CHAPTER 8

PLASTICS AND COMPOSITES

CHAPTER
PLASTICS CONTENTS:

PLASTICS
Designation
Systems 8-1
Plastics are nonmetallic materials that can be industrial organization; and, in general, firms Terminology 8-4
formed and shaped by many methods. Plastics can manufacture only those types of plastics for which Mechanical
be made from such natural resins as shellac; they have a strong patent position. Properties 8-5
Engineering
however, most plastics used in industrial applica- The industry’s organization tends to isolate the Plastics 8-7
tions are produced from man-made synthetic resins. end-user from the resin manufacturer. The designers Specialty
Additional information on the various thermoset and manufacturing engineers responsible for Plastics 8-9
Plastics
and thermoplastic materials and their product developing and applying plastics parts usually deal Alloys and
manufacturing processes and equipment is pro- with a custom molder. The molder is the part 81ends 8-10
vided in “Plastics Forming,” Chapter 18, Volume maker and is frequently considered an expert in Processing and
Applications 8-11
II of this Handbook series. plastics. A molder has considerable expertise in
Plastics have become one of the most common designing for ease of processing and selecting the ADVANCED
classes of engineering materials in the past decade. type and grade of plastics that is easiest to process. COMPOSITES
Composite
For the last five years, the production of plastics, However, molders generally have limited knowl- Materials 8-13
on a volume basis, exceeded steel output. Engi- edge of mechanical or corrosion design factors. Nomenclature 8-14
neering plastics, those grades devised to resist Molders also usually limit their work to plastics Matrix 8-16
Fiber Types 8-16
severe service conditions or structural loads are in they are familiar with and to the amount of Fiber Forms
widespread use and their applications are increas- engineering time they can invest in quoting a part. and Fabrics 8-17
ing rapidly. ] To assure selection of the most suitable plastics Composite
Construction 8-19
material from among hundreds that are available, Properties 8-20
INDUSTRY STRUCTURE it is advisable to develop direct sources of infor- Applications 8-22

Plastics are an outgrowth of the petrochemical mation, including contacts with resin manufac- Fabrication 8-25
Quality
industry; hence, the language and terms of plastics turers. Table 8-1 lists representative properties for Assurance 8-29
are usually expressed in organic chemistry terms. selected thermoplastics and thermoses commonly
Metals and plastics behave quite differently. To used in industrial applications.
understand plastics materials and their production
parts processing, therefore, some of the language PLASTICS
of plastics must be learned. DESIGNATION SYSTEMS
The plastics industry is organized differently The youthfulness of the plastics industry is
than the metals industry. Raw plastics, called reflected in the conflicting and competing specifi-
resins, are made from oil and gas by large high- cation, designation, and nomenclature systems
technology firms and then sold to custom molders currently in use. Most of these systems evolved
or captive shops for processing into plastics com- during the earliest days of plastics when issues
ponents. Resins are made by three types of firms: related to the organic chemistry of producing
Several large oil companies manufacture resins. resins and creating new resins were of great
Corporations with substantial chemical knowl- importance. These systems have minimal appeal to
edge apply their expertise to produce plastics designers and engineers who tend to specify plastics
resins. And, a few sophisticated plastics consuming by the manufacturer’s trade name) grade—such as
firms have developed resins and produce engi- Du Pent’s Delrin 100 ST, acetal plastics resin—or
neering plastics. use one of the ASTM standards covering a specific
A resin manufacturer usually produces only a plastics type. However, as the competition between
few different types of plastics, with numerous resins increased and plastics product applications
variations in some instances. Because the industry grew, a broader, standardized approach to selecting
is relatively new, patents still play a major role in plastics and processes was needed.

Contributors of sections of this chapter are: John T. Benedict, Consultant; Frank D. Diodato, Market
Development Engineer, Engineering Resins Div. , Celanese Corp.; Jack Hill, President. J. HillAssociates; Roy S.
Klein, Manager, Materials Engineering, American Sterilizer Co,; Blaise A. Le Wark, Sr. , 0 wrier, Poiytech, Ltd.
Reviewers of sections of this chapter are: John C. Foster, Press Relations, Media Services Group, General
Electric Co..’ Dr. David J. Goldwasser, Engineer. D. S, Gilmore Laboratory, Upjohn Co.; Jack Hill, President,
J. Hill A ssociates; John T. Hoggatt, Technology Manager, Boeing Aerospace Co.; R. J. Juergens, Branch
Chief— Technology, McDonnell Douglas Corp.; Roy S. Klein, Manager, Materials Engineering, American
Sterilizer Co.; P. D. Kohl, Processing Consultant. Polymer Products Dept. , Du Pent Co,; Dr. Joseph K. Lees.
Manager, Advanced Composites. Du Pent Co.; Blaise A. Le Wark, Sr. , Owner, Polytech. Ltd.; R. A. Lo fland,
Manager. Research & Development Composites Lab, Hughes Helicopter, Inc.; Roy L. Manns, President, Boston
Plastics Group, MEIPEC; Francis B. McAndrew. Manager, Laboratory Technical Services, Celanese Engineering
Resins Div. , Celanese Corp.; Tilak M. Shah, Market Development Engineer, D. S. Gilmore Laboratory, Upjohn
Co.; Wallace Warrnlund, Consulting Engineer; Charles F. Woodward. Professor, Engineering Graphics and
Industrial Design, Engineering Technology Dept. , Western Michigan University.

8-1

Tool and Manufacturing Engineers Handbook Knowledge Base • Copyright © 1998 • Society of Manufacturing Engineers
CHAPTER 8
PLASTICS INDUSTRY STRUCTURE

In response to this need, the ASTM has created a designation set as in epoxy, generally cannot be injection molded. The
system applicable to all plastics, The system includes strengths thermoplastics can be remelted and reprocessed. The thermoses
and properties, as well as chemical information. The significant cannot be reprocessed, except for use as filler materials. Until
nomenclature, classification, specification, and designation the 1970s, thermoses were used for all high-temperature
systems currently in use are summarized here to show the trend applications. However, high-temperature thermoplastics have
toward systems based on a thorough understanding of plastics’ now been developed that rival the thermoses for many uses.
structures, properties, and applications.
Production Volume
Behavior During Heating In terms of annual production volume, four types of plastics
Thermoplastics denote a class of plastics that “melt” or, constitute about 709Gof plastics production. Thus, polyethylene
more accurately, soften and flow under loads when heated. (PE), polystyrene (PS), polypropylene (PP), and polyvinyl
Cured (fully reacted) thermoses, in contrast, char and degrade chloride (PVC) are the principal commodity plastics. Other
at elevated temperatures but do not melt. Thermoplastics can plastics are termed engineering or specialty plastics. A recent
be injection molded, but thermoses, once chemically cured or trend, however, is blurring this distinction.
TABLE 8-1
Properties of Selected Industrial Plastics

Mechanical Properties
(Room Temperature)
ASTM
ASTM AS’fM D-256
D-638 D-695 Impact
Tensile ASTM Compressive Strength
Type Strength, D-638 Strength, (Izod),
of Molecular Specific psi Elongation, psi ft . lb/in.
Plastics Packing Gravity (M Pa) percent (MPa) (J/cm)
Polystyrene Amorphous 1.10 7500 2 14,000
(51.7) (96.5) (H)
High-impact Amorphous 1.15 5000 10 7500 0.6-10.0
polystyrene (34.5) (51,7) (0.3-5.3)
Acrylics Amorphous 1.15 10,000 6 15,000
(69.0) (103.4) (:::)

Polycarbonate Amorphous 1.20 9000 100 10,000 15.0

(62.1) (69.0) (8.0)
ABS Amorphous 1.05 6000 30 8000 6.0
(41.4) (55.2) (3.2)
Acetal Crystalline 1.40 10,000 40 18,000 1.8
(homopolymer) (69.0) (124.1) (1.0)
Nylon 6/6 Crystalline 1.15 I 1,000 400 10,000 2.1
at 50T0 RH* (75.8) (69.0) (1.1)
Polypropylene Crystalline 0.91 4500 500 7000
(31.0) (48.3) (u)
Polyethylene Crystalline 0.95 4000 600 3000 10.0
(high density) (27.6) (20.7) (5.3)
Polyethylene Crystalline 0.93 2400 3000 8.0
(medium density) with amorphous (16.5) (20.7) (4.3)
regions
Polyethylene Semi- 0.91 1500 700 3000 No break
(low density) crystalline (10.3) (20.7)
Epoxy Cross-1inked 1.25 10,000 3 20,000
network (69.0) (137.9) (:::)
Phenolic Cross-1 inked 1.35 7000 2 10,000 0.4
network (4-8.3) (69.0) (0.2)
* RH ❑ relative humidity

8-2

Tool and Manufacturing Engineers Handbook Knowledge Base • Copyright © 1998 • Society of Manufacturing Engineers
 CHAPTER 8

PLASTICS DESIGNATION SYSTEMS

The commodity plastics, as well as most other plastics, are specific grades. As a result, there is no simple way to locate
dependent on oil and gas supplies. Declining petroleum prices comparable grades from competing manufacturers. Two
induced oil-producing nations in the Middle East and North reference sources for tracking a plastic’s trade name back to the
America to develop their own commodity plastics production manufacturer and generic type are the International P/astics
capabilities as outlets for oil and gas surpluses. Resin producers Selector and the Modern Plastics Encyclopedia. The strongest
in industrially developed countries are responding by inventing advantage in using trade names is the considerable technical
modified grades of commodit y plastics that compete with some support offered by resin manufacturers. Specifying a manu-
grades of engineering plastics. Industry analysts predict that facturer’s resin gives the user access to both published data and
new plastics in the 1980s will actually be improved existing consulting services from the manufacturer.
grades. This development will tend to further complicate the
classification and application of the new, modified commodity ASTM Classification System
plastics and blur the distinction between commodity and The American Society of Testing and Materials (ASTM) is a
engineering plastics. technical organization bringing manufacturers, specifiers, and
users together to standardize specifications and test methods.
Generic Class Several individual types of plastics have been covered by
The generic or family name used for plastics is the chemical specific ASTM standards; D 789 for polyamide (nylon) and D
designation of the structural organic molecule upon which a 788 for acrylic are two examples. Standards are useful for two
type of plastics is based. At present this nomenclature has reasons: First, the specifier can be assured of minimum
several limits. Many engineers and designers have difficulty strengths and properties for design calculations. Second, com-
with names like polymethyl/ methacrylate (PM MA). As a petitive manufacturers’ resins can be used. Unfortunately, the
consequence, short nicknames, such as acrylic for PMMA or rapid growth of the plastics industry also limits the usefulness of
nylon for polyamide, are commonly used, further complicating single standards. As mentioned previously, there is considerable
the use of this designation system. While these names are well competition between different types of resins. New and modified
known within the plastics industry, engineers from other fields grades of resins are being developed, more quickly than ASTM
often cannot readily recognize and interpret them, standards can be set.
To remedy this situation by establishing an industry-wide
Chemical Characteristics designation system, in 1982 the ASTM issued the Standard D
Unlike generic names, a system based on chemical character- 4000 “Guide for Identification of Plastic Materials” to “ade-
istics groups plastics according to similarity in chemical analysis. quately identify plastic materials in order to give industry a
For example, most plastics are “hydrocarbons,” meaning that system that can be used universally. ” In D 4000, ASTM is
hydrogen and carbon atoms in different arrangements makeup attempting to establish a single designation system for all types
the mers or primary molecular units for a particular polymer and grades of plastics. In essence, D 4000 combines generic
resin. Silicon can replace carbon and form polymer chain designations with a unified system of identifying important
molecules, as in the silicones. Hydrogen atoms can be replaced modifications to the generic resin and significant engineering
by other atoms with a valence of one as in chlorinated (chlorine) property minimums. Figure 8-1 describes a typical line callout
plastics like PVC or fluorinated (fluorine) plastics like Du for ASTM Standard D 4000 application. A regular designation
Pent’s Teflon TFE (tetrafluoroethy lene). for a glass-filled polyamide (PA) or nylon resin is the ASTM D
4000 specification for 3390 glass-filled nylon (polyamide) resin
Commercial Trade Names grade, that is, ASTM D 4000 PA120G33A53380G4140 where:
Plastics manufacturers have developed different commercial
ASTM D 4000 ❑ Plastics material
trade names and designation systems for similar types of
PA 120G33 ❑ Basic–-generic resin and modifications
plastics. For example, polyamide (PA) or nylon resins are
A53380 = Cell—mechanical (physical) properties
called Zytel by Du Pent, Thermocomp by LNP, Maranyl by
GA 140 ❑ Suffix–special properties and tests
ICI-Americas, and Akulan by Schulman. Du Pent also markets
a mineral-filled nylon as Minion. Within each of these com- Further interpretation of this example is provided in Fig.
mercial designations are different numbering systems to indicate 8-2. lt should be noted that “cells” of property information are

++ Specific
Group

%?’ =f”~”’ffi~:” i *“I i

Physical properties

O = One digit for expanded group, as needed.

1 = Two or more letters identify the generic family based an Abbreviations D 1600.
2 = Three digits identify the specific chemical group, the modification oruseclass, and the grade by viscosity
or level of modification. A basic property table will pravide property values.
3 = One letter indicates reinforcement type.
4 =Twa digits indicate percent of reinforcement.
5 = One letter refers to a cell table listing of physical specifications and test methads.
6 = Five digits refer to the specific physical parameters listed in the cell toble.
7 = Suffix codes indicate special requirements based on the application and identify special tests.

Fig. 8-1 ASTM D 4000 coding system. Line callout to designate a plastics material. (ASTM)

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Tool and Manufacturing Engineers Handbook Knowledge Base • Copyright © 1998 • Society of Manufacturing Engineers
CHAPTER 8

BASIC PLASTICS TERMINOLOGY

The atoms within a mer are covalently bonded by sharing

valence electrons. Polyethylene (PE) is an example of a simple
Basic Requirements
structure. The hydrogen atoms can be replaced either by single
ASTM D 4000 PA 1 2 0 G 33 atoms with a valence of 1, as in polyvinyl chloride (PVC), or by
7 small organic molecules, as in polypropylene (PP) or poly-
Z l_ G~UP T G%de T percent
Generic (66) CIOSS (other) Gla~~ glass
methyl/ methacrylate (PM MA). The small molecules replacing
(nylon) (HS) hydrogens are termed “side groups” or “pendant groups. ”
reinforced
Cell Requirements Many mers have carbon atoms as the backbone of the chain-
Iink. However, oxygen can be inserted (as in polyacetal), which
then changes a number of properties. New engineering plastics
have very complex mers, frequently including small molecules.
Cell table Tensile Flexural Izod
Polymerization
‘ &t:iW’5cified Polymerization is the chemical reaction that bonds mono-
(from Table A of Specification D 4000)
mers into plastics chains. Addition polymerization, the most
common method, is exemplified in the manufacture of poly-
Suffix Requirements
ethylene (PE). The monomers, molecules of ethylene gas
synthesized from petrochemicals, are mixed under precisely
controlled temperature and pressure conditions. Initially, the
double bond between the carbon atoms of the monomer is
~~:~went
(from Suffix Table)
broken down to a single, covalently shared electron pair. Using
catalysts, the carbons are driven to fill their missing valence
positions by covalently bonding with carbons in neighboring
Fig. 8-2 Explanation of ASTM D 4000 designation PA120G33A533 - monomers, not by rebonding within the same monomer. As
80GA140 for 3395 glass-filled nylon (polyamide) resin grade. (ASTM) polymerization continues, monomers continue to add together,
forming a chain. In this form, plastics is termed “resin,”
included in the designation. The specifier must be familiar with indicating it is not a finished product but ready to be used for
generic names, structural modifications, and engineering molding into a plastics part.
properties, as well as having access to reference data found in During polymerization, chains generally grow to somewhat
D 4000. Standard D 4000 recognizes the complexity of different lengths and, potentially, different shapes. Chain
specifying plastics; however, at this time, the universal adoption length is a significant factor in determining molecular weight
of D 4000 is not assured. If this system is not accepted, one that and ease of processing. Using viscosity or thermal techniques,
is just as complex and thorough is likely to come into use. the average molecular weight and weight distribution are
determined for each batch. Molecular weight is directly related
to chain length. Since each mer is the same, the molecular
BASIC TERMINOLOGY weight is the weight of one mer times the number of mers per
The term “polymer” is commonly used interchangeably with chain (chain length). Frequently, manufacturers designate
the term “plastics.” Neither term is entirely accurate in its specific grades of a plastics as best for molding, indicating that
delineation. Plastic means pliable, yet most engineering poly- the chain length and distribution of chain lengths have been
mers are not plastic at room temperature. Polymer, on the other controlled for maximum flow during molding. Flowability
hand, can include every kind of material made by polymeri- decreases with increased molecular weight, Shapes can be
zation with repeating molecules. The ASTM definition (D 883) varied by using catalysts to induce monomer additions at chain
of a plastic is: “A material that contains as an essential positions other than the chain ends. Shape modification is
ingredient an organic substance of large molecular weight, is generally reserved for special applications, In chemistry, a
solid in its finished state, and, at some stage in its manufacture polymer is described by drawing its physical structure of atoms,
or in its processing into finished articles, can be shaped by flow. ” as illustrated in Fig. 8-3.
In broad terms, plastics are man-made polymers. Polymer is
the generic name for all materials composed of long, chainlike Plastics Chains
molecules. Most living tissue and cells are polymeric, Plastics Although the mer is the principal chemical unit, the chains
are created either by modifying natural polymers, such as determine the unique properties of plastics by class and help
cellulose fibers, or by causing small synthetic molecules to bond differentiate between plastics. The behavior of the molecular
together into a chain. Compared to other classes of materials, chains is a key factor in determining the characteristics of a
the plastics molecular chain is enormous, giving it the term particular plastics material.
“macromolecule.” Millions of macromolecular chains must be Motion. Plastics chains are in motion, even when the plastics
put together to make industrially useful quantities. material appears to be a solid. Temperature and applied load
determine the rapidity and type of motion. As the temperature
Mers or Repeating Units increases, chain motion increases until, at the molecular level,
The basic, repeating structural unit of a plastics chain the plastics resembles a can of wriggling, intertwining worms.
is termed its “mer.” In essence, the mer is a typical link of At the “glass transition stage” in amorphous polymers such as
the molecular chain. The chemical name of a mer is also the polystyrene and polycarbonate, and at the melting point for
generic name for that type of plastics. Before being reacted to crystalline polymers such as Celanese Celcon acetal copolymer,
form a chain, the small molecule that becomes the mer is termed chain motion becomes so marked that intertwining has little
a “monomer.” effect and chains can slide past one another. This condition is

