3.

Error Detection & correction

 Error

• A condition when the receiver’s information does not match with the sender’s information.

• During transmission, digital signals suffer from noise that can introduce errors in the binary
bits travelling from sender to receiver.

• That means a 0 bit may change to 1 or a 1 bit may change to 0

 Definitions of error detection and error correction:

• Error detection is the ability to detect the presence of errors caused by noise or other
impairments during transmission from the transmitter to the receiver.

• Error correction is the additional ability to reconstruct the original, error-free data.

Types of Errors

1. single bit

2. Burst bit

1.Single Bit Error:

It means only one bit of data unit is changed from 1 to 0 or from 0 to 1 as shown in fig.
• Single bit error can happen in parallel transmission where all the data bits are transmitted
using separate wires. Single bit errors are the least likely type of error in serial transmission.

2.Burst Bit error

• It means two or more bits in data unit are changed from 1 to 0 from 0 to 1 as shown in fig.

• As shown in fig. length of burst error is 8, although some bits are unchanged in between. Burst error
is most likely to occur in a serial transmission.

• In burst error, it is not necessary that only consecutive bits are changed. The length of burst error is
measured from first changed bit to last changed bit.

 Redundancy

• Redundancy involves transmission of extra bit along with the data bits.

• These extra bits actually do not contain any data or information but they sure the detection and
correction of errors introduced during the data travel from sender to receiver

• As these extra bits do not contain any information, they are known as Redundant bits
 • The redundant bits are also known as parity check bits. They are produced from the data bits using
some predefined rules

• The data bits and redundant bits together form a code word.

 Error Detection

• Error detection is a method or a process which is used by a receiver to find out whether an
error is present in the received code word

• Whenever a message is transmitted, it may get scrambled by noise or data may get
corrupted.

• To avoid this, we use error-detecting codes which are additional data added to a given
digital message to help us detect if any error has occurred during transmission of the
message.

 Four types of redundancy checks are used in data communications

 Parity Checking Vertical Redundancy Check (VRC)

• Parity bit means nothing but an additional bit added to the data at the transmitter before
transmitting the data.

• Before adding the parity bit, number of 1’s or zeros is calculated in the data. Based on this
calculation of data an extra bit is added to the actual information / data. The addition of parity
bit to the data will result in the change of data string size.

• This means if we have an 8 bit data, then after adding a parity bit to the data binary string it
will become a 9 bit binary data string.

• Parity check is also called as “Vertical Redundancy Check (VRC)”.

• There is two types of parity bits in error detection, they are

1. Even parity
2. Odd parity

 Parity Checking

• Even Parity

• If the data has even number of 1’s, the parity bit is 0. Ex: data is 10000001 -> parity bit 0

• Odd number of 1’s, the parity bit is 1.

Ex: data is 10010001 -> parity bit 1

• Odd Parity

• If the data has odd number of 1’s, the parity bit is 0. Ex: data is 10011101 -> parity bit 0

• Even number of 1’s, the parity bit is 1.

Ex: data is 10010101 -> parity bit 1

 Two-dimensional Parity check

• Parity check bits are calculated for each row, which is equivalent to a simple parity check
bit. Parity check bits are also calculated for all columns, then both are sent along with the
data. At the receiving end these are compared with the parity bits calculated on the received
data.
  Longitudinal Redundancy Check

• In longitudinal redundancy method, a BLOCK of bits are arranged in a table format (in rows and
columns) and calculate the parity bit for each column separately. The set of these parity bits are also
sent along with our original data bits.

• Longitudinal redundancy check is a bit by bit parity computation, as we calculate the parity of each
column individually.

 Vertical Redundancy Check

• Vertical Redundancy Check is also known as Parity Check. In this method, a redundant bit
also called parity bit is added to each data unit.

• This method includes even parity and odd parity. Even parity means the total number of 1s
in data is to be even and odd parity means the total number of 1s in data is to be odd.

 Cyclic Redundancy Check (CRC)

• It is an error-detecting code used to determine if a block of data has been corrupted. Cyclic
Redundancy Check (CRC) is a block code invented by W. Wesley Peterson in 1961.

• It is commonly used to detect accidental changes to data transmitted via

telecommunications networks and storage devices.

• CRC involves binary division of the data bits being sent by a predetermined divisor agreed
upon by the communicating system.

