution: The dissolution of precipitates during friction stir processing
has a more significant impact on the hardness reduction. In the base material, hardening
precipitates like Mg2Si play a crucial role in maintaining hardness. When the friction stir
process generates sufficient heat to dissolve these precipitates, the resulting
microstructure becomes softer, leading to a noticeable decrease in hardness in the weld
zone compared to the base metal.

4.6 Explanation of Hardness Changes in Literature

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Authors typically explain the changes in hardness due to friction stir processing by discussing the
combined effects of tool rotation speed, heat generation, and microstructural
transformations. For example:

 Tool Rotation Speed: At lower tool rotation speeds, the frictional heat generated is less,
leading to limited precipitate dissolution and finer grains in the weld zone. As a result,
hardness in the FSP region may be higher at lower speeds. However, as the rotation speed
increases and more heat is generated, precipitates dissolve more extensively, and grain
growth may occur, resulting in reduced hardness in the weld region.
 Precipitate Behavior: The dissolution of precipitates is discussed in detail, with authors
correlating higher temperatures and prolonged heat exposure during FSP with a reduction
in precipitate density. This reduction in precipitates directly impacts the hardness of the
weld zone, and the authors typically use quantitative data to demonstrate this correlation.

The style of explanation is methodical, moving from the process parameters (such as tool
rotation speed) to the resulting microstructural changes (e.g., grain refinement, precipitate
dissolution) and their impact on mechanical properties like hardness. Authors often use hardness
profiles across different zones of the FSP region to illustrate how hardness decreases from the
base metal toward the weld center and how it is influenced by varying process conditions.

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Chapter 5: Advanced Concepts in Optical Microscopy
5.1 Introduction to Optical Microscopy

Optical microscopy remains a fundamental tool in various fields of scientific research, offering a
means to visualize microscopic structures using magnifying lenses. An optical microscope
primarily uses light and lenses to create magnified images observable through the eyepiece. Key
concepts involved in optical microscopy include magnification, useful magnification, resolution,
depth of field, and depth of focus. Understanding these principles is essential for improving the
quality of microscopic observations.

5.2 Magnification and the Thin Lens Equation

Magnification is central to the functioning of microscopes, but magnification without context or

purpose can lead to loss of clarity. This is where the concept of useful magnification comes
in—highlighting the balance between increasing size and maintaining clarity. Excessive
magnification without corresponding resolution enhancement diminishes the image quality.

The thin lens equation plays a critical role in understanding how magnification works in optical
systems. It establishes the relationship between the object distance (u), image distance (v), and
the focal length (f), and can be expressed as:

1 1 1
= +
𝑓 𝑢 𝑣

The magnification (M) of an optical system can be described as the ratio of image distance (v) to
object distance (u):

𝑣
M=
𝑢

5.3 Compound Microscopy

Compound microscopes are composed of multiple lenses that work together to enhance
magnification. They include various components such as light sources, condensers, objective
lenses, and eyepiece lenses. In optical microscopy, two types of microscopes are predominantly
used: metallurgical and biological microscopes. Metallurgical microscopes utilize reflected light
for surface examination, while biological microscopes depend on transmitted light to view
samples.

Image formation in a compound microscope begins when light from the source is focused
through the condenser lens and reflected off the sample. The objective lens collects these rays
and magnifies the intermediate image. While additional lenses can further magnify the image,
increasing the number of lenses typically decreases the resolution.

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5.4 Limitations of Optical Microscopy

Optical microscopes face inherent limitations, particularly in magnification and resolution. While
they can magnify up to approximately 1400X, resolution deteriorates as magnification increases,
leading to blurred images. When compared to a Scanning Electron Microscope (SEM), the
optical microscope offers similar clarity at lower magnifications (~300X). However, at higher
magnifications (~1400X), SEM provides far superior resolution and image sharpness.

5.5 Resolution and Airy Rings

Resolution refers to the ability to distinguish two closely spaced points as separate entities. It is
defined as the smallest distance between two points that can be clearly observed. The Rayleigh
criterion is used to calculate the resolution and is expressed as:

1.22λ
𝑟1 =
μ sin(α)

where:

 λ is the wavelength of light,

 μ is the refractive index of the medium,
 α is the aperture angle.

Microscope resolution can be improved by decreasing the wavelength of light, increasing the
aperture, or using materials with a higher refractive index. However, diffraction limits in
microscopy can lead to the appearance of Airy rings, where light forms diffraction patterns with
a bright central disc surrounded by rings. These Airy rings interfere with one another, lowering
the effective resolution of the system.

5.6 Depth of Field and Depth of Focus

Depth of field (DOF) is the range within which the specimen remains in focus. It is related to the
resolution of the system and can be calculated by:

1.22λ
h=
μ sin(α) tan(α)

As the aperture angle increases, depth of field decreases but resolution improves. Conversely,
decreasing the aperture improves depth of field but reduces resolution, a trade-off seen in both
microscopy and camera optics. The depth of focus refers to the tolerance of the eyepiece for
varying focus distances and is generally larger than the depth of field.

5.7 Optical Aberrations and Their Correction

17
One of the challenges in optical microscopy is optical aberrations, which distort the clarity of
the image. These include spherical aberration, where light rays focus at different points
depending on their distance from the optical axis, and chromatic aberration, where different
wavelengths of light refract differently, causing color fringing around images.