8-4

Tool and Manufacturing Engineers Handbook Knowledge Base • Copyright © 1998 • Society of Manufacturing Engineers
 CHAPTER 8

MECHANICAL PROPERTIES

Tensile strength, MPa

50 100 150 200

ABS
Acetal
Acrylics
Cellulosics
Fluaraplastics
Nylans
where H = hydrogen atom Palyallomer
C = carbon atom Polyamide-imide
n = molecular weight Polyester
(number of repeating units) Polyether sulfone
[ 1: :::t::ne~:~gbal Polyethylene
Polyamides 50 I ksi (345 MPa
Modified phenylene o
Polyphenylene sulfide
Fig. 8-3 Diagram representing arrangement of atoms in polyethylene is
Polypropylene
an example of the method used to describe polymers by a schematic
Polystyrene
drawing of the molecular structure. Polysulfane
Palyvinyl chloride
Styrene acrylonitrile
evident by a drop in the plastics’ viscosity and by the plastics
becoming a tarlike liquid. Each type of plastics has a distinctive Alkyds
AllYls
glass transition temperature range or melting point range.
Arninos
Strength. The strength of unreinforced plastics is dependent Epaxies 55 ksi (379 Mpa
primarily on the forces holding the chains together. These Phenolics 50 ksi (345 Mpa
forces arise from the natural intertwining of chains and from Polyesters 40 ksi (276 Mpa
Palyurethanes
structural manipulations made by resin manufacturers. One of Silicones
the oldest strengthening mechanisms is “crosslinking,” or using
5 10 15 20 25 30
a small molecule to bond resin chains together as in epoxy.
Crosslinked plastics are strong because the chains cannot move. Tensile strength, ksi

Most crosslinked plastics are thermoses. Plastics that melt are

thermoplastics.
Elastic flow. Visco-elastic behavior, a combination of flow
and elastic response to applied load, is another characteristic Fig. 8-4 Tensile strength of selected plastics at 68° F (20° C) per ASTM
D 638. (“Engineering Materials, Properties and Selection, ” Kenneth
property of plastics. Chain motion is related to the internal Budinski)
structure of a plastics. While visco-elastic behavior is not
unique to plastics, plastics are one of the few engineering
materials to behave visco-elastically in the room temperature TABLE 8-2
range and under low loads. The design principles governing Typical Properties of Rigid Polyvinylchloride (PVC)
visco-elastic plastics are different than those for elastic metals.
In the next section of this chapter, the fundamentals of visco- ASTM
elastic properties will be presented as related to plastics Test Geon Geon
materials applications and parts manufacturing processing Methods 872371 87239
considerations.
Specific gravity, g/ cm3 D-792 1.40 1.36
MECHANICAL PROPERTIES
Hardness, Durometer D, pts. D-2240 79 80
Both metals and plastics are characterized by similar types of
mechanical properties. Metals, however, tend to be consistent
Hardness, Rockwell R, pts. D-785 107 112
in the sense that their behavior is adequately characterized by
stress-strain relationships. In contrast, while the individual
Tensile strength, ksi (MPa) D-638 6.0
plastics materials also display distinctive stress-strain charac-
(41.3) (;672)
teristics, the mechanical properties of plastics are more depen-
dent on the additional factors of temperature and time (under Elongation, YO D-638 135 140
load). In the design application, and to some extent in
processing, creep data are of significant importance in the field Izod impact strength, notched D-256 2.0 1.0
of plastics materials. at 72° F (22° C), ft-lb/ in. (1.1) (0.5)
The engineering plastics materials have ultimate tensile and (J/cm)
compressive strengths and stiffness properties that are sig-
nificantly lower than those of metals. This difference is Coefficient of linear D-696
especially true when comparing plastics to tool steels and high- expansion, (;::)
strength steels. However, the differential in ultimate mechanical 10-58 in. /in., ‘F
strength is much less when plastics are compared with metals (10-5 cm/cm, ‘C)
such as aluminum, magnesium, zinc, and copper. Strength
ranges of typical plastics are compared in Fig. 8-4. Tables 8-2 (The BE Goodrich Co. )
and 8-3 list data for rigid PVC and polyurethane thermoplastics. 1 Lead stabilized

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Tool and Manufacturing Engineers Handbook Knowledge Base • Copyright © 1998 • Society of Manufacturing Engineers
CHAPTER 8

MECHANICAL PROPERTIES

Evolving Tests and Standards stress-strain curves shown in Fig. 8-5. Because plastics test data
Plastics are too new to have a well-defined, standard set of is very dependent on strain rate (loading rate) and temperature,
generic properties. As with metals, tensile, compressive, and creep data (flow under load) must also be considered in design.
impact tests are routine. Unlike metals, at room temperature Tensile data provides useful information in several specific
visco-elastic effects dominate the behavior of plastics in service cases. First, at temperatures well below the glass transition (Tg)
and are an important consideration in parts processing and and for small deflections, the stress-strain relationship is elastic
manufacture. A second dissimilarity is the wide range of and linear. Second, if creep data indicates slight flow at the
differences in property values between metals and plastics. temperature of interest, then the tensile curve is a good
Thus, special tests had to be devised for plastics. To account for approximation of behavior. Finally, applications like a snap-fit
visco-elasticity, creep testing data and thermal properties are are a single, rapid load application and thus can be treated as a
routinely shown. For standard mechanical tests, special pro- tensile (compressive) load modeled by the stress-strain curve.
cedures have been developed to account for both the differences
in value ranges and for visco-elasticity. The temperature, Temperature and Properties
humidity, and rate of deformation must be carefully controlled Visco-elastic behavior becomes more pronounced as
to attain meaningful test results. temperature, stress, and time increase. Therefore, elevated
Reliable information on mechanical properties and other temperature processing and service require careful planning.
important characteristics of plastics can be obtained from Indeed, many plastics will flow under relatively low stress at
various sources. The resin manufacturers publish technical room temperature. For prolonged service, plastics must be
information and data for the polymers they produce. Publi- designed using creep data (in the same manner turbine blades
cations and reports are available from the Society of Plastics are designed) because creep occurs at service temperatures that
Engineers (SPE) and the Society of the Plastics Industry (SPI). exceed half the melting point on the absolute temperature scale.
Additional data sources are the tabulations published by The absolute temperature scale is, numerically, the same as the
technical periodicals and trade journals in the plastics field. Rankine temperature scale, and 0 R = 459.7 *“ F.
Plastics at 70°F(210 C) exceed half their melt point in 0 R,
Tension and Compression Tests just as nickel and cobalt alloys at 1500°F(816° C) exceed half
Plastics data tabulations usually list ultimate tensile strength, their melting points, 0 R, Creep data requires considerable
yield strength, compressive strength, and elongation. However, manipulation and may not be available because of the longtime
since the tests for these properties tend to produce single point, spans required for these tests. Therefore, several tests have been
very rapid loading rate, and short duration results, they are not devised to provide guideposts for comparing plastics. The
good predictors of plastics behavior under prolonged, constant commonly used temperature-related tests include Vicat soften-
load. Further, plastics are visco-elastic and generally exhibit ing point (ASTM D 1525), heat deflection temperature (ASTM
neither a well-defined modulus (stress-strain relationship) nor D 648), and Underwriters Laboratories (UL) relative temper-
yield point. These general characteristics are illustrated by the ature indexes for various thermoset and thermoplastic materials.

Creep Data
TABLE 8-3
Creep is deformation or flow under constant applied load.
Typical Physical Properties of
Creep occurs in plastics, even at room temperature, as molecular
Polyurethane Engineering Thermoplastic*

Stress
Test Method Data
MPa ksi
Density, g/cm’ ASTM D-792 1.2
Hardness,
R
Rockwell ASTM D-7850
105 50 –
1/I8
Yield
M 48
Tensile strength, ksi (MPa) ASTM D-638
6-
at yield 7.6 (52.4)
at break 8.5 (58.6)
Elongation, YO ASTM D-638 30 –
at yield 6 4-
at break 180
Water absorption, % (24 hours) ASTM D-57o 0.17
Notched Izod impact strength, ASTM D-256
lo–
ft-lb/ in. (J/cm)
1/ 8“ thickness (3. 175 mm)
at 73° F (23° C) 14 (7.5) 0-
at -20° F (-29° C) 6 (3.2) 0 2 4 6 8
at -40° F (-40° C) 3 (1.6) Strain, %

Taber abrasion, mg loss ASTM D-1044 11

Fig. 8-5 Representative tensile stress/strain curve for plastics. (Roy S
* Isoplast 201, Upjohn Co. Klein)

8-6
Tool and Manufacturing Engineers Handbook Knowledge Base • Copyright © 1998 • Society of Manufacturing Engineers
 CHAPTER 8

ENGINEERING PLASTICS

chains are untangled or move in the direction of the load. Creep plastics. Their combined total usage accounts for more than one
in solids is usually evident at temperatures in excess of one-half half of the nearly 500,000 ton (453 550 metric ton) annual
the melting point, 0 R. In plastics, the glass transition can be production of engineering plastics.
used in place of melting. In terms of absolute temperature, creep
will be evidmrt in all plastics, since room temperature is about Balance of Properties
525° R, and no industrial plastics resins (except the thermoset The engineering plastics have a good balance of high tensile
polyimide and the thermoplastic polymide) have a Tg higher properties, stiffness, compressive and shear strength, as well as
than 500° F (260° C), or 960° R. impact resistance, and they are easily moldable. Their high
Creep occurs in three continuous stages. First, a rapid, large
physical strength properties are reproducible and predictable,
initial deformation is noted. [n the second stage, the rate of
and they retain their physical and electrical properties over a
deformation drops markedly to a lower, relatively constant
wide range of environmental conditions (hot, cold, chemicals).
value. Rupturing, the final stage, occurs either as a sudden
The engineering plastics can resist mechanical stress with good
failure for a brittle plastics or after a rapid, large deformation
retention of properties for long periods of time. Flame retard-
for a ductile plastics.
ance, which formerly had not been an essential requirement, has
Creep can be regarded as viscous flow, The factors affecting
now become an important attribute for many applications.
viscous flow-time, temperature, and stress or pressure—also
Typical mechanical properties of major families of engineering
control creep behavior. Creep behavior is measured for plastics
plastics are listed in Table 8-4.
by creep strain (the deformation) or creep moduIus, which is
The individual physical properties ofa resin can be quantified
essentially the design modulus for creep conditions and is based
and compared to other resins through established testing
on the slope of the rate of deformation versus time at a given
proccdurcs, but the balance of properties essential to a true
load in second-stage creep.
engineering resin requires a broader view, A balance of
properties exists when the achievement of one property does
ENGINEERING PLASTICS2
not demand a tradeoff with another (for example, stiffness for
The thermoplastic engineering resins are usually character- low-temperature impact strength). Certain properties of com-
ized as those resins having the following combination of modity thermoplastics can be improved through the use of
properties: stabilizers, fibrous reinforcements, and particulate fillers to
produce grades that directly compete with engineering plastics,
. Thermal, mechanical, chemical, corrosion resistance,
but these improvements invariably cause a corresponding
and fabricability.
reduction in other properties.
. Ability to sustain high mechanical loads, in harsh
The introduction of the term “commodity” leads to the
environments, for long periods of time.
market/ pricing criteria that place the engineering plastics in a
. Predictable, reliable performance.
class of their own. The load-bearing engineering plastics forma
distinct group, as compared to the high-volume/ low-price
The term “engineering plastics” is neither rigorously defined
commodity plastics and the Iow-voltrme/ high-price specialty
nor restrictive in the sense that implies there is also a well-
plastics. The chart in Fig. 8-6 shows where the various resins fall
defined group of nonengineering plastics. Instead, some industry
together and how they are grouped with respect to relative costs
experts advocate a practical definition of engineering plastics
and production volume levels.
that includes not only the propertyj performance criteria, but
also market/ pricing criteria.
The above two sets of criteria, taken together, place certain Advantages and Limitations
resins in the engineering category to the exclusion of others. The The advantageous characteristics of engineering plastics
principal resins of the past decade that meet both sets of criteria include high strength per unit weight, inherent corrosion
are: nylon, acetal, thermoplastic polyester, modified phenylene resistance, little or no maintenance, and good retention of
oxide, and polycarbonate. In the 1980s, new materials, including mechanical properties. Depending on the reinforcements or
some grades of acrylonitrile butadiene styrene (ABS), are being fillers added (such as glass or graphite), stiffness, lubricity, and
developed that can be categorized as engineering plastics. other properties can be enhanced.
When referring to engineering plastics, some knowledgeable Because the end products typically are molded, design
people simply apply a broad definition based on property/ flexibility enables multiple functions to be combined into a
performance criteria. This interpretation includes special grades single part, thus reducing the total parts count (as well as
and compounds of the commodity thermoplastics such as assembly time and labor), while eliminating finish grinding and
isocyanate-based resins and a variety of polymer alloys and machining. Also, because resins can be pigmented, painting is
copolymers, as well as polysulfone (PSO) and polyphenylene often not required.
sulfide (PPS). The new types of rigid polyvinyl chloride (PVC) The main inherent problem with engineering plastics is creep
are also sometimes included. In addition, the growing scope of deformation under load. Glass reinforcement is commonly
engineering plastics is commonly recognized to include the used to control and limit the creep characteristics of some
specialty plastics that offer high strength along with high- plastics. In some applications, abrasion resistance and wear
temperature performance. However, common usage of the term resistance are other limitations that must be taken into
generally does not include the thermoset resins that were the consideration.
forerunners of the engineering thermoplastics.
Overview of Properties
Production Volumes Du Pent introduced nylon as the first engineering thermo-
In terms of annual production and sales volumes, nylon and plastic in the 1950s. It has since been joined by four other
polycarbonate are the most widely used engineering thermo- engineering resin families that have broadened the capabili-

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Tool and Manufacturing Engineers Handbook Knowledge Base • Copyright © 1998 • Society of Manufacturing Engineers
CHAPTER 8

ENGINEERING PLASTICS

TABLE 8-4
Representative Properties of Major Engineering Thermoplastics

Material
Modified
ASTM Phenylene
Property Method Nylon 6* Nylon 6/6** pc$ Oxide Acetall ABS** PSF PPS
Specific gravity D-792 1.12-1.14 1.13-1.15 1.2 1.06 1.41-1.42 1.03-1.06 1.24 1.34

Tensile strength, D-638 9.5 8.8-10.5 6-7.5 10.2 10.8

ksi (MPa) (6i”O) (7\18) (65.5) (:6!2) (61-72) (41-52) (70.3) (74.5)

Tensile modulus, D-638 100 410 350 355 390-520 300-400 380 480
ksi (GPa) (0.7) (2.8) (2.4) (2.5) (2.7-3.6) (2.1-2.8) (2.6) (3.3)