• The divisor is generated using polynomials. So, CRC is also called polynomial code
checksum.

Steps in CRC method

• The various steps followed in the CRC method are :

1. Append a train of (n-1) 0s to the message word where,(n-1) is 1 less than the number of
bits in the predicated divisor (i.e generator word) i.e. n. If the divisor is 5 bit long then we
have to append 4 – zeros to the message

2. The newly formed data unit i.e. original data + string of n as are divided by the divisor using binary
division and remainder is obtained. This remainder is called CRC.

3 Now, string of n Os appended to data unit is replaced by the CRC remainder (which is also of n
bit).

4. The data unit + CRC is then transmitted to receiver.

5. The receiver on receiving it divides data unit + CRC by the same divisor & checks the remainder

 CRC generator at sender side

Checker at Receiver side

• The data received at the receiver consist of message and CRC

• The receiver treats it as one unit & divide it by the same (n) bit divisor (generator word)
which was used at the transmitter

• The remainder of this division is then check

• String of 3 zeroes is appended to 1011 as divisor is of 4 bits. Now newly formed data is
1011000

• Detection of error :

1. If the remainder of division is zero, receiver assumes that there is no error in data and it
accepts it.

2. If remainder is non-zero then there is an error in data and receiver rejects it

 Checker at Receiver side

Example : Data unit 1011000 is divided by 1011

Steps in example 1.
1 During this process of division, whenever the leftmost bit of dividend or remainder is 0, we use a
string of Os of same length as divisor. Thus in this case divisor 1011 is replaced by 0000.

2 At the receiver side, data received is 1001110.

3 This data is again divided by a divisor 1011.

3. The remainder obtained is 000; it means there is no error.

4. Result

Example 2 Division in CRC decoder for two cases

 Error Correction
Error correction has to take place at the receiver.

 Automatic repeat-request (ARQ):

Automatic repeat-request (ARQ): The transmitter sends the data and also an error
detection code, which the receiver uses to check for errors, and requests retransmission of
erroneous data. In many cases, the request is implicit; the receiver sends an acknowledgement
(ACK) of correctly received data, and the transmitter re-sends anything not acknowledged
within a reasonable period of time.
 Forward Error Correction
In the FEC technique there is no feedback path and request for retransmission.
• In this technique, the receiver tries to guess the transmitted .
Forward error correction (FEC): The transmitter encodes the data with an error correcting
code (ECC) and sends the coded message. The receiver never sends any messages back to the
transmitter. The receiver decodes what it receives into the "most likely" data. The codes are
designed so that it would take an "unreasonable" amount of noise to trick the receiver into
misinterpreting the data. message with the help of the redundant bits
• This technique is useful only when the number of errors are small
• In FEC the receiver searches for the most likely correct code word.

Wireless Communication

 IEEE Standards
• The institution of Electrical and Electronics Engineering's (IEEE) has developed the layered
architecture and other standards of LAN , under their project 802 set up in 1980.
• The IEEE 802 standards are as follows :
802.1 Architecture, Management and Internetworking
802.2 Logical Link Control
802.3 carrier Sense Multiple Access/Collision Detect(CSMA/CD)
802.4 Token Bus
802.5 Token Ring
802.6 Metropolitan Area Network (MAN) IEEE Standards
802.7 Band pass Technical Advisory Group
802.8 Fiber Optic Technical Advisory Group
802.9 Integrated Data and Voice Network
802.10 Security Working Group
802.11 Wireless LAN Working Group
802.12 Demand Priority Working Group
802.13 Not Used
802.14 Cable Modem Working Group
802.15 Wireless Personal Area Networking Group
802.16 Broadband Wireless Access Study Group
 WLAN
• WLAN includes an access point (AP) which is employed to attach to the web . AP sends
and receives frequency signal to the connected devices.
• Wireless LANs (WLANs) are wireless computer networks that use high frequency radio
waves instead of cables for connecting the devices within a limited area forming LAN (Local
Area Network).
• Users connected by wireless LANs can move around within this limited area such as home,
school, campus, office building, railway platform, etc.
• Most WLANs are based upon the standard IEEE 802.11 standard or WiFi.

 IEEE 802.11
• IEEE 802.11 is the most popular WLAN standard. It define the specification for the physical
and MAC layers
• The two types of services are.
1. Basic services set (BSS)
2. Extended Service Set (ESS).

