1.

2 Understanding space:How can we understand our planet

Simon Dalby,what happens if we don't take nature for granted ?
Dipesh Chakrabarty,the climate of history in a planetary Age
Zehfuss,global politics :A new introduction

THE QUESTION
FROM ENVIRONMENT TO BIOSPHERE

The concept of the biosphere highlights the interconnected layer of air, soil, ocean, and life surrounding Earth,
essential for human survival (Smil, 2003). Elements like food, water, clothing, housing, and waste management are
integral to human life and inherently political, though often overlooked as such. Historically, the term *environment*
referred to localized surroundings, but by the 20th century, it expanded to include the air, land, and water sustaining
humanity.

Environmental concerns gained prominence in the 1960s, focusing on human disruptions such as oil spills, air
pollution, pesticide poisoning, urban congestion, and resource depletion (Ward and Dubos, 1972). This led to the
emergence of environmental conservation discourses and global political movements in the 1960s and 1970s
(Sandbach, 1980), prompting governments to establish environmental departments and turning environmentalism
into a significant international political force (Wapner, 1996). Over time, the perception of the environment as a distant
rural concern evolved into the understanding of a shared biosphere. The Anthropocene, a proposed geological
epoch, underscores humanity's profound impact on Earth, positioning human activity as a dominant force of nature
(Angus, 2016). This shift challenges traditional divides between nature and society, demanding new political and
philosophical approaches to humanity’s role in the world and emphasizing global ecological responsibility.

Humanity has entered a transformative era described by earth system scientists as a "second Copernican revolution,"
where our understanding of our place in the universe is undergoing profound change (Schellnhuber et al., 2005). We
now recognize that we are not merely inhabitants of the Earth but an intrinsic part of the biosphere, actively shaping
and altering its systems. Life is not an incidental occurrence on a rocky planet but a force that fundamentally
influences the world. Industrial and urban humanity, particularly its wealthiest and most powerful sectors, has become
the dominant force reshaping the biosphere, making decisions that will determine the conditions of life for future
generations. These changes are on a scale comparable to ancient mass extinction events, highlighting the immense
responsibility humanity holds (Kolbert, 2014).

The Anthropocene epoch signifies a departure from the relatively stable conditions of the Holocene, where human
civilization thrived. Earth system scientists, such as Rockström et al. (2009), are now working to define the "safe
operating space" for humanity within the planetary system. This involves identifying key boundaries—particularly
biodiversity and climate change—that must not be crossed to maintain a livable planet. Breaching these limits could
result in irreversible changes, making the Anthropocene hostile to human life or, at the very least, to a civilized
existence for much of humanity (Steffen et al., 2015).

The critical challenge of our time is to act politically and collectively to ensure humanity remains within these safe
boundaries. Climate change, one of the core planetary thresholds, is an urgent issue requiring immediate attention.
The global community must prioritize sustainable practices and policies to mitigate its impact and secure a future
where humanity can thrive. Addressing these planetary challenges demands a reevaluation of political, economic,
and social systems to align human activity with the ecological realities of the Anthropocene.

BOX 3.1 GROWTH AND THE ENVIRONMENT DeELENa aaaaal

The Limits to Growth Debate

In the 1970s, concerns rooted in Malthusian ideas resurfaced, suggesting that resource depletion could halt
economic growth. The Limits to Growth report (Meadows et al., 1972) projected resource exhaustion, environmental
pollution, and societal collapse. These warnings emphasized that continued economic growth on a finite planet was
unsustainable. The report also highlighted pollution as a potential driver of societal breakdown, sparking debates
about the feasibility of perpetual growth. Critics argued that limiting growth could disproportionately harm the poor,
denying them the benefits of development.

The Rise of Sustainable Development

To address environmental concerns while maintaining economic progress, the concept of sustainable development
was introduced. Defined in the Brundtland Report (Our Common Future, 1987), sustainable development promotes
economic activity that meets current needs without compromising the ability of future generations to meet theirs. The
report emphasized tackling poverty and improving social and health conditions while protecting the global
environment. This concept became central to international discussions, culminating in the 1992 Earth Summit in Rio
de Janeiro, where sustainable development was firmly established as a global priority.

Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs)

Sustainable development remains the guiding framework for international environmental and developmental efforts.
In 2015, the United Nations adopted the SDGs, targeting poverty reduction, human rights, equity, and improved
well-being. Goal 13 specifically addresses climate change under the United Nations Framework Convention on
Climate Change (UNFCCC), initiated at the 1992 Earth Summit. These goals aim to align global development with
environmental sustainability, ensuring a balanced approach to human progress.