Elongation to D-638 300 300 110 20-60 25-75 5-25 50-100 3

break, percent

Izod impact D-265 2.1 1.8-5.0 1.3-2.3 3-6 0.3-0.5

strength, (?::) (1.1) (;:) (1.0-2.7) (0.4-1 .2) (1.6-3.2) (0.2-0.3) :?)
notched,
ft-lb/in.
(J/ cm)
* Moisture conditioned
lVIGUIUU1-llll~ clC, L & ctUC

t Property range includes homopolymer (delrin) and copolymer (celcon)

ft-lb/ in. (0.53 J/cm) dry as molded, The Izod test, with its
severe notch, is not necessarily the best method for comparing

h Polyester-imide impact resistance, but it is frequently used in comparisons of

engineering plastics.
Nylon’s performance in any given application is dependent
on moisture content; and, while the impact resistance improves
PES ● as equilibrium is reached, the modulus drops off. Through modi-
g fications, all of these properties have been improved, but they
“
$ are the key properties on which engineering plastics are based.
.- PPS Acetals were introduced in 1960 in the form of Du Pent’s
%
0 Delrin homopolymer, followed, in 1962, by the Celanese
E Acetol ● PC copolymer Celcon. These resins brought a new set of properties
6 pC, ABSe Modified PO ●ABS to engineering plastics applications. The acetals offered some-
SAN* 0+% \HlpS pp what higher heat deflection temperatures (HDT) and higher use
Y
%“ Pvc temperatures; and, most important, their resistance to moisture
pS?HD;E< ~DpE pickup made physical properties independent of moisture
content. The ffexural modulus of acetals as molded is the same
0.1 1 10 100 1000 10,000 (homopolymer) or slightly lower (copolymer) than nylon-6,6 as
(454 metric tons) (454,000 molded, but it is relatively constant.
Volume, 106 lb/yr metric tons) Nylon and acetal, both crystalline resins, surpassed amor-
phous ABS in such properties as tensile strength, long-term
Fig. 8-6 Engineering thermoplastics charted by group, based on annual heat resistance, and chemical resistance; but neither of them
production volume and relative cost. This chart broadly depicts the could equal ABS in notched impact resistance. In the 1960s, two
market-oriented distinction between commodity, engineering, and amorphous resins were introduced with impact resistance equal
specialty plastics resins. (John Hi//, Jr. ) or superior to ABS.
With the appearance of polycarbonate (PC) in the early
ties of thermoplastics in replacing metals, glass, and thermo- 1960s, a substantial gain was made in the UL thermal index
setting plastics. rating. Because of its retention of properties at high temper-
General-purpose (GP) nylon-6,6 has a heat deflection tem- atures, PC can be used continuously at 239° F(I 15” C), which is
perature (HDT) of 220° F ( 104DC) dry as molded; but at 45-72° F (8-40° C) higher than for previously available engi-
equilibrium, the HDT drops to 167° F (75° C), Its Underwriters neering resins. The HDT value of 270° F(132QC) for PCand its
Laboratories’(UL) thermal index is 167° F (75° C). The flexural flexural modulus of 340 ksi (2,3 GPa) were similar to the
modulus is 410 ksi (2,8 GPa) dry, but at equilibrium it is only properties of other materials. However, polycarbonates pro-
175 ksi ( 1.2 GPa) for nylon-6,6 and 140 ksi (965 MPa) for vided a substantial gain in impact resistance, with a notched
nylon-6, The notched Izod impact strength for nylon-6,6 is Izod value of 14.O ft-lb/in. (7.5 J/cm). In addition, PC was the
2.1 ft-lb/in. (1.12 J/cm) of notch at equilibrium, but only 1.0 first resin to offer the advantage of transparency. This property,

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Tool and Manufacturing Engineers Handbook Knowledge Base • Copyright © 1998 • Society of Manufacturing Engineers
 CHAPTER 8
ENGINEERING PLASTICS

combined with impact resistance and extrudability, brought to Other Plastics Used
the engineering resins the potential for application as a glass for Engineering Applications
replacement. As with the modified PPO, however, the tradeoff In some product applications, the five principal groups of
was in diminished chemical resistance. engineering plastics compete with other plastics such as ABS,
General Electric’s Noryl, a styrene-modified polyphenylene polystyrene, and various thermosetting plastics. Glass and/or
oxide resin, was introduced in 1966. Noryl’s HDT is 265° F mineral-filled polypropylene and flame-retardant ABS are
(129° C), with a U L thermal index of 194° F (90° C) and a widely used where their special characteristics are needed, and
flexural modulus of 360 ksi (2.5 GPa). These property values modified phenylene oxide (Noryl) must compete against flame-
are similar to those for the acetals; but, with a notched Izod retardant ABS in some electronic cabinetry where a relatively
value of 5.0 ft-lb/ in. (2.7 J/cm), the impact resistance was low thermal index is acceptable. Ultrahigh molecular weight
significantly improved. The chemical solvent resistance, how- polyethylene (UHMWPE) offers excellent wear resistance, but
ever, is poor and is significantly less than that for the crystalline limited processability.
polymers such as nylon and acetal. Thermoses. Thermoses have long been available as
With the introduction of polybutylene terephthalate resins insulators in electric/electronic applications, offering a wide
(PBT) in 1970, the potential for engineering resins in high-
range of capabilities in resistance to heat and other environ-
temperature applications opened up, excluding the unreinforced mental conditions, Thermoset molding compounds may be
resins. Unreinforced PBT, as a crystalline resin, offers the formulated to satisfy one or more important uses, Typical
typical chemical resistance of nylon and acetal, along with distinctive properties of thermoses include dimensional stabil-
certain common properties such as lubricity. But unreinforced ity, low-to-zero creep, low water absorption, maximum physical
PBT’s tensile and impact strengths are relatively low, and its strength, good electrical properties, high heat deflection tem-
[IDT of 130° F (54° C) is very low. peratures, high heat resistance, minimal values of coefficient of
High-temperature thermoplastic resins include the poly- thermal expansion, low heat transfer, and specific gravities in
sulfones (PSO) as a class of engineering thermoplastics with the 1.35 to 2.00 range.
high thermal, oxidative, and hydrolytic stability good resistance Processing advantages have allowed thermoplastics to
to aqueous mineral acids, alkali, and salt solutions; and fair replace thermoses in many markets, but competition remains
resistance to oil and grease, Polyphenylene sulfide (PPS), in some of the more demanding uses, Thermoplastics in general
Phillips Petroleum Company’s Ryton, has good chemical offer faster molding, lighter weight, the possibility for thinner
resistance and electrical properties, along with excellent flame walls and more complex design, and greater impact resistance,
retardance, low coefficient of friction, and high transparency to Thermoses do not commonly exhibit as much creep at elevated
microwave radiation. It can be injection and compression temperatures as thermoplastics, including the reinforced grades.
molded at high temperatures, 572-698° F (300-370° C). Among The engineering resins do not compete directly with epoxies,
the high-temperature resins, polyetherimide, polyphenylene but some of the high-temperature resins are being used for that
sulfide, and polysulfone compete with the basic engineering purpose, The engineering resins rarely compete with polyure-
resins, but are classified at the high end of the five major thane or silicones. Among the major engineering thermo-
engineering resin groups. plastics, polybutylene terephthalate (PBT) and polyethylene
terephthalate (PET) come closest to the thermoses in balance
Reinforced Resins of properties. Polycarbonate comes closest in dimensional
As revealed by a comparison of property values, the various stability; but PBT is the first of the major engineering plastics to
resin groups are affected by glass reinforcement in some be considered for some of the most demanding thermoset
markedly different ways. Glass reinforcement raises the flexural applications, including industrial machinery and electrical/
modulus for all of them. The heat deflection temperatures all go electronic usage.
up as well, especially for nylon and PBT. Nylon’s 480° F
Fluoropolymers. Fluoropolymers are often categorized
(249° C) 11DT qualifies it for short-term high-heat exposure,
along with the engineering plastics, but the two groups seldom
and its long-term capability increases as well. In the case of
directly compete. As a class, fluoropolymers do not offer the
PBT, glass reinforcement makes a true engineering resin out of
load-bearing capability of the engineering plastics, and load-
a material that is not outstanding in its unfilled properties. The bearing is generally one of the demands placed on plastics in pro-
thermal index of 284° F ( 140”C) (the highest of all resins in duct engineering specifications. In nonload-bearing uses, how-
this group) is important in relation to retention of electrical
ever, fluoropolymers have outstanding and unique properties,
properties. including resistance to very high and low temperatures, excep-
Glass reinforcement improves the various properties of tional electrical properties, and a low coefficient of friction.
acetal, compared to the unfilled resin; but, in comparison with
other glass-reinforced materials, it is not outstanding. Glass
reinforcement of modified phenylene oxide resin and poly - Specialty Plastics
carbonate results in decreased impact resistance; and, in the Specialty plastics include a mixed group of materials sold at
case of polycarbonate, it also causes a loss of transparency. relatively high prices, compared to the engineering plastics, and
Properties that are generally improved by the use of glass- in relatively low volumes. The members of this group generally
reinforced resins include dimensional stability, moisture resis- have high-temperature capability, but this capability involves
tance, and flammability ratings. complex, costly synthesis and usually some processing difficulty.
Glass reinforcement reduces the ductility and unnotched In this group, the polyamides (thermoset) and polyamides
Izod impact resistance of most thermoplastic resins. The use of (thermoplastic) can be used continuously at temperatures in the
reinforced resins is growing rapidly, and they are being 500° F (260° C) range.
increasingly specified for engineering applications that replace There is no question that such materials can be used in
metal stampings, die castings, and, in some instances, cast iron. engineering applications, but there are two principal materials

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Tool and Manufacturing Engineers Handbook Knowledge Base • Copyright © 1998 • Society of Manufacturing Engineers
CHAPTER 8
ENGINEERING PLASTICS

in this group that compete directly with the engineering plastics: and automotive, electrical electronic, and industrial parts. There
polyphenylene sulfide (PPS) and polysulfone (PSO). is some use of polysulfone as a substrate for circuit boards
The relative heat resistance of plastics materials is generally instead of the customary epoxy-glass composites for aircraft parts,
measured either by ASTM D 648, Deflection Temperature in competition with carbon-epoxy composites at 230° F (1 10° C).
Under Load, or UL 746B, Polymeric Materials—Long-Term Plastics with still higher heat-resistance capabilities include
Property Evaluation (Relative Thermal Index). These two some thermoplastics (other polysulfones), some thermoses
testing procedures are often referred to in connection with tbe (including certain polyamides and aramids), and some resins
main engineering plastics, hut they become particularly relevant that can be melt-processed but require crosslinking for optimal
in attempting to define a high-temperature plastics. No com- property development. Flame-retardant plastics, such as Du
prehensive body of data exists to compare the mechanical, Pent’s Rynite thermoplastic polyester, are becoming increas-
chemical, and electrical stress behavior of all materials under ingly important as replacements for thermoset plastics electrical
long-term elevated temperature conditions. components.
The UL thermal index is, however, the most useful indicator
because heat deflection temperature merely indicates the tem- Plastics Alloys and Blends
perature at which a bar (test specimen) begins to deflect. It
Because of the high cost to develop and introduce a new
provides no information about time to failure or mode of
plastics and provide the necessary marketing and technical
failure. For example, while glass-reinforced nylon and polyester
support, new materials tailored for specific sets of properties are
have very high heat deflection temperatures, they are crystalline
often made by chemical or physical modifications of existing
resins with sharp melting points, and this characteristic must be
resins. Desirable characteristics and properties can be obtained
taken into account when considering prospective applications.
by blending or alloying resins, or by adding inorganic or
The UL thermal index is a valid indicator of continuous
organic fillers and reinforcements. Such modification is being
performance ability. An acceptable dividing line between the
done by primary resin suppliers who use these methods to
major engineering thermoplastics and the high-temperature
produce special grades, by custom compounders, and—to an
thermoplastics can be drawn at the UL 302° F ( 150° C) thermal
increasing extent—by end-users who tailor-make resins to
index. This temperature is the generic rating for phenolic
fulfill their own specific needs.
molding compounds, and most thermoses can be used con-
Description. The distinction between alloys and blends is
tinuously above it. For thermoses. unlike thermoplastics,
not clearly defined, but both terms are used for physical
302° F ( 150° C) is usually taken for granted when considering
mixtures of two or more structurally different polymers. As
functional applications that involve moderately hot environments.
compared to copolymers, in which the components are linked
The significance of thermoplastics that can operate over
by strong chemical bonds, the components in alloys adhere
302° F ( 150° C) does not lie in their role as replacements for
primarily through Van der Waals forces, dipole interactions,
thermoses in the low-price range. With the exception of PPS,
and/ or hydrogen bonding.
they are too expensive. They can function as replacements for
The process of alloying to improve certain desired character-
metals, glass, epoxies, fluoropolymers, and specialty thermoses
istics of a polymer is not limited to adding only one other
in areas where thermoplastic processing advantages make the
polymer. There are also terpolymers (three monomers in a
cost worthwhile.
chain) and plastics alloys with several polymer additives.
Polyphenylene sulfide (Phillips Chemical Co.’s Ryton) is
Example. Table 8-5 lists properties of General Electric’s
knownm PPS and is available for molding only in glass and/or
Xenoy, an alloy that consists primarily of polycarbonate (PC)
mineral-reinforced compounds. It offers UL thermal index
and polybutylene terephthalate (PBT). This thermoplastic
ratings of 338° F ( 170° C) at a relatively low cost. PPS also has
polymer alloy was developed specifically to fulfill requirements
outstanding chemical resistance, with no known solvents below
for automotive exterior parts. Xenoy’s characteristics include:
4010 F (205° C). An additional asset is that PPS is inherently
flame retardant. It is considered a thermosetting thermoplastic ● High impact strength over a wide temperature range.
because optimal high-temperature properties can be obtained
● Dimensional stability at high and low temperatures and
through annealing, in which some crosslinking takes place. PPS
humidity levels.
is also being used in high-temperature alloys.
Most PPS applications are in structural electric/electronic ● Flexural modulus of approximately 300 ksi (2 GPa).
parts, where PPS competes against phenolic resins on the basis ● Resistance to gasoline (spillage) and automotive waxes
of cost savings through scrap reuse, and against other more and cleaners.
expensive thermoses like diallyl phthalate (DAP) and diallyl
isophthalate (DAIP) resins. Among the engineering thermo-
● Ultraviolet (UV) stability.
plastics, its closest competitor is PBT. ● Wide latitude in processing.
Polysulfone, Union Carbide’s Udel, is a transparent, amor-
phous copolymer resin with a UL thermal index of 302° F Polymer networks. A new technology that combines incom-
( 150° C). Polysulfone is selected instead of polycarbonate when patible plastics to form interpenetrating polymer networks
the higher use temperature is required, and sometimes for better (I PNs) has been developed by Shell Chemical and other
stress-crack resistance at lower temperatures. Its markets are companies. This technique produces a new type of alloy
often in glass and stainless steel replacement based on the consisting of intimate mixtures of two or more polymer
advantages of transparency, heat resistance, hydrolysis resis- networks held together by permanent entanglements. Unlike
tance, suitability for food contact, and resistance to acids conventional alloys, the polymers need not be miscible, and the
and alkalis. networks can be devised for optimum properties when they are
Polystdfone applications, often for corrosion resistance, are needed, while using lower cost materials as the predominant
in medical hardware, food processing and handling equipment, ingredient when the property requirements are less severe.