1.Basic services set (BSS)

• The basic services set contain stationary or mobile wireless stations and a central
base station called access point (AP).The use of access point is optional.
• The BSS in which an access point is present is known as an infrastructure network.

If the access point is not present, it is known as stand-alone network. Such a BSS
cannot send data to other BSSs. This type of architecture is known as adhoc architecture.

2. Extend Service Set (ESS)

• An extended service set is created by joining two or more basic service sets
(BSS) having access points (APs).
 • These extended networks are created by joining the access points of basic services
sets through a wired LAN known as distribution system.
• The distribution system can be any IEET LAN.

Extend Service Set (ESS)

There are two types of stations in ESS:
• Mobile stations:
These are normal stations inside a BSS.
• Stationary stations:
These are AP stations that are part of a wired LAN.
• Communication between two stations in two different BSS usually occurs via two APs.
• A mobile station can belong to more than one BSS at the same time.

 802.11 Station Types

• IEEE 802.11 defines three types of stations on the basis of their mobility in wireless LAN.
These are :
1. No-transition Mobility :
These types of stations are either stationary i.e. immovable or move only inside a BSS.
2. BSS-transition Mobility :
These types of stations can move from one BSS to another but the movement is limited
inside an ESS.
3. ESS-transition Mobility :
These types of stations can move from one ESS to another. The communication may or
may not be continuous when a station moves from one ESS to another ESS.

 MAC Sublayer
• In IEEE 802.11, two MAC sub layer are defined. They are as follows :
1. Distributed Coordination Function (DCF)
2. Point Coordination Function (PCF)
1. Distributed Coordination Function
 • The DCF is used in BSS having no access point.
• DCF uses CSMA/CA protocol for transmission.
• The following steps are followed in this method.

When a station wants to transmit, it senses the channel to see whether it is free or not.
2. If the channel is not free the station waits for back off time.
Distributed Coordination Function
3 If the station finds a channel to be idle, the station waits for a period of time called
distributed interframe space (DIFS).
4 The station then sends control frame called request to send (RTS) as shown in figure.
5 The destination station receives the frame and waits for a short period of time called short
interframe space (SIFS).
6 The destination station then sends a control frame called clear to send (CTS) to the source
station. This frame indicates that the destination station is ready to receive data.
7 The sender then waits for SIFS time and sends data.
8 The destination waits for SIFS time and sends acknowledgement for the received frame.

2. Point Coordination Function

• PCF method is used in infrastructure network. In this Access point is used to control the
network activity.
• It is implemented on top of the DCF and IS used for time sensitive transmissions.
• PCF uses centralized, contention free polling access method.
• The AP performs polling for stations that wants to transmit data. The various stations are
polled one after the other.
• To give priority to PCF over DCF, another interframe space called PIFS is defined. PIFS
(PCF IFS) is shorter than DIFS.
• If at the same time, a station is using DCF and AP is using PCF, then AP is given priority
over the station.
• Due to this priority of PCF over DCF, stations that only use DCF may not gain access to the
channel.
• To overcome this problem, a repetition interval is defined that is repeated continuously. This
repetition interval starts with a special control frame called beacon frame.
• When a station hears beacon frame, it start their NAV for the duration of the period of the
 repetition interval.

 Network Allocation Vector (NAV)

• 802.11 standard uses Network Allocation Vector (NAV) for collision avoidance.
• Whenever a station sends an RTS frame, it includes the duration of time for which the
station will occupy the channel.
• All other stations that are affected by the transmission creates a timer caned network
allocation vector (NAV).
• This NAV (created by other stations) specifies for how much time these stations must not
check the channel.
• Each station before sensing the channel, check its NAV to see if has expired or not. • If its
NA V has expired, the station can send data, otherwise it has to wait. Network Allocation
Vector (NAV)
• There can also be a collision during handshaking i.e. when RTS or CTS control frames are
exchanged between the sender and receiver. In this case following procedure is used for
collision avoidance:
1. When two or more stations send RTS to a station at same time, their control frames collide.
2. If CTS frame is not received by the sender, it assumes that there has been a collision.
3. In such a case sender, waits for back off time and retransmits RTS.