To minimize these aberrations, high-quality optical systems incorporate corrective lenses.

Achromatic objectives, for example, combine convex and concave lenses to correct chromatic
and spherical aberrations for certain wavelengths of light. Advanced microscopes use semi-
apochromatic (fluorite) lenses or apochromatic lenses to correct a broader range of
wavelengths, enhancing image quality.

5.8 Sample Preparation in Metallography

In metallography, sample preparation is crucial for achieving accurate microscopic analysis. The
process involves several steps:

1. Grinding – The sample is flattened to remove surface irregularities using coarse

abrasives.
2. Polishing with Abrasive Papers – Successive polishing with increasingly finer abrasives
smoothens the surface.
3. Final Polishing with Cloth – Using finer abrasives like alumina or diamond paste, the
sample is polished to a mirror-like finish.
4. Etching – After polishing, the sample is etched to reveal microstructures by introducing
surface roughness that scatters light differently from each microstructural feature.

After etching, features such as grain boundaries become visible under a microscope. Correct
polishing and etching techniques ensure that the sample is prepared to the necessary standard for
microscopic examination.

5.9 Practical Use of Microscopes

To obtain clear images, it is important to follow certain procedures when using a microscope.
Starting with lower magnifications for coarse adjustments and progressively moving to higher
magnifications ensures that the sample is correctly focused without damaging the lenses.
Additionally, sample cleanliness and microscope maintenance, including regular cleaning and
covering when not in use, are essential for preserving optical performance.

18
Chapter 6: Conclusion
This report explored the microstructural and mechanical effects of friction stir processing (FSP)
and welding on aluminum alloys, particularly focusing on the 6063-T5 aluminum alloy. Through
a detailed investigation of the microstructural zones, hardness changes, and material behavior
during FSP, key insights were gained into the relationships between process parameters,
microstructural transformations, and mechanical properties.

The friction stir processed/welded region was found to consist of distinct zones: the base metal
(BM), heat-affected zone (HAZ), thermomechanically affected zone (TMAZ), and the weld
nugget or stir zone (WN). Each of these zones exhibited unique microstructural characteristics,
with the most significant changes occurring in the weld nugget due to dynamic recrystallization.
The grain refinement in this zone resulted from the combined effects of heat and mechanical
deformation induced by the rotating tool. However, despite the grain refinement, the weld zone’s
hardness was generally lower than that of the base material.

The hardness values in the different zones of the FSP region were influenced by the dissolution
of precipitates and grain structure changes. In the base metal, the presence of needle-shaped
precipitates such as Mg2Si contributed to higher hardness levels. However, as the friction stir
process generated heat, these precipitates dissolved, leading to a significant reduction in
hardness, particularly in the weld nugget. While the grain refinement typically enhances
mechanical strength, it was not sufficient to offset the loss of hardness due to precipitate
dissolution.

The study demonstrated that Vickers hardness testing was the preferred method for evaluating
hardness in the friction stir processed region. This method allowed for accurate measurements in
small areas, particularly within the weld zone, thermomechanically affected zone, and heat-
affected zone. The hardness profile showed that the weld nugget had the lowest hardness values,
followed by the TMAZ and HAZ, with the base material exhibiting the highest hardness. These
findings underscored the importance of precipitate density in maintaining material hardness.

One of the key conclusions drawn from this research is that the hardness reduction in the FSP
region is primarily due to the dissolution of strengthening precipitates, with dynamic
recrystallization playing a secondary role in altering the material’s mechanical properties. The
microstructural changes induced by FSP, including grain refinement and precipitate dissolution,
were directly influenced by the process parameters, particularly the tool rotation speed. Higher
tool rotation speeds led to increased heat generation, further promoting precipitate dissolution
and resulting in lower hardness in the weld zone.

In conclusion, friction stir processing and welding significantly alter the microstructure and
mechanical properties of aluminum alloys. The reduction in hardness in the weld zone, despite
the grain refinement, highlights the critical role of precipitate behavior in determining the
material’s overall mechanical properties. Understanding these microstructural transformations is
essential for optimizing the FSP process and tailoring the mechanical performance of friction stir
processed materials. Future work could focus on exploring different tool designs, rotation

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speeds, and materials to further refine the process and improve the mechanical properties of
friction stir welded joints.

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References

Rajiv Sharan Mishra, Partha Sarathi De, Nilesh Kumar. Friction Stir Welding and Processing.
Switzerland: Springer, 2014.

P. L. Threadgill (2007). “Terminology in friction stir Welding.”

Honglong Zhao, Qin Pan, Qingdong Qin, Yujiao Wu, Xiangdong Su (2019). “Effect of the
processing parameters of friction stir processing on the microstructure and mechanical properties
of 6063 aluminum alloy.” Materials Science & Engineering A 751 70–79

Material Science and Engineering – IITR. “Material Science and Engineering, Lecture 06-10,
22-23”, YouTube videos,
https://youtube.com/playlist?list=PLxQzQgOy_JvYd32Y6XOwFOnVc4_Dkv7v6&si=tY4Y797
oeh6wI5TZ

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