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Tool and Manufacturing Engineers Handbook Knowledge Base • Copyright © 1998 • Society of Manufacturing Engineers
 CHAPTER 8

PROCESSING AND APPLICATIONS

TABLE 8-5 ethylene terephthalate (PET) competes in these applications. In

Typical Properties of a tapered-filament paint brushes, nylon-6, 12’s leading position
Thermoplastic Polymer Alloy* has been taken over by PBT, a more expensive but more
versatile filament.
ASTM Nylon is used as a wire coating, primarily as a protective
Test abrasion-resistant coating over PVC-insulated wire. Nylon film
Pronertv Method Value can be cast or blown, or extrusion coated onto various
substrates. Most nylon film is cast, and virtually all is sold to
Mechanical
converters who add a sealant layer of low-density polyethylene
D-256 (LDPE), ethylene-vinyl acetate copolymer (EVA), or ionomer.
Impact strength, notched Izod,
ft-lb/ in. (J/cm) Its major market is vacuum packages of processed meats and
cheese, usually combined with a PET-sealant cover web, Nylon
73° F (23” C) 14.8 (7.9)
12,2 (7.0) film is also used for fresh-meat packaging, and a new market
32° F (0° C)
has opened in medical device packaging using techniques
-4° F (-20° C) 4.7 (2.5)
-40° F (-40° C) similar to those for formed-meat packaging. The most impor-
3.0 (1.6)
tant properties in these applications are formability and heat
resistance.
Tensile strength D-638 Nylon strapping began replacing steel strapping in the early
at yield, ksi (MPa) 7.4 (51) 1960s, even at higher cost, because of the general advantages of
at break, ksi (M Pa) 8.1 (56) nonmetallic strapping. In recent years, nylon has met increasing
competition in this market from polypropylene and PET,
Elongation, at break, 70 145 Nylon is also extruded into rods, tubes, and shapes for
machining, an important option for low-volume runs. The blow
Other molding of nylon has been restrained partly by cost and partly
by the difficulties inherent in crystalline resins because of their
Coefficient of thermal D-696 sharp melting point. Nylon blow-molding resins have been
expansion, developed with high melt strengths for parison forming and are
in. /in. /°F 5.3 x 10-5 used to some extent for monolayer and coextruded bottles and
(mm/mm/° C) 9.5 x 10-5 for gas tanks in small equipment. Nylon-6 is also cast to
produce very large bearings.
Mold shrinkage, % D-955 0.9 Nylon-1 1 is used for powder coatings and for flexible tubing.
Specific gravity D-792 1.22 Nylon-1 2 is used for the same purposes, but to a greater extent
in Europe than in the U.S. These resins have exceptional moisture
* Xenoy 1100 resin, General Electric Co. resistance, but they are considerably less stiff than nylon-6 or
-6,6. They are used to some extent in rotational molding.
[n contrast to nylon, acetal offers few options outside of the
injection molding category. An acetal terpolymer is available
PROCESSING AND APPLICATIONS
for injection blow molding but, apart from some carburetor
The melt-processability of thermoplastic resins is a basic
floats and rod extrusions, it has found little usage. Although
characteristic that distinguishes them from thermoses. This
acetal is difficult to extrude, it is extruded into shapes, as is
fact pertains not only to the advantages of injection molding as
nylon, for subsequent machining. Almost all acetal consumption
compared to compression or transfer molding, but also to the
is in injection molding, a factor that limits its total consumption.
variety of processing alternatives that extend the utility of the
The PET thermoplastic polyesters used for film, sheet, and
thermoplastics. There are thermoses that can be injection
blow molding are not the same as those used for injection-
molded; but only the thermoplastics offer the options of
molded engineering applications. PBT can be blow molded, but
extrusion into sheet, film and profiles, or blow molding. For
rarely is. While used almost entirely in injection molding, PBT
additional information on processing, refer to “Plastics Form-
does find some use in tapered brush filaments and in extruded
ing,” Chapter 18, Volume II, Forming, of this Handbook series,
strip for small electrical parts.
The degree to which each of the engineering plastics is Noryl resin’s use in extrusion is relatively minor compared to
amenable to alternative processing methods varies, and the injection molding, but it is used to some extent for stock shapes
relative potential of each of them depends also on their and to an increasing extent for sheet and profiles. Noryl
potential in alternative processes, not just on their utility in (General Electric’s PPO) sheet competes with flame-retardant
injection molding. The diagram shown in Fig. 8-7 generally ABS as it does in injection molding, and it can compete with less
relates the thermoses and thermoplastics and their respective expensive resins like ABS and PVC where its properties permit
parts production processes. the extrusion of thinner walls.
The transparency of pol~carbonate, combined with its
Applications Overview extrudability and impact resistance, makes it a strong com-
In addition to its use in injection molding, nylon is extruded petitor for acrylic sheet in replacement of flat glass. Extruded
into monofilament and brush filament. Nylon-6 is used for sheet for glazing, lighting, and signs accounts for approximately
sewing thread, fishing line, household) industrial brushes, and 25% of polycarbonate’s volume. Its use in extruded profiles is
level-filament paint brushes. Nylon-6,6, stiffer than nylon-6, is minor, but polycarbonate is widely used in blow molding for
used for sewing thread and household/ industrial brushes. water bottles, milk bottles, baby nursing bottles, and mis-
Nylon-6, 12 dominates in personal-care brushes, although poly- cellaneous packaging.

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Tool and Manufacturing Engineers Handbook Knowledge Base • Copyright © 1998 • Society of Manufacturing Engineers
CHAPTER 8

PROCESSING AND APPLICATIONS

Finished components and shapes

~lntermediate products+

Fig. 8-7 Thermoses andthermoplastic polymers grouped byparts production processes. (Ro}'.Manns &Associure$)

Special Processing Considerations Flammability Tests

When processing plastics resins to produce end products, it Some of the major flammability tests and standards for
is important to avoid inadvertent creation of hazards. During plastics are:
parts production, the processing parameters and operations ● ASTM D 635 Burn Rate Test.
should not subject the resin to conditions that would alter its ● ASTM D 2863 Oxygen Index.
properties significantly. Information on the general behavior of ● ASTM E 84 Tunnel Test.
plastics and the specific characteristics of the particular ● ASTM E 162 Radiant Panel Test.
materials involved is essential for sound planning and per- ● Underwriters Laboratories UL-94 Flame Class.
formance of the manufacturing operations. ● Underwriters Laboratories UL-746C Enclosure of Live
Electrical Parts.
● United States Department of Transportation MVSS-302
Flammability Flame Test.
Canadian Standards Association CSA C-22.2, No. 6-1982.
Few areas of plastics technology have received so much
attention and are as confused as th~-combustion properties of Plastics burn because they contain carbon and hydrogen
plastics. Like most other organic materials, plastics burn. But atoms, both capable of reacting with atmospheric oxygen. To
burning behavior is difficult to measure because the type of increase fire resistance, chlorinated polymers have been devel-
combustion, the stacking or packing of the plastics, the ratio of oped, such as PVC and CPVC. At issue, however, is the
surface area to volume, the effects of the products of com- potential effect of burning these plastics and producing HCL
bustion, and the rate of combustion all interact during any (hydrogen chloride gas), a hazardous substance. Other polymers
specific fire. Tests vary and some experts disagree on the basic with large “blocky” molecules in the backbone burn very slowly
knowledge of flammability of plastics, For example, in the and tend to give off very little smoke. Unfortunately, these
summer of 1983, the state of New York concluded that several polymers are costly. Several flame retardants, usually halides,
existing flammability test protocols were scientific and could be can be added to plastics. For any operation involving possible
used to begin setting fire standards, whereas the State of flammability, it is advisable to contact the appropriate agency,
California concluded that these same tests were not sufficiently read the standards thoroughly, and talk to resin suppliers
scientific to set meaningful standards. before selecting plastics or establishing processing conditions.

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Tool and Manufacturing Engineers Handbook Knowledge Base • Copyright © 1998 • Society of Manufacturing Engineers
 CHAPTER 8

ADVANCED COMPOSITES

ADVANCED COMPOSITES
A composite material is created by the combination of two
or more materials—a reinforcing element and a compatible
resin binder (matrix)—to obtain specific characteristics and
properties. The components do not dissolve completely into
each other or otherwise chemically merge, although they do act
synergistically. Normally, the separate components can be
physically identified, as well as the interface between components.
A common example of a composite material is fiberglass.
Glass fibers are very strong, If notched, however, they fracture
readily; or if put in compression, they buckle easily. By Metal
encapsulating the glass fibers in a resin matrix, they are
protected from damage; at the same time, the resin matrix
transfers applied loads to the unified fibers so that their stiffness \
and strength can be fully utilized in both tension and compression,
The more advanced structural composites use fibers of glass,
carbon/graphite, boron, Kevlar (aramid), and other organic
Fig. 8-8 Schematic comparison of homogeneous metal and a fiber-
materials. These fibers are very stiff and strong, yet lightweight. resin composite material. (Pofy[ech, L/d.)
The strengthening effects of the fiber reinforcements in com-
posites are derived from (a) the percentage of fibers (fiber-resin it contains little or no graphitic structure; however, in common
ratio), (b) the type of fibers, and (c) the fiber orientation with practice, the terms carbon and graphite are often used inter-
respect to the direction of the loads. changeably to denote a particular group of fibers used in
While advanced fiber, resin matrix composites are classified advanced composites, Generally, the modulus of elasticity of a
as reinforced thermoses, a special technology has developed carbon fiber increases as the degree of graphitization increases.
involving these materials that sets them somewhat apart from
other reinforced thermoses. Called “advanced composites, ” STATE OF THE ART
resin matrix composites can include hybrids, mixtures of fibers Generically, a composite can include metal, wood, foam, or
in various forms in tbe resin (usually epoxy) matrix. other material layers, in addition to the fiber and resin
Continuous-fiber reinforcements can be directionally components. The term advanced composites came into use in
oriented; short or chopped fibers can only be randomly the late 1960s to designate certain composite materials with
oriented. Each fiber form has its advantages and limitations. In properties considerably superior to those of earlier composites.
general, short fibers cost more than continuous fibers, yet The term is, however, imprecise because it does not identify
fabrication costs are lower for the short fibers. The properties of specific material combinations, nor does it indicate their
composites from chopped fibers are weaker than those obtain- arrangement or configuration in the composite, the strength
able with longer or continuous fibers. level, or other qualities that distinguish an advanced composite
The four basic areas of composites technology are: from other composites. Currently, the industry defines advanced
composites as composites that contain a fiber-to-resin ratio of
● Organic (resin) matrix composites. greater than 50% fiber, with the fibers having a modulus of
. Metal matrix composites,
elasticity greater than 16 x IOfipsi (1 10.3 GPa).
. Carbon-carbon composites.
● Ceramic matrix composites.
General Description of Advanced Composites
The majority of aerospace, military, and commercial product To engineers in the field, an advanced composite has come to
applications for advanced composites use the carbon or graphite denote a resin matrix material that is reinforced with high-
fibers with organic matrices; hence, these are the principal strength, high-modulus fibers of carbon, aramid, or boron, and
composites discussed in this section of the chapter. Commercial is usually fabricated in layers to form an cnginccred component.
composite materials, such as laminates and glass-reinforced More specifically, the term is applied principally to epoxy-resin
plastics, are discussed previously in this chapter and also in matrix materials reinforced with oriented, continuous fibers of
Volume 11, Forming, of this Handbook series. carbon and fabricated in a multilayer form to make extremely
Composite structural materials have evolved as a class of rigid, strong structures, Another characteristic that distinguishes
engineering materials that offer some unique properties and composites from reinforced plastics is the fiber-to-resin ratio,
combinations of characteristics not exhibited by the more This ratio is generally greater than 50~ fiber by weight;
traditional materials systems such as “pure” metals, ceramics, however, the ratio is sometimes indicated by volume since the
and polymers. Figure 8-8 offers a schematic comparison of weight and volume in composites are similar.
homogeneous metal and fiber-resin composite material. The
industrial appeal of advanced structural composites is based on Composites Materials
their inherent ability to replace conventional high-strength Organic matrix composites are the most common, least
metals with lighter weight, higher strength material. expensive, and most widely used of all advanced composite
In the manufacture of aircraft, the predominant advanced materials. For purposes of discussion and reference, organic com-
composite material contains a reinforcing fiber that is almost posites may be grouped according to their chronological devel-
pure carbon, The term carbon correctly describes the fiber since opment and commercialization, as presented in Table 8-6. It

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Tool and Manufacturing Engineers Handbook Knowledge Base • Copyright © 1998 • Society of Manufacturing Engineers
CHAPTER 8

COMPOSITES NOMENCLATURE

TABLE 8-6 B-stage The condition of a resin-hardener mixture when it

Groups of Organic Composites exhibits an initial degree of crosslinking while being still
plastic and fusible and still somewhat soluble in selective
Group 1:* Established Composites Used on a Broad Scale solvents,
bag molding A technique of molding reinforced plastics
Fibers Resins
composites using a flexible cover (bag) over a rigid mold.
E-glass Polyester The composites material is placed in the mold and covered
S-glass Vinyl ester with the bag; pressure is applied by vacuum, autoclave,
Phenolic press, or by inflating the bag.
bidirectional laminate A reinforced plastics laminate in which
Group 2:* Advanced Composites Primarily for Aerospace
the fibers are oriented in two directions in the plane of the
Applications
laminate; typically, 90° opposed,
Fibers Resins binder The resin or cementing constituent of a plastics com-
pound that holds the other components together, Also. the
Carbon / graphite (5 grades, 2 types) Epoxy
agent applied to glass mat or preforms to bond the fibers
Aramid (3 grades) Phenolic
before laminating or molding.
Boron (2 grades) Bismaleimide
bismaleimide Thermoset resin used in producing advanced
Glass (2 types)
composites for elevated temperature applications, up to
Group 3: Composites and Processes in the Developmental 700° F (370” C) continuously,
Stage bulk molding compound (BMC) Thermosetting resins mixed
with chopped reinforcements or fillers into a viscous com-
. Advanced bismaleimide resin matrix series for high- pound for compression molding.
temperature ser~ice. C-stage The condition of a resin when it is in the solid state, with
. Polyether etherketone (PEE K) thermoplastic matrix high molecular weight, being insoluble and infusible (cured).
series for higher temperature service, carbon A general term that includes any form of graphite or
. Hybrid reinforcements and knitted ~stacked ply fabrics amorphous carbon.
and “3-D’’( special shape) woven fabric reinforcements, carbon fiber Fibers produced by pyrolysis of an organic
. Selective stitching of collated ply kits, precursor fiber in an inert atmosphere at temperatures
higher than 1800° F (982” C). Used as reinforcement for
● URTRI(ultimately reinforced thermoses reaction
lightweight, high-strength, and high-stiffness structures.
injection) process for advanced composites using resin
carbon/graphite Fibers possessing high strength that are used
injection.
with a resin matrix to form advanced composites structures.
( fol~tech, Ltd.) cellular plastics Materials with cell structure throughout their
* Fibers may be used separately or in combination with other mass and/or with integral skins (foams),
fibers inthe same group. Resins cannot be mixed together. circumferential winding In filament-wound reinforced plastics,
a winding with the filaments essentially perpendicular to the
axis of rotation.
should be noted that while any combination of fibers can be used, composite A homogeneous material created by the judicious
only one resin is generally used in any given composites material. assembly of two or more materials (selected reinforcing
The materials in Group No. 1 (see Table 8-6) have been elements and compatible matrix) to obtain specific charac-
widely used throughout the world for many years. The advanced teristics and properties.
composites (Group No. 2) arecurrently used in both commercial compression molding A technique of thermoset molding in
and military aerospace systems. The developmental composites which the molding compound (generally preheated) is
(Group No. 3) include materials, processing methods, and placed in the open mold cavity, the mold is closed, and heat
controls that are still in the experimental stages and have not and pressure is applied until the material has cured.
reached significant production, as well as new materials that continuous filament An individual fiber strand of small diameter
have considerable potential for future applications, It is antici- that is flexible and of great or indefinite length.
pated that emphasis on automation of organic matrix com- continuous filament yarn Yarn formed by twisting two or more
posites fabrication may lead to the development of new or continuous filaments into a single, continuous strand.
modified materials, as well as processing methods and tech- copolymer A compound resulting from the chemical reaction of
niques for quality control of both the materials and processes. two chemically different monomers.
cure To change the physical properties of a material by chemical
NOMENCLATURE reaction through the action of heat and catalysts, alone or in
A-stage The condition of low molecular weight of a resin during combination, with or without pressure.
which the resin is readily soluble and fusible. delamination The separation of layers in a laminate through
anisotropic Exhibiting different properties when tested along matrix cohesive failure or through interracial failure (inter-
axes in different directions. Iaminar shear).
aspect ratio The ratio of the length to either the width or the E-glass A borosilicate glass, most commonly used for glass
diameter of a fiber. fibers in reinforced plastics.
autoclave A closed pressure vessel for inducing a resin cure or endothermic reaction A reaction that is accompanied by the
other operation under pressure and heat. absorption of heat,
axial winding In filament-wound reinforced plastics, a winding exotherm The temperature-versus-time curve of a chemical
with the filaments parallel to the axis. reaction; maximum temperature occurs at peak exotherm.