 Advantages of WLANs
• They provide clutter-free homes, offices and other networked places.
• The LANs are scalable in nature, i.e. devices may be added or removed from the network at
greater ease than wired LANs.
• The system is portable within the network coverage. Access to the network is not bounded
by the length of the cables.
• Installation and setup are much easier than wired counterparts.
• The equipment and setup costs are reduced.

 Disadvantages of WLANs
• Since radio waves are used for communications, the signals are noisier with more
interference from nearby systems.
• Greater care is needed for encrypting information. Also, they are more prone to errors. So,
they require greater bandwidth than the wired LANs.
• WLANs are slower than wired LANs.

 Bluetooth
• Bluetooth is a wireless LAN technology used to connect devices of different functions such
as telephones, computers (laptop or desktop), notebooks, cameras, printers and so on.
• Bluetooth devices have a built-in short range radio transmitter. The rate provided is 1Mbps
and uses 2.4 GHz bandwidth.
• Bluetooth is that when the device is with in the scope of a other devices automatically start
the transfer information without the user noticing. a small network between the devices is
created and the user can accessed as if there were cables.

 Bluetooth Architecture
• Bluetooth hop frequency is 1600 hops/second
• Data transfer rate is 1 MBPS
• Its transmission range is 10m
• Bluetooth architecture defines two types of networks:
1. Piconets
2. Scatternet

1. Piconet
• Piconet is a Bluetooth network that consists of one primary (master) node and seven active
secondary (slave) nodes.

• Thus,

• There can be only one primary or master station in each piconet.

• The communication between the primary and the secondary can be one-to-one or one-to-
many.
• All communication is between master and a slave. Salve-slave communication is not
possible.
• In addition to seven active slave station, a piconet can have up to 255 parked nodes.
• These parked nodes are secondary or slave stations and cannot take part in communication
until it is moved from parked state to active state.

2. Scatternet
• Scattenet is formed by combining various piconets.
• A slave in one piconet can act as a master or primary in other piconet.
Such a station or node can receive messages from the master in the first Piconet and deliver
the message to its slaves in other Piconet where it is acting as master. This node is also called
bridge slave.
•There can be only one primary or master station in each piconet.
•Thus a station can be a member of two piconets.
•A station cannot be a master in two piconets.
There can be only one primary or master station in each Piconet.
•Thus a station can be a member of two piconets.
•A station cannot be a master in two piconets.

 Bluetooth Applications
1. It is used for providing communication between peripheral devices like wireless mouse or
keyboard with the computer.
2. It is used by modern health care devices to send signals to monitors.
3. It is used by modern communicating devices like mobile phone, PDAs, palmtop setcto
transfer data rapidly.
4 .It is used for dial up networking. Thus allowing a notebook computer to call via a mobile
phone.
5. It is used for cordless telephoning to connect a handset and its local basestation.
6. It also allows hands- freevoicecomml1nicationwithheadset.
7. It also enables a mobile computer to connect to a fixed LAN.
8. It can also be used for file transfer operations from one mobile phone to another.

 First Generation : Analog voice

•This was the first generation
of cell
phone technology. The very first generation of commercial cellular network was introduced
in the late 70's with fully implemented standards being established through out the 80's.
•It was introduced in 1987 by Telecom(known today as Telstra), Australi are ceived its first
cellular mobile phone network utilising a 1Gana log system.
•1Gis an analog technology and the phones generally hadpoor battery life and voice quality
was large without much security, and would sometimes experience dropped calls.
•The seare the analog telecommunications standards that were introduced in the 1980s and
continued until being replaced by 2G digital telecommunications.

 Second Generation : Digital voice

•2G (second generation cellular network) were commercially launched on the GSM standard
in Final and by Radio lin jain 1991.
•The main motive of this generation was to provide secure and reliable communication
channel.
•In this regard, the technology implemented the concept of CDMA and GSM. 2G
technologies enabled the various networks to provide the services such as text messages,
picture messages and MMS (multimedia messages).
•All text messages sent over 2G are digitally encrypted, allowing the transfer of data in such
away that only the intended receiver can receive and readit.