Reimagining Economic Growth in the Anthropocene

The Anthropocene epoch demands a fundamental rethinking of economic growth. A shift away from
resource-intensive and fossil fuel-dependent systems has become essential for humanity's survival and prosperity
(Raworth, 2017). Sustainable practices are now a priority, requiring innovative economic models that ensure
equitable development while maintaining planetary boundaries. Developing such frameworks is critical to creating a
future in which humanity can flourish.

Climate Change and Human Influence

Human activities have drastically altered Earth’s natural systems, ushering in the Anthropocene epoch. Over millions
of years, carbon dioxide was absorbed by forests and other life forms, which were eventually buried and transformed
into coal, petroleum, and natural gas. However, in the past few centuries, humans have reversed this process by
burning these fossil fuels, effectively "turning rocks into air" (McNeill and Engelke, 2016). This rapid release of carbon
dioxide into the atmosphere has disrupted the systems that regulate the climate and biosphere. Activities such as
deforestation, urbanization, and greenhouse gas emissions have fundamentally reshaped the environment, making
humanity an inseparable part of the changes to nature.

The Industrial Revolution marked a turning point in human reliance on fossil fuels. The invention of the steam engine
and its subsequent use in railways, steamships, and factories connected global economies and laid the foundation for
modern industrial society. Petroleum later became integral to the internal combustion engines powering cars, which
have evolved beyond transportation into symbols of freedom and modernity. This reliance on fossil fuels, a
phenomenon termed "carboniferous capitalism" by Lewis Mumford (1934), dramatically increased carbon dioxide
emissions and embedded them into the structure of industrial and urban life.

Scientists have identified planetary boundaries that define a "safe operating space" for humanity, including critical
thresholds for climate stability and biodiversity (Rockström et al., 2009). However, data from the Mauna Loa
Observatory shows a steady increase in atmospheric CO2 since the Industrial Revolution, underscoring the urgent
need to address climate change. Crossing these boundaries risks severe and irreversible consequences,
endangering both human life and civilization.

Public discourse on climate change has been marked by controversy, particularly in the United States, where
conservative think tanks and political agendas tied to the oil industry have worked to undermine climate science
(Oreskes and Conway, 2010). Media practices that present "balanced" views often amplify the voices of climate
change deniers, despite overwhelming scientific consensus on the human causes of global warming (Boykoff, 2011).
Additionally, oversimplified media narratives create unrealistic expectations of scientific certainty, further complicating
public understanding of climate issues (Hulme, 2009).

The debate around climate change highlights critical political and social implications. While there is no doubt about
the reality of climate change, the extent and impact of its consequences remain uncertain, particularly for vulnerable
regions such as low-lying coastal cities. The politicization of climate science has delayed meaningful action, despite
clear evidence of environmental disruption. Addressing these challenges requires global cooperation to mitigate
climate change, protect vulnerable populations, and ensure a sustainable future.

### **Accelerating Change and Unpredictable Effects: Exam-Oriented Notes**

The climate has been relatively stable for the past 10,000 years since the end of the last ice
age, allowing human civilizations to flourish. This stability, however, has been disrupted in recent
years by noticeable changes in the climate, which are becoming evident not just to scientists,
but to everyday people as well. Farmers, gardeners, birdwatchers, and city planners are all
witnessing these changes in their daily activities, such as altered seasonal patterns or
unpredictable weather conditions. The changing climate, now a global concern, is a key factor in
the growing vulnerability of populations worldwide to extreme weather events.

Greenhouse gases like carbon dioxide (CO2), methane, and chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs) are
central to climate change. These gases trap infrared radiation in the atmosphere, preventing
heat from escaping into space, thus warming the planet. While CO2 levels have steadily
increased due to human activities like burning fossil fuels, methane, and CFCs are also potent
greenhouse gases. The significant increase in CO2 concentrations since the Industrial
Revolution, from about 270 parts per million (ppm) to over 400 ppm by 2015, has contributed to
global warming. This change in atmospheric composition is unprecedented in the geological
record and raises significant concerns for the future of the biosphere (Steffen et al., 2015).
One of the most alarming consequences of climate change is the rising severity of extreme
weather events. The 2005 hurricane season in the Caribbean and events like Hurricane Katrina
and Hurricane Sandy demonstrated the vulnerability of populations to such storms, particularly
in low-lying, marginalized areas. These events highlighted the impact of climate change on
human settlements, as poor communities are often forced to live in high-risk areas prone to
flooding or other environmental disasters. If extreme weather events continue to increase in
frequency and severity, these vulnerable populations will face even greater challenges.