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Tool and Manufacturing Engineers Handbook Knowledge Base • Copyright © 1998 • Society of Manufacturing Engineers
 CHAPTER 8

COMPOSITES NOMENCLATURE

exothermic reaction A reaction in which heat is given offi It also resists heat distortion to temperatures as high as
typical of thermoset resins, 680° F (360° C).
FRP Fiberglass reinforced plastics. A general term for plastics
polymerization A chemical reaction in which the molecules of
that are reinforced with cloth, mat, strands, or any other
form of fibrous glass. monomers are linked together to form polymers.
polyurethane resin, thermoset A resin produced by reacting
fiberglass reinforcement A major material used to reinforce
diisocyanate with organic compounds containing two or
commercial grade plastics. Available as mat, roving, or
fabric, it is incorporated into both thermoses and thermo- more active hydrogens to form polymers with free-isocyanate
groups. These groups will react with each other under heat
plastics. The glass increases the mechanical strength, impact
resistance, stiffness, and dimensional stability of the matrix, or by a catalyst to form thermoses.
fiber orientation Fiber alignment in a woven fabric laminate in postcure An operation on a thermoset molded part in which the
which the majority of fibers may lie in the same direction, part is subjected to elevated temperatures for a period of
resulting in a higher strength in that direction. time to effect full cure or stress relaxation and to enhance
fiber-resin ratio Ratio by weight or volume of fiber percent to properties.
resin percent, based on 100% of a composite material. precursor A textile product from which carbon fibers are made,
Advanced composites are greater than 50~ fiber, such as polyacrylonitrile.
filament Fiber of extreme length, used in yarns and other prepreg A ready-to-mold material in sheet form, generally a
compositions. Generally used for large-diameter reinforcing fabric preimpregnated with B-stage resin and stored for use.
materials such as boron or glass. The prepeg, in frozen form, is supplied to the fabricator, who
filament winding Process in which resin-impregnated strands lays up the finished shape and completes the cure with heat
are applied over a rotating mandrel to produce high- and pressure.
strength, reinforced cylindrical shapes. pressure bag molding A process for molding reinforced plastics
graphite A crystalline form of carbon either found in natural in which a tailored, flexible bag is placed over the contact
deposits or formed by heating amorphous carbon. lay-up on the mold, sealed, and clamped in place. Com-
hand lay-up Method of positioning successive layers of rein- pressed air forces the bag against the part to apply pressure
forcement mat or web (which mayor may not be preimpreg- while the part cures.
nated with resin) on a mold by hand. Resin is used to pultrusion The extrusion of resin-impregnated roving in the
impregnate or coat the reinforcement, followed by curing manufacture of rods. tubes, and structural shapes of a
the resin to permanently fix the formed shape. constant cross section. After passing through the resin dip
homopolymer A polymer formed from a single monomer. tank, the roving is drawn through a die and cured to form the
honeycomb A manufactured product of material formed into desired cross section as it continuously runs through the
hexagonal-shaped cells; used as a core material in sandwich machine.
construction. reinforced plastics Molded, formed, filament-wound, or shaped
isotropic The ability to react the same regardless of direction of plastics parts consisting of resins to which reinforcing fibers,
measurement. Isotropic materials will react consistently mats, or fabrics have been added before the forming
even if stress is applied in different directions. The stress- operation.
strength ratio is uniform throughout the material, and reinforcement A material used to reinforce, strengthen, or give
strength properties are equal in all directions. dimensional stability to another material.
laminated plastics A class of standard structural shapes, plates, S-glass A magnesia-alumina-silicate glass that provides very
sheets, angles, channels, rods, tubes, and zees that are high tensile strength reinforcement and is superior to
produced by combining layers of resin-impregnated E-glass.
materials in a press under heat and pressure, sandwich construction A composite of three or more layers in
lay-up The reinforced material, sometimes resin-impregnated, which the outer layers form functional skins over a core.
that is positioned in the mold. sizing The surface treatment of fibers to enhance the fiber-resin
mandrel The core around which fiberglass that is impregnated interface.
with plastics resin is wound, as in filament winding. Also, the thermoset A plastics that changes into a substantially infusible
portion of an extrusion die that forms the hollow center in an and insoluble material when cured by application of heat or
extruded tube. chemical means.
mer The repeating structural unit of a polymer (plastics resin). tooling resins Resins that have applications as tooling aids,
MOHS hardness A measure of scratch resistance of a material; coreboxes, prototypes, hammer forms, stretch forms, or
the higher the number, the greater the scratch resistance on a foundry patterns. Epoxy and silicone are common examples.
scale where diamond ❑ 10.
URTRI Ultimately Reinforced Thermoset Resin Injection
monomer A single molecule that can join with another monomer
(Polytech, Ltd.).
or molecule to form a polymer or molecular chain.
vacuum bag molding A process for molding reinforced plastics
polyacrylonitrile (PAN) A precursor for carbon fiber.
in which a sheet of flexible, transparent material is placed
polyester resins A family of resins produced by the reaction of
over the lay-up on the mold and sealed. A vacuum is created
dibasic acids with dihydric alcohols. Polyethylene tereph-
between the sheet and the lay-up. The entrapped air is next
thalate (PET) is a thermoplastic that may be extruded or
mechanically worked out of the lay-up and removed by the
injection or blow molded, Unsaturated polyesters are
vacuum; finally, the part is cured.
thermoset and used in the reinforced plastics industry for
applications such as boats and auto components, wet lay-up The application of a resin-saturated reinforcement in
polyimide resin A heat-resistant resin with composite forms the mold (hand lay-up). Also, the first stage in wet-wrap
that are stable to temperatures as high as 930” F (500° C). compression molding.

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Tool and Manufacturing Engineers Handbook Knowledge Base • Copyright © 1998 • Society of Manufacturing Engineers
 CHAPTER 8
FIBER TYPES AND PRODUCTION

whisker A very short fiber reinforcement, usually of crystalline lonitrile (PAN) or pitch. When superheated to temperatures of
material. 4900° F (2700° C), various carbon grades can be manufactured
Young’s modulus Modulus of elasticity. into a synthetic graphite fiber. It is this graphite fiber, not the
graphite mined naturally from the earth, that is woven into tape
THE MATRIX or fabric and bonded in a matrix of epoxy or other resin to form
The matrix serves two important functions in a composite: a composite. The carbon fibers are strong but brittle; hence,
(1) it holds the fibers in place; and (2) under an applied force, it they may break rather than bend when forced into tight curves.
deforms and distributes the stress to the high-modulus fibrous Within a resin matrix, however, the fibers are positioned and
constituent. The matrix material for a structural fiber composite protected. The loads are transmitted and distributed uniformly
must have a greater elongation at break than the fibers for when grouped and held together by a matrix.
maximum efficiency. Also, the matrix must transmit the force Polyacrylonitrile (PAN). The most widely used carbon
to the fibers and change shape as required to accomplish this, fibers are formed by extruding polyacrylonitrile (PAN) through
placing the majority of the load on the fibers. Furthermore, a spinnerette containing approximately 10,000 holes. The
during processing, the matrix should encapsulate the fibrous resulting fiber goes through ultrahigh heating, oxidation,
phase with minimum shrinkage, which places an internal strain carbonization, and graphitization processes to produce a
on the fibers. Other properties of the composite, such as filament with extremely high tensile strength and modulus (or
chemical, thermal, electrical, and corrosion resistance, are also stiffness), By varying process temperatures, engineers at
influenced significantly by the type of matrix used. Hercules, Inc. have produced both high-strength fibers [e.g.,
The two main classes of polymer resin matrices are thermoset their AS4 graphite fiber at 520 ksi (3 585 MPa) and 32,000 ksi
and thermoplastic, The principal thermoses are epoxy, phenolic, (22 1 x 103 MPa) modulus] and high-modulus fibers [e.g., their
bismaleimide, and polyimide. Thermoplastic matrices are many HMS at 50,000 ksi (345 x 103 MPa) with 320ksi(2206 MPa)
and varied, including nylon (polyamide), polysulfone, poly- tensile strength].
phenylene sulfide, and polyether etherketone. The matrix Pitch. The carbon or graphite fiber may also be manufactured
material must be carefully matched for compatibility with the by starting with petroleum pitch. With this method, the pitch
fiber material and for application requirements. The selection must first be stabilized, and then a process is used to spin it
process should cover factors such as thermal stability, impact into a filament, which is next made into the final carbon/
strength, environmental resistance, processability, and surface graphite fiber. Pitch-based fibers are only about two thirds as
treatment of the reinforcing fibers (sizing). strong as PAN fibers, but have a greater potential for developing
Depending on the application, it is possible to view the role high modulii.
of the matrix in two different ways: either as the binder that Recent developments at Union Carbide’s Carbon Products
contains the major structural elements (the fibers) and transfers Division include a petroleum pitch-based carbon fiber with a
load between them, or as the primary phase that is merely 100,000 ksi (690x 103 MPa) modulus. Under their trade name,
reinforced by the secondary fiber phase. The first concept is Thornel, a typical epoxy matrix composite, grade VS-0054,
traditional since most composites have used a relatively soft exhibits a Young’s modulus of 60,000 ksi (413x 103 MPa) and a
matrix (such as a thermosetting plastics of the polyester, tensile strength of 165 ksi (1 I 38 MPa). By comparison, the
phenolic, or epoxide type). The strength of such composites is typical Young’s modulus and tensile strength of PAN-based
almost entirely that of the fibers; hence, for efficiency, it is carbon fibers in a similar epoxy matrix are 20,000 ksi (138 x 103
desirable to optimize the fiber content. Thus, in most instances, M Pa) and 225 ksi (1 551 MPa), respectively. This new pitch-
small improvements in the structural properties of the matrix based fiber is expected to be cost effective in the fabrication of
are of little value; its adhesion and processing characteristics, lightweight structures in which stiffness is critical, such as space
however, are of paramount importance. hardware and driveshafts.
Most structural composite components are produced with
thermosetting resin matrix materials, In metal matrix com- Aramid
posites, the most frequently used matrix material is aluminum, As a result of its high tensile strength properties, rated at 525
while alloys of titanium, magnesium, and copper are being ksi (3 620 MPa), Du Pent’s Kevlar aramid has also gained
developed. Boron and graphite fibers are generally used as the acceptance in the field of advanced composites. Aramid is an
reinforcement for metal matrix materials. organic fiber that is produced from a watery polymer solution
extruded through a spinnerette. Du Pent’s proprietary spinning
FIBER TYPES AND PRODUCTION process yields a super-rigid molecular chain with a modulus of
The unique geometry of a fiber provides many of the 12,000 ksi (83 x 10~ MPa) and 18,000 ksi ( 124 x 10~ MPa)
advantages in an advanced composite. In their fiber form, respectively for Kevlar grades 29 and 49. Aramid fibers exhibit
materials such as carbon/graphite and boron (which are also one of the highest tensile strength to weight ratios of any
known as polycrystalline ceramic fibers) show near-perfect commercially used fiber; however, the compressive strength is
crystalline structure. Parallel alignment of these crystals along one of the lowest. These properties must be taken into
the filament axis provides the superior strengths and stiffnesses consideration in the design stage when using the composite.
that characterize advanced composites. Various production Blending the aramid fibers with other fibers, referred to as
methods are used for the different fiber types. hybridization, optimizes the properties obtained.

Carbon/Graphite Boron
Carbon or graphite fibers (these two terms are often used Boron begins as a high-priced substrate known as boron
interchangeably to refer to a specific class of fibers), generally trichloride. Through a chemical vapor deposition process,
accepted as the most desirable materials for advanced structural boron is deposited on a heated, moving tungsten filament. The
composite applications, are produced from either polyacry - resulting boron filament exhibits an average minimum tensile

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Tool and Manufacturing Engineers Handbook Knowledge Base • Copyright © 1998 • Society of Manufacturing Engineers
 CHAPTER 8
FIBER FORMS AND FABRICS

strength of 400 ksi (2758 MPa), with a tensile modulus of 55 to

60 x 106 psi (379 to 414 GPa). Boron fibers exhibit the highest
level of stiffness in resin matrices of all commercial fibers
used today,

FIBER FORMS AND FABRICS

Composites can be classified in a number of different ways.
The accepted classification types are fibrous (composed of
fibers in a matrix), Iaminar (made from layers of materials), and
particulate (made from particles in a matrix). Within the
particulate type are flake and skeletal subcategories.

Continuous Fibers
Continuous fibers in yarns or tows (untwisted yarns) are
I
I
(Transverse)

used in filament windings and in unidirectional tape form. Fig. 8-9 Advanced composites fiber-orientation diagram. (Polytech,
Ltd.)
Tapes as wide as 48” (1220 mm) are formed by collimating
continuous fibers, applying a resin-compatible sizing, and Variable percerrtage. The first variable in fiber directionality
impregnating the fibers with resin. The materials are partially is the percentage of fibers in each direction. The various
cured (B-staged), then separated with a backing material to directional fiber percentages can be specified and controlled to
prevent them from sticking, and are referred to as prepregs, provide the desired strength levels and orientations, The bias
Prepreg tapes are usually processed by laminating them together fibers can be greater or less than the percentage of longitudinal
in a desired configuration, then final curing them with heat fibers, which, in turn, maybe greater or less than the percentage
and pressure. of weft or transverse fibers.
Woven-fiber fabrics, or broadgoods, can be easily laid atop Fiber fype. The other principal variables in the fiber
complex mold structures. Weaves of carbon/ graphite fibers are reinforcement package are the type of fiber, and, especially, the
available in unidirectional orientations that are sometimes growing capability for hybridization of fiber reinforcements for
bound with nonstructural tie yarns. Hybrid forms may include advanced composites.
Kevlar as a locking element. Hybridizing can also be used to com-
bine the impact resistance of Kevlar or cost savings of fiber- Hybrid Composites
glass with the superior strength and stiffness of carbon or boron. Hybrid composites, which combine two or more different
Multidirectional weaves of single-material fibers and/or multi- fibers in a common matrix, greatly expand the range of
material fibers (hybrids) are available in dry or prepregged forms. properties that can be achieved with advanced composites.
Fabrics They also increase the potential for cost-effective applications
Generally, the fibers are woven into fabrics that come in roll since hybrids may cost less than materials reinforced only with
form. Fabrics can be woven for specific part requirements. graphite, aramid, or boron.
There are various ways of placing the fibers and fabrics in the Characteristics. The term hybrid generally applies to
matrix; when the fibers are oriented to run in one direction, the advanced composites and refers to the use of various combina-
resulting material is anisotropic in its strength properties. tions of continuous graphite, boron, aramid, and glass filaments
in thermoset matrices. Hybrids have unique features that can be
Fiber Science used to meet diverse design requirements in a more cost-
In the evolving technology of advanced composite materials effective way than either advanced or conventional composites.
for high-performance structural components, the term fiber Some of the advantages of hybrids over conventional com-
science is applied to a materials-tailoring discipline that includes posites are balanced strength and stiffness, optimum mechanical
the type of fibers, their percentage of the whole composite, and properties, thermal-distortion stability, reduced weight and/ or
the oriented placement of fibers in the matrix during parts cost, improved fatigue resistance, reduced notch sensitivity,
fabrication and production processing. improved fracture toughness, improved impact resistance, and,
Versatility. Fiber science in the field of advanced composites most of all, optimum cost as related to performance.
is not limited to off-the-shelf items and concepts. Fiber science Fibers. Various types of graphite, boron, glass, and aramid
may be treated as a separate subscience of the composite fibers are used in hybrids, as are cloth and fabric woven from
structure. Figure 8-9 illustrates the freedom and latitude the fibers. Fibers are available with the following ranges of
available during part design and manufacturing operations. mechanical properties: tensile strength from 2500 to 5000 ksi
The materials are literally devised and produced through (17.2 to 34.4 GPa) and tensile modulus from 10 to 60 x 10’ psi
techniques that allow the tailoring of materials performance (69 to 414 GPa).
and properties to suit the intended application. Graphite fibers (five different types are commercially avail-
Fiber directionality. Fibers can run longitudinally, called the able) offer high stiffness and strength and low density; however,
warp in a fabric; or they can run transversely, called the weft. impact resistance is low when compared to glass or aramid
Traditional bidirectional fabrics are called warp and weft. fibers. Aramid polyamide fibers combine high tensile strength,
However, with the new weaving mill technology, fabrics can low modulus of elasticity, and high impact resistance, but have
now run on the bias, as desired. The bias relates to the low compressive strength; with aramid fibers, producing
directionality and distribution of the fibers. Research is cur- chopped fibers on standard equipment is difficult, Of the two types
rently under way to produce three-dimensional hybrid fiber of glass fibers currently used, S-glass is more rigid and stronger
weaves; the ultimate hybrid fiber weave will be a “3-D” or than E-glass. The main limitation of the glass fibers is their high
cartesian weave. density compared with that of graphite and aramid fibers.

