The describing function is an approximate procedure for analyzing

certain nonlinear control problems in control engineering. To start,

let us first recall the basic definition of a linear control system.
Linear control systems are those where the principle of
superposition (if the two inputs are applied simultaneously, then
the output will be the sum of two outputs) is applicable. In the case
of highly nonlinear control systems, we are unable to apply the
principle of superposition.
Analysis of different nonlinear controls system is very difficult due
to their nonlinear behavior. We cannot use conventional analysis
methods such as the Nyquist stability criterion or pole-zero method
in order to analyze these nonlinear systems, as these methods are
restricted to linear systems. That said, there are a few advantages
to non-linear systems:
1. Nonlinear systems can perform better than linear systems.
2. Nonlinear systems are less costly than linear systems.
3. They are usually small and compact in size as compared to
linear systems.
In practice, all physical systems have some form of nonlinearity.
Sometimes it may even be desirable to introduce a nonlinearity
deliberately in order to improve the performance of a system or
make its operation safer. At it result, the system is more
economical than linear system.

One of the simplest examples of a system with an intentionally

introduced nonlinearity is a relay controlled or ON/OFF system. For
instance, in a typical home heating system, a furnace is turned ON
when the temperature falls below a certain specified value and OFF
when the temperature exceeds another given value. Here we are
going to discuss two different types of analysis or method for
analyzing the nonlinear systems. The two methods are written
below and briefly discussed with the help of an example.

1. Describing function method in control system

2. Phase plane method in control system
Common Non Linearities
In most types of control systems, we can not avoid the presence of
certain types of non-linearities. These can be classified as static
or dynamic. A system for which there is a nonlinear relationship
between input and output, that does not involve a differential
equation is called a static nonlinearity. On the other hand, the input
and output may be related through a nonlinear differential
equation. Such a system is called a dynamic nonlinearity.
Now we are going to discuss various types of non-linearities in a
control system:
1. Saturation nonlinearity
2. Friction nonlinearity
3. Dead zone nonlinearity
4. Relay nonlinearity (ON OFF controller)
5. Backlash nonlinearity
Saturation Nonlinearity
Saturation nonlinearity is a common type of nonlinearity. For
example see this nonlinearity in the saturation in the magnetizing
curve of DC motor. In order to understand this type of nonlinearity
let us discuss saturation curve or magnetizing curve which is given
below:

From the above curve we can see that the output showing linear
behavior in the beginning but after that there is a saturation in the
curve which one kind of non linearity in the system. We have also
shown approximated curve.
Same type of saturation non linearity also we can see in an
amplifier for which the output is proportional to the input only for a
limited range of values of input. When the input exceeds this range,
the output tends to become non linearity.
Friction Nonlinearity
Anything which opposes the relative motion of the body is called
friction. It is a kind of non linearity present in the system. The
common example in an electric motor in which we find coulomb
friction drag due to the rubbing contact between the brushes and
the commutator.

Friction may be of three types and they are written below:

I. Static Friction : In simple words, the static friction acts on the
body when the body is at rest.
II. Dynamic Friction : Dynamic friction acts on the body when
there is a relative motion between the surface and the body.
III. Limiting Friction : It is defined as the maximum value of
limiting friction that acts on the body when it is at rest.
Dynamic friction can also be classified as (a) Sliding friction
(b) Rolling friction. Sliding friction acts when two bodies
slides over each other while rolling acts when the bodies rolls
over another body.
In mechanical system we have two types of friction namely (a)
Viscous friction (b) Static friction.
Dead Zone Nonlinearity
Dead zone nonlinearity is shown in various electrical devices like
motors, DC servo motors, actuators etc. Dead zone non
linearities refer to a condition in which output becomes zero when
the input crosses certain limiting value.

Relays Nonlinearity (ON/OFF Controller)

Electromechanical relays are frequently used in control systems
where the control strategy requires a control signal with only two
or three states. This is also called as ON/OFF controller or two
state controller.

Relay Non-Linearity (a) ON/OFF (b) ON/OFF with Hysteresis (c)

ON/OFF with Dead Zone. Fig (a) shows the ideal characteristics of
a bidirectional relay. In practice, relay will not respond
instantaneously. For input currents between the two switching
instants, the relay may be in one position or other depending upon
the previous history of the input. This characteristic is called
ON/OFF with hysteresis that shows in Fig (b). A relay also has a
definite amount of dead zone in practice that show in Fig (c). The
dead zone is caused by the fact that the relay field winding requires
a finite amount of current to move the armature.

Backlash Nonlinearity
Another important nonlinearity commonly occurring in the physical
system is hysteresis in mechanical transmissions such as gear
trains and linkages. This nonlinearity is somewhat different from
magnetic hysteresis and is commonly referred to as backlash
nonlinearities. Backlash in fact is the play between the teeth of
the drive gear and those of the driven gear. Consider a gearbox as
shown in below figure (a) having backlash as illustrated in fig (b).