Features of Second Generation

 Third Generation : Digital voice and Data

•Third generation (3G) of mobile telephony began with the start of the new millennium and
offered major advancement over previous generations. Some of the characteristics of this
generation are −
•Data speeds of 144 kbps to 2 Mbps
•High speed web browsing
•Running web based applications like video conferencing, multimedia e-mails, etc.
•Fast and easy transfer of audio and video files
•3D gaming
Features of Third Generation

 Fourth Generation
•4Gis the fourth generation of mobile phone communications standards. It is a successor of
the 3G and provides ultra-broadband internet access for mobile devices.
•The high data transfer rates make 4G networks suitable for use in USB wireless modems for
laptops and even home internet access.
•Potential and current applications include amended mobile web access, IP telephony, gaming
services, high-definition mobile TV, video conferencing and 3D television.
•The first-released Long Term Evolution (LTE) standard was commercially deployed in Oslo,
Norway and Stockholm, Sweden in 2009 and since been deployed throughout most parts of
the world.
•It has, however, been debated whether first-released versions should be considered 4G LTE.
Features of Fourth Generation
  Fifth Generation
•5G technology is the fifth generation wireless technology which is still in its development
phase and is expected to be commercialized in the upcoming years and is expected to be
faster than the existing technologies.
•5G is an improvement of 4G and it is expected to provide significantly faster data rates,
higher connection density, and much lower latency, among other improvements.
•Other 5G plans include device-to-device communication, better battery consumption and
improved overall wireless coverage.
•5G will have low battery consumption, up to 10-year battery life for low power IoT devices.
•Also, Security of 5G is expected to be high. The 5G networks will use the security standards
SE, HSM, OTA and KMS to enhance security of data. According to Next Generation Mobile
Networks Alliance, Commercial introduction of 5G technology for business and consumer
demands is before the end of the year 2020.

Features of Fifth Generation

  Handoff Procedure
In cellular telecommunications, the terms handover or handoff refers to the process of
transferring an ongoing call or data connectivity from one Base Station to another Base
Station. When a mobile moves into a different cell while the conversation is in progress then
the MSC (Mobile Switching Center) transfers the call to a new channel belonging to the new
Base Station.
 When a mobile user A moves from one cell to another cell then BSC 1 signal strength loses

for the mobile User A and the signal strength of BSC 2 increases and thus ongoing calls or

data connectivity for mobile users goes on without interrupting.

 Types of Handoff
1. Hard Handoff
2. Soft Handoff
3. Delayed Handoff
4. Mobile-Assisted Handoff
1. Hard Handoff
When there is an actual break in the connectivity while switching from one Base Station to
another Base Station. There is no burden on the Base Station and MSC because the switching
takes place so quickly that it can hardly be noticed by the users. The connection quality is not
that good. Hard Handoff adopted the ‘break before make’ policy.
It is generally implemented in Time Division Multiplexing and Frequency Division
Multiplexing when a user connects to the base station with a fluctuating radio frequency.
 Hard Handoff is cheaper in cost as compared to soft Handoff because only one channel
needs to be active at a time.
 It is more efficient than soft handoff, that’s why hard handoffs are widely implemented.
 Sometimes, a delay can be experienced while switching base stations.
 2. Soft Handoff

Soft Handoff is a mechanism in which the device gets connected with two or more base
stations at the same time. At least one of the links is kept when radio signals are added or
removed to the Base Station. Soft Handoff adopted the ‘make before break’ policy. If a
channel is in power loss then another channel will always be on standby mode so this makes
it best in terms of quality as compared to Hard handoff. Soft handoffs are used in devices
supporting CDMA/WDMA networks

 High Transmission speed as more than one repeater can transmit signals.
 It has a very low delay in signals.
 It can’t be implemented on devices supporting GSM or LTE networks.

3. Delayed Handoff
Delayed handoff occurs when no base station is available for accepting the transfer. The call
continues until the signal strength reaches a threshold, and after that, the call is dropped.
Generally, it happens when the user is out of the network coverage area, or at some dead
spots where network reach is very low.
4. Mobile-Assisted Handoff
Mobile-Assisted handoff is generally used when a mobile phone helps a base station to
transfer the call to another base station with better-improvised connectivity and more signal
strength. This handoff is used in TDMA technique-based GSM devices.

 Roaming:
Roaming refers to a wireless network service extension in an area that differs
from the registered home network location. Roaming enables a mobile device to
access the Internet and other mobile services when out of its normal coverage area.
It also gives a mobile device the ability to move from one access point to another.