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Tool and Manufacturing Engineers Handbook Knowledge Base • Copyright © 1998 • Society of Manufacturing Engineers
CHAPTER 8
FIBER FORMS AND FABRICS

Resins. Both thermoset and thermoplastic resins are used for

hybrid composites. The epoxies remain the chief thermoset, but
the use of thermoset polyester is growing, especially for
automotive applications. The epoxies are available with a wide
range of properties, but intermediate-modulus epoxies are used
in most hybrids, Epoxies have good-to-moderate elevated
temperature properties, but their properties decline when
exposed to temperatures near 350° F (177° C) because of
moisture absorption. Bismaleimides are used as matrices for
composites where extended operation at temperatures near
500° F (260° C) and higher are required.
Forms. The main forms of hybrid composites are interply,
intraply, interply-intraply, selective placement, and interply
knitting.
Interply. The interply hybrids, illustrated in Fig. 8-10,
consist of plies from two or more different fiber types stacked in
alternate layers to obtain the desired properties. Fig. 8-11 Placement of fibers in intraply hybrid composites. (Owens
Irrfraply. Figure 8-11 depicts the principle of intraply Corning)
hybrids, which consist of two or more different fiber strands
intermixed in the same ply.
Znterply-infraply. The interply-intraply hybrids are made up
of plies of interply and intraply hybrids stacked in a specific
sequence.
Se/ecfive placement. Figure 8-12 illustrates selective place-
ment, which, from the viewpoint of cost-effective tailoring of
material properties to design requirements, is regarded as a
significant hybridization technique. As an example, the I-beam
in the illustration shows the bulk of the fibers made of glass for
economy, and places the costlier, higher strength graphite fibers
at the extremities of the skins and flanges where the higher
modulus (stiffness) qualities are most significant for the type of
loading that is applied. Under deflection, the graphite carries
the principal loads.
Irzterply knit[ing. A recently developed concept in composite
fabric assembly called interply knitting or stitching is described
in Fig. 8-13. This technique applies a vertical interply stitching
with a polyester or aramid strand, thus connecting 2-5 plies
together and strengthening the composite against interlaminar
shear. Conceptually, the next step involves using a package of
the interply-stitched fibers to make a part and selectively
applying the stitching or interply knitting at designated places
in the structure. Interply knitting enhances resistance to
Fig. 8-12 Typical l-beam cross section illustrates selective placement of
intedaminar shear by placing a vertical stitch through the hybrid composite fibers to optimize strength and cost. (Owens Corning)
multiple plies. Interlaminar shear occurs when the resin matrix
fractures and the individual layers or plies of fabric peel apart.

‘ig. 8-13 Schematic illustration shows interply knitting to enhance

Fig. 8-10 Basic arrangement of interply hybrid composites. (Owens ~bric interlamellar shear strength of composite structures. ( Po/ytech,
Corning) ,td. )

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Tool and Manufacturing Engineers Handbook Knowledge Base • Copyright © 1998 • Society of Manufacturing Engineers
 CHAPTER 8
COMPOSITE CONSTRUCTION

Combinations. The potential number of fiber-resin combi- material is used in the connecting web to cause the flanges to act
nations for hybrids is great. With just two resins (epoxy or in concert and to resist shear and buckling. In a structural
bismaleimide) and three types of fibers (graphite, aramid, or honeycomb sandwich, the facings take the place of the I-beam
glass), many different hybrid composites can be produced, flanges, and the core replaces the l-beam web.
depending on the fiber content and orientation of each fiber in The core is made of a different material than the facings, and
the matrix. With two or even three different fibers in a common it is dispersed in the cellular construction, instead of being
matrix, it is possible to make the most effective use of each fiber. concentrated in a narrow web. The facings act together to form
For example, a hybrid of graphite and aramid is a natural an efficient internal stress couple or resisting moment that
combination, to which each fiber contributes its best properties. counteracts the externally imposed bending moment. The
honeycomb core resists the shear stresses, and it has the
COMPOSITE CONSTRUCTION additional important function of stabilizing the facings against
Composites can be divided into laminates and sandwiches. wrinkling or buckling.
Laminates are composite materials consisting of two or more The honeycomb core must be rigid enough perpendicular to
layers bonded together. Sandwiches are multiple-layer struc- the faces to prevent crushing, and its shearing rigidity must be
tural materials that contain a low-density core between thin sufficiently high to prevent shearing deformations of a magnitude
faces (skins) of composite materials. In some applications, that would destroy the advantages gained through the increase
particularly in the field of advanced structural composites, the in the bending rigidity of the sandwich wall. Through efficient
constituents (the individual layers) may themselves be com- design, each material can be stressed to its practical limits
posites (usually of the fiber-matrix type). Construction. Figure 8-15 illustrates the construction of a
honeycomb beam. The faces do not buckle because they are
Laminates supported by the multitude of small cells. To accommodate the
In the context of this Handbook section, laminates are the requirements of a particular application, the core is made in
general form in which component parts and end products are various strengths by changing cell size and the material and
fabricated from advanced high-strength structural composite thickness of the foil. The balance between strength, stiffness,
materials. Theoretically, there are as many different types of and weight properties available in honeycombs is depicted in
laminates as there are possible combinations of two or more Fig. 8-16, which also compares the specific strength and
materials. If materials are divided into metals and nonmetals, stiffness characteristics of various structural materials.
and if nonmetals divide into organic and inorganic, there are six
Ratios of
possible combinations in which laminates can be produced: Beam strength and/or stiffness (unit weight)
metal-metal, metal-organic, metal-inorganic, organic-organic, d~ ~~
organic-inorganic, and inorganic-inorganic. In laminates con-
taining more than two layers, there are considerably more 1.00

ELL
I
possibilities, and one or more of the layers maybe a composite,
+lt=Y A,,
1/9 .

Sandwiches
3
As was previously stated, sandwiches consist of a relatively
thick, low-density core (such as a honeycomb or foamed
material) between thin faces of a material with higher strength
and density. Although this distinction between laminates and
0 B
1/4

3E#
I--3--I
:’

l/2~,,A
1.83

sandwiches is more descriptive than technical, some general

observations can be made, In sandwich composites, for example, 2.64
a primary objective is improved structural performance, or,
more specifically, high strength-to-weight ratio, The core serves
to separate and stabilize the faces against buckling under
I
edgewise compression, torsion, or bending, and provides a rigid Fig. 8-14 Comparison based on ratios for moment of inertia indicates
and highly efficient structure. Other considerations, such as that honeycomb construction is 2 % times stronger and stiffer than a
thermal insulation, heat resistance, corrosion resistance, and solid, rectangular cross section and 40% better than the typical I-beam
vibration damping, dictate the particular choice of materials configuration. (American Cyanamid Co. )
used. While the choice of materials is an important consideration
(Peeled open to
in sandwich composites, it is the configuration of the structure
that controls the essential properties. In laminates, however, % ‘h”w,c”re ‘e’”i~

properties depend much more upon the combination of materials

used than in sandwiches. i
Honeycomb. Honeycomb construction is a special type of hesive
sandwich core. The skin consists of two thin layers of strong
composites between which is sandwiched a thick layer of
weaker but very lightweight honeycomb core material.
As illustrated in Fig. 8-14, for beams of equal weight and the
same material, the honeycomb is the most efficient load- The faces are adhesively Aluminum foil made
carrying design configuration. The principle is similar to that of bonded to the core. into hexagonal cells
(honeycomb).
an I-beam, which is an efficient structural shape because as
much of the material as possible is placed in flanges located Fig. 8-15 Illustration oft ypical honeycomb construction identifies the
farthest from the center of bending (neutral axis). Only enough faces and cethrlar core material. (American Cyanamid Co. )

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Tool and Manufacturing Engineers Handbook Knowledge Base • Copyright © 1998 • Society of Manufacturing Engineers
CHAPTER 8
COMPOSITE PROPERTIES

example, can be varied significantly in different areas of a

composite part by selecting the type and form of fiber, by
judicious orientation, and by controlling local concentrations
of fibers.
Ductility, Like most rigid materials, carbon-reinforced
plastics are relatively brittle because carbon fibers are brittle.
This characteristic requires close attention to cutouts and areas
involving fasteners, where stress concentrations can cause
failure. Carbon-fiber composites have a low yield strength, and
resistance to impact is low.
Conductivity. Incorporating carbon fibers into plastic resins
makes the compounds conductive, both electrically and
thermally. Electrical conductivity provides the benefits of
static drain and radio-frequency suppression in such appli-
cations as electronic equipment enclosures, automotive ignition
system devices, and small-appliance housings. This property is
also an advantage in providing electrostatic paintability.
Thermal conductivity provides the benefits of heat dissipation
in such components as gears, bearings, brake pads, composites
tooling, and other friction-related products and cryogenic
processing equipment.
Thermal expansion. The coefficient of thermal expansion of
a composite depends not only on the orientation of the fibers,
but also on the fiber content and on the thermal behavior of the
matrix material. Thus, care must be exercised to ensure that
volumetric expansion of the composite in the usually unre-
strained direction does not exceed a tolerable limit. Relative to
Stiffness per weight basis~
metals, however, the thermal characteristics of composites are
Fig. 8-16 This comparison of specific strength and stiffness character- more stable.
istics of various structural materials depicts the general, relative
position of composites in a graphic property matrix that includes Overview of Attributes
conventional materials. (Hexcel, Structural Products Div. )
Composite materials can be made stronger than steel, lighter
than aluminum, and stiffer than titanium. These advantages are
PROPERTIES possible through the careful selection and use of high-strength
Composite structures, with their capability for tailoring of fibers such as carbon/graphite, aramid, or boron bound in a
properties, open new dimensions of freedom not available with matrix of epoxy.
isotropic materials. Modulus of elasticity, tensile strength, and In fabricated aircraft structures, a graphite-epoxy composite
thickness can be varied within a single component; parts can be offers about the same strength and stiffness as aluminum. The
“softened” locally so that loads are transferred from highly principal advantage is that the composite structure is Up to 45%
stressed areas; and large one-piece structures can be produced lighter. Composites exhibit a low thermal conductivity, good
without the need for a multitude of fasteners and parts. heat resistance, and improved fatigue life compared to metals.
Design and production considerations for composites are They are also generally noncorrosive and highly wear resistant.
different from those for homogeneous, isotropic materials However, a corrosive chemical (galvanic) reaction can occur
having well-defined elastic and plastic stress-strain behavior. when graphite and aluminum are placed in direct contact in the
For structural parts, all failure modes must be investigated, and presence of moisture: this reaction does not occur when
particular attention must be paid to interlaminar tensile and titanium and graphite are in contact.
shear stresses because the strength of composites depends The two properties that are most important in a discussion
principally on the matrix resin, not on the reinforcing fiber. of advanced, high-performance structural composite materials
Components made from fiber-resin combinations, often are tensile strength and Young’s modulus of elasticity (which is
called advanced composites, are usually of laminated construc- related to stiffness). Aramid has a slightly higher tensile
tion. They can be essentially isotropic, quasi-isotropic, or strength than carbon/ graphite fibers, but a much lower
anisotropic, depending on material form, lay-up configuration, Young’s modulus.
and fabrication method. Most parts are designed to be aniso- Carbon filaments. Continuous carbon fibers provide high
tropic to exploit the directional properties of the fibers.b strength and weight reduction. Continuous fibers are available
in a number of forms including yarns or tows containing 400-
Key Factors 160,000 individual filaments; unidirectional, impregnated tapes
Carbon, glass, and aramid fiber composites have outstanding up to 48” (1200 mm) wide; multiple layers of tape having
stiffness and strength properties, along with low weight. These individual layers or plies at selected fiber orientation; and
composite materials afford a new, wider latitude in the parame- fabrics of many weights and weaves.
ters of design, production, and performance. The individual carbon filaments, which are the basic elements
Stiffness. A major advantage of using various forms of of the reinforcement, are usually 200-600 pin. (5-15 ~m) in
reinforcing fibers in structural parts is that these composite diameter. Tensile strength can exceed 400 ksi (2.8 GPa), and
systems can be tailored to suit specific needs. Stiffness, for modulus of elasticity can exceed 70 x 10b psi (483 GPa).

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Tool and Manufacturing Engineers Handbook Knowledge Base • Copyright © 1998 • Society of Manufacturing Engineers
 CHAPTER 8

COMPOSITE PROPERTIES

Commercial fibers are available in four modulus groups: 30-35 propellers and boat hulls to motor vehicle bodies and snow skis.
million psi (207-24 I GPa), 50-55 million psi (345-379 GPa), The following are basic properties and characteristics of Kelvar
70-75 million psi (483-5 17 GPa), and 100 million psi (690 GPa). 49 fibers:
The outstanding properties of carbon fiber-resin matrix ● “1’ensile modulus—up to 19 x 106 psi (131 GPa).
composites are their high strength-to-weight ratio and stiffness- ● Density —.O52 lb/ in.3 (1,44 g/ cm3).
to-weight ratio. With proper selection and placement of fibers, ● Tensile strength—up to 525 ksi (3.62 GPa).
the composites can be stronger and stiffer than steel parts of ● Stiffness—intermediate between glass and carbon/
equivalent thickness and can weigh 40-70% less. The fatigue
graphite.
resistance of continuous-fiber composites is excellent, and ● High thermal stability.
chemical resistance is better than that of glass-reinforced com- ● Impact strength exceeds carbon/ graphite.
posites, particularly in alkaline environments. The stiffness of a ● Retains a high degree of room temperature properties at
component can be varied significantly in different areas by the
moderate temperatures.
selection of various types and forms of fiber, by judicious orien- ● Good chemical resistance.
tation, and by controlling local concentrations of fibers. The fol- ● Dielectric properties superior to glass composites and
lowing are some key basic properties of carbon/ graphite fibers:
equivalent to quartz-fiber composites.
● High tensile modulus—up to 80x IOGpsi (550 GPa).
● High stren~h—up to 450 ksi (3,1 GPa).
Tables of Properties
● Medium density —.O63 to 0.70 lb/in.3 (1,74 to
Table 8-7 compares data for the strength properties of
1.94 g/cm3).
various high-strength fibers. The relative strengths of various
● Low coefficient of thermal expansion,
fibers in epoxy-resin matrices are shown in Table 8-8. Figure
● High vibration-damping factor.
8-17 is a graphic plot of specific tensile strength and specific
● High thermal shock resistance.
tensile elastic modulus comparisons for various reinforcing
● Chemical inertness,
fibers. The aramid fibers have the highest specific tensile
● Low coefficient of friction.
strengths of any continuous fiber commercially available, They
● High thermal conductivity.
are 2 f / 2 times as strong as E-glass, 5 times as strong as steel,
● High electrical conductivity.
and over 10 times as strong as aluminum. The specific tensile
Aramid fibers. Aramid is a manufactured fiber in which the modulus of Kevlar 49 is 3 times that of E-glass and 75~o that of
fiber-forming substance is a long-chain synthetic polyamide high-strength graphite. Figure 8-18 compares the specific
that has at least 85~o of the amide linkages attached directly to tensile strength and specific tensile modulus of various reinforc-
two aromatic rings. Kevlar is the Du Pent trade name for a ing fibers to conventional materials.
family of aramid fibers, which are offered in three types. Kevlar Beam strength. Table 8-9 presents a comparison of stiffness
yarn is used in motor vehicle tires and other commercial and load-carrying capability for beams of equivalent strength
applications. Bulletproof vests are an example of applications made of steel, titanium, aluminum, and the graphite-epoxy
for Kevlar 29 fabric. This aramid fiber also has industrial uses, composite. The most significant data is on the bottom line,
such as ropes, cables, ballistic fabrics, and asbestos replacement showing the approximate values of pounds per linear foot as
products. Kevlar 49 is the grade used in making advanced follows: steel, 5; titanium, 3; aluminum, 2; and graphite-epoxy
composites. This high-modulus aramid fiber is produced as a composite, 1. The composite graphite beam has the greatest
plastic resin reinforcement for parts ranging from airplane strength-to-weight ratio.