Fig (b) shows the teeth A of the driven gear located midway
between the teeth B1, B2 of the driven gear. Fig (c) gives the
relationship between input and output motions. As the teeth A is
driven clockwise from this position, no output motion takes place
until the tooth A makes contact with the tooth B1 of the driven gear
after traveling a distance x/2. This output motion corresponds to
the segment mn of fig (c). After the contact is made the driven gear
rotates counterclockwise through the same angle as the drive gear
if the gear ratio is assumed to be unity. This is illustrated by the
line segment no. As the input motion is reversed, the contact
between the teeth A and B1 is lost and the driven gear immediately
becomes stationary based on the assumption that the load is
friction controlled with negligible inertia.
The output motion, therefore, causes till tooth A has traveled a
distance x in the reverse direction as shown in fig (c) by the
segment op. After the tooth A establishes contact with the tooth B 2,
the driven gear now mores in a clockwise direction as shown by
segment pq. As the input motion is reversed the direction gear is
again at standstill for the segment qr and then follows the drive
gear along rn.

Describing Function Analysis of Nonlinear

Systems
The describing function method in control system was
invented by Nikolay Mitrofanovich Kryloy and Nikolay Bogoliubov
in year of 1930 and later it developed by Ralph Kochenburger.
The describing function method is used for finding out the
stability of a non linear system of all the analytical methods
developed over the years for non linear control systems, this
method is generally agreed upon as being the most practically
useful. This method is basically an approximate extension of
frequency response methods including Nyquist stability criterion to
non linear system.
The describing function method of a non linear system is defined
to be the complex ratio of amplitudes and phase angle between
fundamental harmonic components of output to input sinusoid. We
can also called sinusoidal describing function. Mathematically,

Where,
N = describing function,
X = amplitude of input sinusoid,
Y = amplitude of the fundamental harmonic component of output,
φ1 = phase shift of the fundamental harmonic component of output.
Let us discuss the basic concept of describing the function of non
linear control system.
Let us consider the below block diagram of a non linear system,
where G1(s) and G2(s) represent the linear element and N represent
the non linear element.

Let us assume that input x to the non linear element is sinusoidal,

i.e,

For this input, the output y of the non linear element will be a non
sinusoidal periodic function that may be expressed in terms of
Fourier series as

Most of nonlinearities are odd symmetrical or odd half wave

symmetrical; the mean value Y0 for all such case is zero and
therefore output will be,

As G1(s) G2(s) has low pass characteristics, it can be assumed to a

good degree of approximation that all higher harmonics of y are
filtered out in the process, and the input x to the nonlinear element
N is mainly contributed by fundamental component of y i.e. first
harmonics. So in the describing function analysis, we assume that
only the fundamental harmonic component of the output. Since the
higher harmonics in the output of a non linear system are often of
smaller amplitude than the amplitude of fundamental harmonic
component. Most control systems are low pass filters, with the
result that the higher harmonics are very much attenuated
compared with the fundamental harmonic component.
Hence, y1 need only be considered.

We can write y1(t) in the form,

Where by using phasor,

The coefficient A1 and B1 of the Fourier series are given by-

From definition of describing function we have,

Let us find out describing function for these non linearities.

Describing Function for Saturation Non Linearity
We have the characteristic curve for saturation as shown in the
given figure.

Let us take input function as

Now from the curve we can define the output as:

Let us first calculate Fourier series constant A1.

On substituting the value of the output in the above equation and

integrating the function from 0 to 2π we have the value of the
constant A1 as zero.
Similarly we can calculate the value of Fourier constant B1 for the
given output and the value of B1 can be calculated as,

The phase angle for the describing function can be calculated as

Thus the describing function for saturation is

Describing Function for Ideal Relay

We have the characteristic curve for ideal relay as shown in the
given figure.

Let us take input function as

Now from the curve we can define the output as

The output periodic function has odd symmetry :

Let us first calculate Fourier series constant A1.

On substituting the value of the output in the above equation and

integrating the function from 0 to 2π we have the value of the
constant A1 as zero.
Similarly we can calculate the value of Fourier constant B1 for the
given output and the value of B1 can be calculated as

On substituting the value of the output in the above equation y(t) =

Y we have the value of the constant B1

And the phase angle for the describing function can be calculated
as

Thus the describing function for an ideal relay is

Describing Function for Real Relay (Relay with

Dead Zone)
We have the characteristic curve for real realy as shown in the
given figure. If X is less than dead zone Δ, then the relay produces
no output; the first harmonic component of Fourier series is of
course zero and describing function is also zero. If X > Δ the relay
produces the output.
Let us take input function as

Now from the curve we can define the output as

The output periodic function has odd symmetry :

Let us first calculate Fourier series constant A1.

On substituting the value of the output in the above equation and

integrating the function from 0 to 2π we have the value of the
constant A1 as zero.
Similarly we can calculate the value of Fourier constant B for the
given output and the value of B can be calculated as

Due to the symmetry of y, the coefficient B1 can be calculated as

follows,

Therefore, the describing function is

Describing Function for Backlash Non Linearity

We have the characteristic curve for backlash as shown in the given
figure. Let us take input function as
Now from the curve we can define the output as

Let us first calculate Fourier series constant A1.

On substituting the value of the output in the above equation and

integrating the function from zero to 2π we have the value of the
constant A1 as

Similarly we can calculate the value of Fourier constant B for the

given output and the value of B1 can be calculated as

On substituting the value of the output in the above equation and

integrating the function from zero to pi we have the value of the
constant B1 as

We can easily calculate the describing function of backlash from

below equation