TABLE 8-7
Strength Comparison for Commercially Available High-Strength Fibers

Tensile Tensile
Density, Strength, Modulus,
Fiber Type lb/in.3 (g/cm3) ksi (MPa) IOc psi (GPa)

Boron (4 roils) (0.0001 mm)* 0,10 (2.65) 495 (34 1o) 56 (386)

Boron (8 roils) (0.0002 mm)* 0.09 (2.38) 540 (3720) 56 (386)

Graphite (AS) 0.06 (1.75) 410 (2820) 30 (208)

Graphite (HTS) 0.06 (1 ,77) 410 (2820) 34-37 (234-253)

Graphite (H MS) 0.07(1.91) 340 (2340) 50-55 (345-375)

Graphite (U H MS)(GY-70) 0,07 (1.96) 270 ( 1860) 70-75 (485-5 17)

Aramid (Kevlar 49) 0.05 (1.45) 400 (2760) 20(1 38)

Glass (E) 0.09 (2.54) 500 (3440) 10.5 (72.5)

(Polytech, Ltd.)
* Tungsten core

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Tool and Manufacturing Engineers Handbook Knowledge Base • Copyright © 1998 • Society of Manufacturing Engineers
CHAPTER 8
COMPOSITE PROPERTIES

TABLE 8-8 Carbon and graphite cloths. Graphite cloths and most
Properties of Fibers in Epoxy-Resin Matrix carbon cloths are fair conductors of electricity. At room
temperature, the volume resistivity of graphite cloth is about 40
Hercules times that of Nichrome wire. The electrical resistance of
Fiber TvDe S-Glass Aramid AS Carbon graphite cloth decreases with increases in temperature; the
Fiber content, TO 45 46 resistance at 2400°F(1316° C) is one half the resistance at room
53
temperature. Typical properties of a representative carbon
Tensile strength, 126 158 147 cloth are listed in Table 8-10. Table 8-11 lists typical properties
ksi (MPa) (867) (1089) (1014) of epoxy composites made from carbon cloth.
General descrip~ion. Carbon and graphite cloths, consisting
Tensile modulus, 3.9 9.4 13.0
entirely of flexible filaments, are produced by the pyrolysis of
103 ksi (GPa) (26.9) (64.8) (89.6)
rayon cloth at high temperatures, to make products with a high
Flexural strength, 142.0 61.0 177.0 degree of purity. The cloth flexibility results from small carbon
ksi (GPa) (979) (421) ( 1220) and graphite filaments, each having a diameter of 350 pin.
(9 ~m). Single filaments from carbon or graphite cloths have
(Polytech, Ltd.)
tensile strengths of 50 to 100 ksi (345 to 690 MPa) and a Young’s
modulus of about 4 x 106 psi (27.6 GPa). The average breaking
strength of carbon and graphite cloths is 7-24 ksi (48.3-
Specific tensile modulus, Mm
165.5 MPa), depending on grade. Typical laminate properties
5 10 15
, r of carbon and graphite cloths are listed in Table 8-12.
;~ 10
Reactivity. Graphite cloth is stable in vacuum and inert
- 250:
0 Kevlar@ 49 -c’
atmospheres up to temperatures approaching the sublimation
- 200 k
temperature, 660° F (3649° C). Constituents of neutral or reduc-
~’ 8
? ● al
. ing atmospheres may react with graphite cloth at high tem-
High-strength graphite
- 150j
peratures. For example, pure hydrogen begins to react appreci-
~6
&
Other organics
2
ably with graphite at about 10000 F (538° C). Graphite begins to
.-
- 100:
oxidize in steam at about 1350° F (732° C), and in carbon
54
.- dioxide at 1650° F (899° C). Graphite cloth reacts with air, and
-.
.s at 510° F (266” C) can lose as much as l% of its weight in 10,000
= 2 - 50 #
: hours; at 680° F (360” C), it can lose as much as 1% of its weight
~a o 1 in 100 hours.
0 1 234567

Specific tensile modulus, 108 in. * APPLICATIONS

*Tensile strength or modulus divided by density By tailoring the materials and fabrication methods, and by
modifying structural designs to accommodate their unique
Fig. 8-17 Graphic representation of the specific tensile strength and properties, advanced composites can be used for applications
specific tensile modulus for various reinforcing fibers, tested per resin- requiring high strength, high stiffness, or low thermal conductiv-
impregnated strand test, ASTM D 2343. (Du PorrI Co. )
ity. The common feature of many aerospace uses is that the new
materials weigh less than the metallic materials that they replace.
4.0- Kevlar@ 49 epoxy
c1 Applications Overview
Boron-epoxy
:-3.0 .UGlass-epoxy Although advanced composites containing such materials as
o Boron-aluminum carbon/ graphite or aramid fibers in an organic resin matrix are
c1
x currently used mainly by the aerospace industries, these stiff,
Graphite-epoxy strong, lightweight materials are also used in various other
:2.0 - commercial and industrial applications, ranging from aircraft
$ Borsica-oluminum
b structures to automobiles and trucks, from spacecraft to
al
L printed circuit boards, and from prosthetic devices to sports
5,
Beryllium
equipment. Products run the gamut from boat hulls and hockey
❑ shinguards to an advanced composites hinge for the retractable
arm of the space shuttle.
Property Comparison The space shuttle cargo bay doors are the largest graphite-
n epoxy structures built to date. Filament-wound aramid forms
@ 0.8

0.7
0.6
P Steel,

Magnesium
aluminum

1 , 1 1 1 ,
the first, second, and third-stage motor housings of the Trident
missile as well as the round pressure bottles aboard the space
shuttle. Extensive use is made of composites in military aircraft,
1.0 2.0 3.0 4.0 5,06.07,0B.O 9,C with applications also appearing in commercial jetliners and
Specific tensile modulus (in. x 108)’ general aviation aircraft. For example, 3% of the total weight of
*Tensile strength or modulus divided by density. the new Boeing 767, including floors, ceilings, bulkheads, and
door panels, is comprised of composites. The DeHaviland
Fig. 8-18 Graphic plot illustrates that typical properties of common
Dash-7 aircraft uses honeycomb flooring that combines high-
fiber composites exhibit significant strength and stiffness advantages strength aramid skin with a lightweight core. The Dash-8
over conventional materials. ( Conrposife Technology, Inc. ) aircraft uses composites in the nose bay, elevator tabs, tail cone,

8-22
Tool and Manufacturing Engineers Handbook Knowledge Base • Copyright © 1998 • Society of Manufacturing Engineers
 CHAPTER 8

COMPOSITE PROPERTIES

TABLE 8-9
Properties of Structural Beams

Steel “1itanium Aluminum Graphite-Epoxy

A36 6 AI-4V 7075-T6 Composite

Moment of inertia, 12.51 12.51 12.51 12.51

in.~ (cm’) (520.7) (520.7) (520.7) (520.7)
Modulus of elasticity, 26
IO’ psi (G Pa) ( ;~6) ( 1’:7) (1) (179)**
Stiffness, 3.38 2.13 1.25 3.25
10” lb-in.: (MN-m~) (0.97) (0.61) (0,36) (0.93)
Ultimate tensile stress, 80 160 140
ksi (M Pa) (552)* (1 103) (5’?2) (965)***
Weight, 5.2 2.9 1.9 1.0
lb/ft (kg~m) (7.7) (4.3) (2,8) (1.5)

(Hercules, Inc. )
* Heat treated.
** Approximate properties for beam using H MS fibers.
*** Approximate properties for beam using AS4 fibers.

TABLE 8-10 TABLE 8-11

Typical Properties of Carbon Cloth* Typical Properties of Epoxy Composites*
Made With Carbon Cloth**

8 harness satin
Density, Ib/ in.~ (g/cm’) 0,058 ( 1.60)
Count, ends~ in. (ends/5 cm) 14x 13(28x26)
Tensile strength, ksi (M Pa) 40 (275)
Weight, oz.~ydz (g/m~) 21 (712)
Tensile modulus, 10’ psi (GPa) 6.0 (41 )
Fiber density, lb/ in.’ (g/cm~) 0.068 ( 1.88)
Flexural strength, ksi (M Pa) 55 (380)
Thickness, in. (mm) 0.037 (0,94)
Flexural modulus, 10h psi (G Pa) 5.5 (38)
Break strength:
Warp, Ib/in, (N/2.5 cm) 200 (890) Compressive strength, ksi (M Pa) 50 (345)
Fill, lb/in. (N/2,5 cm) 175 (780) Short-beam shear strength,
Carbon assay, % 98+ IOfipsi (G Pa) 5.5 (38)

Ash, % 0.1 Cured ply thickness, in, (mm) 0.023 (0,59)

pH 8 Coefficient of thermal expansion,

A1/l. °F(Al/l. OC) 5 x IO-6(9X lo-~)
Moisture, YO <1
Filament count jyarn bundle 4000 * Nominal 5590 fiber volume.
** Thornel carbon cloth VC-0160, Union Carbide Corp.
Fiber strength (strand), ksi (M Pa) 200 ( 1380)
Fiber modulus (strand), 10’ psi (GPa) 20( 138)
and the leading edges of horizontal and vertical stabilizers. Lear
Surface area, m~/.g 1 Fan’s business airplane model 2100 uses graphite-fiber rein-
forced epoxy for almost the entire aircraft structure. In combat
Thermal conductivity (room temperature): aircraft, the F 15 Eagle has a 17% composite structure, the
Across ply, Btu/hr c ft/° F (W/m° C) 1.45 (2.5) F ~A-1 8 Hornet has 10Y&and the AV-8B Harrier has 309&
Fiber (longitudinal), Carbon/ graphite cloth reinforced plastics are used in a
Btuihr. ft/° F(W/mOC) 8.7 (15) variety of applications requiring thermal stability, high-
temperature strength, good ablation characteristics, and good
Specific heat (room temperature),
insulating capability. Since graphite possesses greater heat
Btu/lb/° F (J/kg. ‘C) 0,24 (1002)
resistance than carbon and is physically stable at elevated
temperatures, graphite reinforcements are used in rocket nozzle
* Thornel carbon cloth VC-O 160, Union Carbide Corp. throats and ablation chambers. Carbon-carbon composites are

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Tool and Manufacturing Engineers Handbook Knowledge Base • Copyright © 1998 • Society of Manufacturing Engineers
 CHAPTER 8
COMPOSITE APPLICATIONS

TABLE 8-12
Typical Laminate*
Properties of Carbon and Graphite Cloths**

Carbon Graphite
Properties Fabric Fabric
Tube Cr~s Section
Tensile strength, ksi (M Pa) 16(110) 15 (103)
Graphite/glass
Compressive strength, ksi (M Pa) 24 (165) I6(11O) (Compression)

Flexural strength, ksi (MPa) 25 (172) 24( 165)

Tensile modulus, 106 psi (GPa) 2.2 (152) 1,9(131)
Compressive modulus,
106 psi (GPa) 1.6(110) 2.2 (152)
Flexural modulus, 106 psi (GPa) 2.0 (138) 1.9(131)
Specific gravity 1.4 1.4 (Tension)
Graph ite/Kevlar@
Specific heat, Btu/ lb/OF Bicycle Frame
(J/kg .°C) 0.29 (1214) 0.24 (1005)
Barcol hardness Fig. 8-19 Bicycle frame uses hybrid composite materials, including
65 60
glass, graphite, aramid, and phenolic foam. (Polyfech, Ltd. )
* MIL R-9299 resin
** Thornel, Union Carbide COrP.
and relatively easy to fabricate. They are selected because many
t Federal Test Method 406
space structures must be dimensionally stable, even when
exposed to extreme thermal gradients. Because graphite fibers
used when greater strength and lower conductivity is required, have a negative coefficient of thermal expansion, they can be
such as in re-entry vehicles, rocket nozzle entrance sections and embedded- in matrix materials having a p-ositive coefficient of
exit cones, and critical insulation areas. thermal expansion and selectively oriented in the laminate to
Figure 8-19 shows a new composites bicycle frame as an produce a structure with a thermal expansion coefficient of zero
exemplary structure in which composites hybridization is used. to satisfy a stringent functional requirement of the space
This structure is a tubular sandwich with a foam core, hybrid structure. The dimensional and orientational stability of the
fabric, and resin skins. The upper members are made out of communications platform allows the space antennae to receive
glass and graphite fibers because they are always in compression; and send signals to stations on earth precisely and accurately.
graphite and glass fibers possess good compressive properties.
The frame combines graphite and aramid for the tensile loads Database Limitation
on the lower members since aramid has higher tensile strength Despite more than 30 years of developmental and production
and is lighter in weight than graphite. applications activity, the database on composite materials does
not approach the available accumulated repository of experi-
Tailoring ence and data on the various metals. There is still much less hard
Composites are often considered as lightweight alternatives data on composites regarding properties, durability, and failure
for more traditional structural materials. Innovation with mechanisms than on metals.
composites can lead to higher production efficiency and lower Scientific foundation. The state of the art in composites
life cycle costs. For example, creativity in the use of raw material technology does not yet have an extensively developed
materials allows the product design-to-production team to scientific foundation. For example, the method of determining
build the composite at the same time the structure is fabricated stresses, which assumes that the fibers carry the load and the
and to use the anisotropy of the materials to tailor the matrix mainly holds the fibers together, is limited in its
properties of the composite to meet specific structural capability to fully analyze the complex loadings encountered in
requirements. aircraft structures. Also, the interface bond between the plastics
Proper tailoring of material properties to provide greater resin matrix and the reinforcing fiber is known to be crucially
local strength and stiffness around fastener holes, for example, important, yet the expertise is still evolving to fully understand
increases the load-carrying efficiency of the structure and, at the these bonds and to determine when they are about to fail.
same time, reduces the amount of material and time needed to Impact resistance. Basic information on the reaction of
manufacture a part. Selective arrangement of plies in a composites to impact is also in a developmental stage. When a
composite laminate may also be used to introduce prestrain metal is hit sufficiently hard, it may dent or crack. However,
during the fabrication process, which produces desired shapes when a composite sustains an impact, there may not be any
and curvatures in panels and parts while eliminating secondary apparent defect on the outside, but delamination may have been
forming operations. induced internally within the composite’s layers.
The desirable features of tailorability and fabrication effi- Property prediction. Composites property prediction is
ciency are illustrated by the use of composites materials in space another evolving area. The raw materials that are used in
structures. Graphite-epoxy tubes are used as structural members composites production are undergoing continuous review and
in space structures because they are lightweight, stiff, strong, research, Until recently, for example, thermosetting resins were

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Tool and Manufacturing Engineers Handbook Knowledge Base • Copyright © 1998 • Society of Manufacturing Engineers
 CHAPTER 8
COMPOSITES FABRICATION

thought to be mandatory because of their high-temperature

Preplied stock
properties. Recently, however, several thermoplastics have Filament Winding
formed to contour
become available for use in high-performance advanced com- on lay-up tool
posites applications, and others are likely to emerge from Preplied stack \
current work in the area of engineering thermoplastics such as
nylon, polyphenylene sulfide, polysulfone, and polyether ether-
ketone (PEEK). As with other composites, performance data is
limited and must be obtained mainly from the resin producers.

FABRICATION
Current composites fabrication techniques are similar to
*.& transfer
to lay-up
tool Preplying
those used for producing fiberglass, including hand and auto-
mated tape lay-up resin injection, compression molding, Second ply Iayed up directly
on top of first ply
vacuum bag and autoclave molding, matched die molding,
pultrusion, and filament winding. Organic matrix composites
are made primarily by molding in autoclaves, while metal
(aluminum, titanium, etc.) matrix composites are formed
mainly by diffusion bonding.
Lamination, filament winding, pultrusion, and resin transfer
(injection) molding are four widely used methods of producing
continuous-fiber composites with closely controlled properties.

;
The shape, size, and type of part and the quantity to be
Direct on tool
manufactured determine construction techniques. The lamina-
tion method is used for comparatively flat pieces. Filament
winding is a powerful and potentially high-speed process for Fig. 8-20 Preplying and direct-on-tool lay-up techniques for composites
product fabrication.
making tubes and other cylindrical structures. So-called pultru-
siorr andpulmolding can be used for parts with constant cross-
sectional shapes. Injection molding can be used for small,

Y
nonload-bearing parts. A new epoxy injection process, called
U RTRI (Ultimately Reinforced Thermoset Reaction Injection),
is used for making load-bearing structures, sandwiches, and
torsion boxes.
.’
Laminating
Advanced composites are typically used in the form of Hand roller
laminates and arc processed by starting with a prepreg material or brush
(partially cured composite with the fibers aligned parallel to
each other). A pattern of the product’s shape is cut out, and the o
prepreg material is then stacked in layers into the desired Fabric
—.— ——— —— ___ ___
laminate geometry.
A final product is obtained by curing the stacked plies under
pressure and heat in an autoclave. Graphite-epoxy composites
are cured at approximately 350° F ( 175° C) and with a pressure
of 100 psi (690 kPa). The new high-temperature composites,
such as bismaleimides, are curedat600°F(316° C). The tooling
is essentially a mold that follows a part through the lay-up and c

autoclaving processes. Tooling materials commonly used when

Fig. 8-21 Schematic illustration of basic hand lay-up technique, which
manufacturing composite parts include a~uminum, steel, elec- is often followed by a room temperature curing stage. (Po/yrech, IJd.)
troplated nickel, a high-temperature epoxy-resin system casting,
and fabricated graphite composite tools.
Conventional method. The two principal steps in the premolded core between the composite layers. This wet wrap
manufacture of laminated fiber-reinforced composite materials process, used in the manufacture of skis, is faster than
are (1) lay-up, which consists of arranging fibers in layers, and conventional compression molding because resins are catalyzed
(2) curing, which is the polymerization of the resinous matrix and then mixed with the fabric and placed wet into the mold. An
material to form permanent bonds between fibers and between advantage of this process is higher production rates, at relatively
layers. Curing may occur unaided or under heat and/or low pressures and temperatures, due to faster cure times (as
pressure, which speeds the process. When curing is performed short as five minutes). For additional information on manu-
under pressure, the processes are referred to as vacuum bag and facturing processes for commercial and industrial laminates
autoclave, hydroclave, or tool press molding. and reinforced plastics, see “Plastics Forming,” Chapter 18,
In Figs, 8-20, 8-21, 8-22, and 8-23, schematic drawings Volume 11 of this Handbook series.
illustrate preplying and direct-on-tool lay-up, hand lay-up, Heated mold. The heated mold process begins in the
vacuum bag molding, and compression molding. Figure 8-24 conventional manner with prepreg fabrics of graphite or aramid
illustrates a variation of compression molding that uses a that have been impregnated with resin (usually epoxy) and then

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Tool and Manufacturing Engineers Handbook Knowledge Base • Copyright © 1998 • Society of Manufacturing Engineers
 CHAPTER 8
COMPOSITES FABRICATION

cured to the B-stage (tacky) and frozen. Polymerization can be

Oven or autoclave postponed for up to several months, allowing the material to be
stored and shipped. At the fabrication site, the fabric is thawed,
+
layed up, vacuum bagged, and conventionally cured. The
Heat
overall process is slow and labor intensive.
Pressure (vacuum) Vacuum bag A recent development eliminates the need for the use of an
assembly oven or autoclave curing stage in vacuum bag molding. The
+
mold is built up of composite material, with an integral heating
element. Pressure is created on the part through a vacuum bag
and/ or pressure bag. Since the mold has an integral heating
element, faster cure rates are attained, and the need for
autoclave/ hydroclave curing is eliminated.

Filament Winding
~’e In the filament winding process, illustrated in Fig. 8-25,
Mold fibers or tape are drawn through a resin bath and wound onto a
rotating mandrel. Filament winding is a relatively slow process;
Fig. 8-22 The principles of conventional vacuum bag molding for but the fiber direction can be controlled, and the diameter can
advanced composites. (Polyfech, Lid. ) be varied along the length of the piece, In some versions of the
process, the fiber bundle, which may be made up of several
thousand carbon fibers, is first coated with the matrix material
Pressure
to make a prepreg tape. The tape is an endless strip with a width
that may vary from an inch to a yard (several centimeters to a
meter). With both the fiber and tape winding processes, the
finished part is cured in an autoclave and later removed from
the mandrel.
Male 1/2 tool For strength-critical aerospace structures, carbon fibers are
/
usually wound with epoxy-based resin systems. The polyesters,
phenolics, and bismaleimides are limited to special applications.
i I
Filament winding is used to produce round or cylindrical
objects such as pressure bottles, missile canisters, and industrial
Material
storage tanks. It also has been used to make automobile
driveshafts.
Time _ Female J/2 taol ~Heat
I
1 t

I Pultrusion
In composites technology, pultrusion is the equivalent of
metals extrusion. Protrusion (also called pultruding), depicted
Fig. 8-23 Schematic illustration of basic compression molding process. in Fig. 8-26, consists of transporting a continuous fiber bundle
(Polytech, Ltd.) through a resin matrix bath and then pulling it through a heated
die. The process can be used to make complex shapes; however,
it has been limited to items with constant cross sections, such as
tubing, channels, l-beams, Z-sections, and flat bars. Develop-
Pressure
mental activity is progressing on variable-section pultrusion, in
which the geometry can be controlled by an articulating die.
“Pulmolding” is a process variation that begins with pultruding;
then the part is placed in a compression mold.

Resin Transfer Molding

Filling a niche between hand manufacturing lay-up or spray-
up of parts and compression molding in matched metal molds is
Premalded care Wet resin & fabric resin transfer molding (RTM), also called resin injection molding.
“wrapped” over core Conventional process. In the conventional RTM process,
two-piece matched cavity molds are used with one or multiple
injection points and breather holes. The key to RTM is low
pressure in the mold, which allows the use of low-cost tooling.

I Female 1/2 taol

I
The reinforcing material, which is either chopped or continuous-
strand mat, is cut to shape and draped in the mold cavity. The
mold halves are clamped together, and a polyester resin is
pumped through an injection port in the mold. Polyester,
Fig. 8-24 Illustrating the wet-wrap compression molding process, glassmat, and conventional RTM are not considered to be in
which uses a premolded core. (Po/yfech, L/d. ) the family of composites.

8-26

Tool and Manufacturing Engineers Handbook Knowledge Base • Copyright © 1998 • Society of Manufacturing Engineers
 CHAPTER 8
COMPOSITES FABRICATION

Compared with the spray-up method (discussed in Volume Machining, Cutting, and Joining
11, Forming, of this Handbook series), RTM permits faster The advanced composites materials generally are unsuited
cycle times and usually requires less labor. The RTM cycle for the direct application of equipment, tools, and techniques
times are longer than for compression molding, but the low cost used for machining, cutting, trimming, and joining metals;
of RTM tooling often compensates for the differential when the hence, special methods are applied to the final processing
production run is less than 50,000 parts per year. operations.
Advanced RTM. In the advanced RTM process, called Machining. Acceptable-quality machining of composite
URTRI (Ultimately Reinforced Thermoset Reaction Injection), materials must ensure that there is no splintering, cracking,
reinforcements are placed in the mold, and cores can be handled fraying, or delamination of cured composite edges. Standard
as inserts. In this process, shown schematically in Fig. 8-27, a machining equipment can often be used with appropriate
core is cast from syntactic foam (high-temperature epoxy with modifications. In general, the spindle speeds and feeds depend
hollow glass microsphere) around a fitting. The core is then upon the type of laminate material, its thickness, and the cutting
wrapped with multiple layers of bidirectional graphite fabric in method. Cutting tools for machining operations include
7 and 14 mil (O.18 and 0.36 mm) thicknesses and placed in the countersinks, cutoff wheels, router bits, high-speed steel drills,
mold. Epoxy resin is next injected into the heated mold, Curing and reamers. While tungsten carbides and high-speed steel tools
time is five minutes. are generally used, a polycrystalline diamond insert tool
Potential benefits of (J RTR 1 include reduced part weight performs satisfactorily and is cost effective.
and cost, and improved quality for items such as aircraft wings, Tools must be kept sharp to provide quality cuts and avoid
fins, elevens, passenger seat shells, landing-gear beams, and delamination. Careful attention must be paid to factors such as
other high-performance structures. An example of a part made tool selection and tool geometry because a composite material
by the advanced RTM process is shown in Fig, 8-28. comprises two separate types of materials (fiber and matrix)
with differing mechanical properties and different machining
characteristics, Selective stitching around areas for holes and
cutouts prevents delamination of plies while drilling, cutting, or
router trimming.
Cutting. The conventional methods for cutting uncured
composite materials, such as prepreg plys, involve manual
cutting with a carbide disk cutter, scissors, or power shears. For
cutting cured composites, principal techniques for production
applications include reciprocating knife cutting, high-pressure
waterjet cutting, ultrasonic knife cutting, and laser cutting.
The particular choice of cutters must be balanced between
required performances and the problems created by advanced
composites in each operation. Lasers perform the best for cured
composites, but may burn or carbonize uncured materials; they
are also limited by ply thicknesses. Knife cutters may create
rough edges and may become clogged, while water cutters may
Fibers lead to moisture problems and delamination,
(continuous) Pon’er cutters arrdsaws. Rotary power cutters can effectively
cut one layer of Kevlar fabric, Multiple plies of fabric or pre-
Fiz. 8-25 Fundamental elements of the filament winding Drocess for
preg can be cut with abrasive grit, toothless bandsaw, or saber
fafiricating advanced composites structures. (Po/vtech, L;~) saw blades.

I
Multiple-fiber strands

cutoff saw

Puller rolls
o

#&o

H
+

+ + + ~f
Resin wetout Preheater chamber with Heated die Finished piece
tray radio frequency (RF) or chamber that of pultruded
convection heat source shapes & final cures composite
the material os it
passes through

Fig. 8-26 In the pultrusion process, resin-impregnated fibers are pulled through a heated die to produce shapes of constant cross section. (Polyfedr,
Ltd. )

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Tool and Manufacturing Engineers Handbook Knowledge Base • Copyright © 1998 • Society of Manufacturing Engineers
CHAPTER 8
COMPOSITES FABRICATION

Clamping press

Mold Part

Resin iniection
machine

\
Woven fiber package wrapped
(dry) around core &
placed in mold prior to
One-sided machine
iniection
only, for one-part
epoxy resin

Fig. 8-27 Key features of the Ultimately Reinforced Thermoset Resin Injection (URTRI) processare identified in this schematicdiagram. (1’o/y[ec/r,
Ltd.)

the blade remains buried in the material after the first stroke.
Graphite/epoxy skin

\,.\,
\ Syntactic core Computer-controlled rotation of the knife about the C axis

*&
keeps the blade properly positioned.
/J,.\ . , .+z’-Q.,’..,
~- Waterjet process. The waterjet process cuts material by
forcing water through a small-diameter jet at high velocities. A
typical waterjet cutter cuts from one to ten plies of carbon,
aramid, or glass prepregs in cured form. Maximum cutting
speed is typically 13” (330 mm) per second. Cutting performance
Fitting of waterjet equipment is affected by factors such as jet pressure,
nozzle orifice diameter, traverse speed, and the types and
Fig. 8-28 A typical product of the URTRI process for advanced thicknesses of materials that are being cut. In some operations,
composites fabrication. (F’ofy[ech, .Lfd. )
the cutting head is mounted on automated indexing and
positioning equipment. Because of water contamination, the
Laser beam. The laser provides another, newer method for waterjet process has been used only on cured parts.
cutting cured composites. Continuous-wave lasers (250 W C02) Joining. Advanced composites introduce engineering and
have produced cutting speeds up to 400 in. /rein (169 mm/s) in production problems different than those common to metal and
single-ply aramid prepregs and up to 300 in, /rein (127 mm/s) in conventional molded plastics construction, particularly where
single-ply boron-epoxy composites. Woven graphite broad- components must be Fastened together. Because most ~ypes of
goods are readily cut at 300 in. / min ( 127 mm/s) with nitrogen- composite joints—whether they are adhesively bonded or
assisted gas pressure. mechanically fastened—involve some cutting or machining of
Reciprocating krrz$e.While the laser produces clean through- the strength-providing fibers, joint configurations and joining
cuts for single-ply material thicknesses, a reciprocating knife operations require careful planning to minimize the possibility
cutter is often more suitable for making multiple-ply cuts. There of failure.
are two basic types of reciprocating knife cutting machines, Since structural composites are usually made with thermo-
both of which use high-speed reciprocating knives that are setting resins, they cannot be joined by welding methods as can
driven through the material to be cut by a computer-controlled thermoplastics and metals. The choice forjoining composites is
positioning system. between mechanical methods and adhesive bonding. Each
In one system, the cutting knife penetrates through the technique produces a joint with significant differences in both
composite material into closely packed plastics bristles that function and production; each method has advantages and
constitute the cutting table surface. The knife cuts through the limitations. The best permanent joint incorporates both
material onto the table using a chopping type of action, mechanical fasteners and adhesive bonding,
The second system can cut patterns in a continuous line at flohedjoinfs. Bolted mechanical joints are generally not as
high speeds. Curves, notches, and corners can be cut without adversely affected by thermal cycling or humidity as are bonded
lifting the knife from the material. The knife can be raised, as joints. The joints permit disassembly without destroying the
required, to start new cutting lines, to pass over sections without substrate, and they can be readily inspected for joint quality.
cutting, or to cut holes. The system uses a blade 0.25” (6.4 mm) Mechanical joints also require little or no surface preparation,
wide and cuts either by chopping or slicing. In the slicing mode, and they do not call for clean-room production conditions. On

8-28

Tool and Manufacturing Engineers Handbook Knowledge Base • Copyright © 1998 • Society of Manufacturing Engineers
 CHAPTER 8
COMPOSITES FABRICATION

the other hand, mechanical fasteners add weight and bulk to a in certain applications, with each method having its own
joint; and since they require holes for installation, the members advantages and limitations. Nuclear magnetic resonance is
are weakened. In some instances, stress concentrations produced another new technique that offers promise in validating the use
by mechanical fasteners can cause joint failure. of proper materials, evaluating fabrication methods, and
Bonded jrrinf.!. The advantages of adhesive-bonded joints determining the chemical nature of composites.7
include light weight, distribution of the load over a larger area
than with mechanical joints, and avoidance of drilled holes that Automated Fabrication Methods
weaken the structural members. Drawbacks to bonded joints Composites technology is advancing rapidly, with a great
are the difficulty of inspection for bond integrity, the possibility deal of effort applied to improvement and automation in
of degradation in service from heat and humidity cycling, and producing, cutting, applying, and handling the composite
their relative permanence, which does not permit disassembly materials. The main compression molding, pultrusion, filament
without destruction of the joined members. In addition, bonded winding, and advanced RTM processes exhibit high-volume
joints require a rigorous cleaning and preparation of the production potential.
adhering surfaces. CAD/CAM. In end product fabrication, research and
development programs are making the composite structures
Quality Assurance increasingly amenable to computer-aided design and numerical
The advanced composite materials introduce special require- control equipment. With CAD/ CAM, design changes from
ments for inspection and quality assurance. For metallic metal to composite can be made with minimal risk, since the
structures, inspection and quality control often focus on design can be evaluated as it develops. While the manufacture
detection of a crack or discontinuities that could lead to a crack. of advanced composite components is still highly labor intensive
Defects in composites range from those that are easily detected, and expensive, plans are being implemented by at least one
such as delamination, to those that are difficult to locate, such aircraft manufacturer to build an automated factory for
as improperly cured resin. Common flaws include voids, producing composite structures of carbon-epoxy construction.
delamination, disbonds, missing layers, contamination, inclu- State of the art. Although isolated pieces of automated
sions, fiber breakage, improper lay-up, and ply slippage. While equipment are now becoming prevalent in composites fabrica-
most metals fail through the fatigue mechanism of cracking, tion, a workcell at the Northrop Corporation shows the extent
composites break under load (catastrophic failure), and the to which automation can be applied to the composites industry.
resin matrix shears (fractures), allowing the fabric plies to peel The cell automates each step of a complexly woven carbon-fiber
apart (interlaminar shear). prepreg lamination process.
Since the composite structures may vary in makeup from In operation, an automated broadgoods spreader lays the
point to point, the removal of samples for destructive analysis prepreg across a cutting table. A computer-controlled recipro-
would be neither practical nor useful, Traditional X-ray cating knife cutter then cuts six to twelve plies of the material.
inspection is sometimes rendered ineffective by fiber reinforce- Next, a unique handling system known as the “flying carpet”
ments and matrices that appear the same on film. Magnetic transports the cutting surface between workstations along 230
methods are marginally useful because of the nonconductive ft (70 m) of electrified monorails. The precut prepreg is then
nature of most composite materials. Therefore, detecting and carried to a robotic workstation, where a robot with a foam-
diagnosing the potential defects of composites requires a faced vacuum head lifts the ply and places it in the proper
number of specialized nondestructive inspection techniques. orientation. The robot employs a vision system to search and
Radiology. Conventional radiography provides good reso- locate the appropriate ply according to a programmed sequence.
lution when the attenuation characteristics of the fiber and the Lastly, the plies are laid into a contoured cure mold for delivery
matrix are quite different, such as in boron-epoxy composites. to a final cure station. The cell was developed as part of the Air
In graphite-epoxy or aramid-epoxy composites, however, where Force Technology Modernization Program; and while not yet
differences are small, defect detection is difficult due to lack of tbe norm in this rapidly evolving industry, it points to a trend of
contrast. Computerized axial tomography and collimated the future.x
conical radiography are two variations of radiography used
increasingly in the composites industry with good results.
Ultrasonic. Ultrasonics are useful in inspecting the skin and
its bond to the substrate and are effective in locating flaws in the
thickness direction of the part. Liquid-coupled ultrasonics are
currently the most widely used, but dry-coupled ultrasonics are
the state of the art. The C scan and pulse echo methods of References
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tunity Report P-01 5R (Stamford, CT: Business Communications
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Co., Inc., 1983).
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LeWark, Sr., “An Introduction to Advanced Com-
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Hill Book Co,, 19B4), p, 1.40.
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—
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Tool and Manufacturing Engineers Handbook Knowledge Base • Copyright © 1998 • Society of Manufacturing Engineers
CHAPTER 8
BIBLIOGRAPHY

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Tool and Manufacturing Engineers Handbook Knowledge Base • Copyright © 1998 • Society of Manufacturing Engineers