The global political response to climate change has been shaped by various international efforts
and agreements. The United Nations began addressing environmental issues in the 1970s, with
the first significant international conference on the environment held in Stockholm in 1972. The
United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP) and the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate
Change (IPCC) were established to assess and address climate change, setting the stage for
further action. The 1992 Earth Summit in Rio de Janeiro was a critical moment in the
development of global environmental policies, leading to the creation of the Framework
Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC) and the Kyoto Protocol. These agreements aimed to
regulate greenhouse gas emissions, though they have faced challenges in their implementation
and enforcement.

The 2015 Paris Agreement marked a new phase in global climate policy, setting ambitious
targets to limit global temperature increases. While the agreement is not legally binding, it
represents a collective commitment by most countries to reduce emissions and mitigate climate
change. However, the current commitments are still insufficient to meet the more stringent
targets required to avoid catastrophic climate impacts, such as keeping the global temperature
rise below 2°C. The real test will be in the coming decades as countries roll out emission
reductions, but the pace of change remains a key concern, especially with the lack of political
will in certain countries, like the United States under the Trump administration.

From a political standpoint, understanding climate change requires us to think through its
implications from multiple perspectives. Looking back through environmental history, we can
trace how human activities led to the current climate crisis, and gain insights into the novelty of
the situation. Indigenous perspectives offer a contrasting view to Western, urban-centric
understandings of nature, providing valuable insights into sustainable living practices that have
been disregarded by modern industrial societies. Geopolitics, too, plays a significant role in the
global distribution of resources and the consequences of fossil fuel extraction and use. These
issues of power and resource allocation are central to addressing climate change at a global
scale.
### **Key Points for Exams**

- The relative climate stability over the past 10,000 years allowed for the rise of agricultural
societies and human civilizations, but this stability is now threatened by climate change.

- Greenhouse gases, particularly CO2, methane, and CFCs, are driving global warming by
trapping heat in the atmosphere, with CO2 levels now at their highest in human history.

- Rising extreme weather events, like hurricanes and floods, disproportionately affect vulnerable
populations in low-lying and marginalized areas, emphasizing the need for climate action.

- International efforts, including the Paris Agreement, aim to limit global warming, but the current
targets and political challenges suggest that much more urgent action is needed.

- Climate change should be understood from various perspectives, including environmental

history, indigenous knowledge, and geopolitics, to fully grasp its global implications and the
power dynamics at play.

These notes provide a thorough understanding of the accelerating impacts of climate change,
the global response, and the political complexities surrounding the issue, making them crucial
for exam preparation.

### **Environmental History and the Evolution of Human Impact on the Planet: Exam-Oriented
Notes**

Environmental history highlights the significant role that imperialism and colonization have
played in shaping ecosystems. Alfred Crosby’s *Ecological Imperialism* (1986) draws attention
to how European conquest dramatically altered the ecologies of the Americas, Australia, and
other colonized territories. The introduction of non-native species like horses and cattle in the
Americas and rabbits in Australia, along with agricultural practices such as wheat farming and
large-scale deforestation, significantly transformed local environments. These changes, while
often unintended, reshaped landscapes, displaced native flora and fauna, and paved the way
for new human settlements. The expansion of European influence through imperialism and
colonialism was not just a political and cultural process, but also an ecological one, as settler
societies redefined the environment to suit their agricultural and economic needs. This process
of "ecological imperialism" fundamentally altered the planet’s biodiversity, laying the foundation
for the modern relationship between humans and nature.

In North America, the nineteenth century witnessed significant ecological changes with the rapid
expansion of American territorial control. The mass slaughter of buffalo, the clearing of forests
for agriculture, and the displacement of indigenous species by domesticated animals like cattle
are all examples of how human activities irrevocably altered ecosystems. This period, often
romanticized in Western films and literature, saw the transformation of the “wild west” into
ranching country, where buffalo were replaced by cattle and the landscapes were reshaped to
accommodate human settlements. These changes were not merely environmental but were
tightly linked to the societal shifts brought about by the expansion of industrial capitalism, which
spread globally, leading to further exploitation of natural resources and displacement of
indigenous cultures.

Indigenous perspectives on nature present a stark contrast to modern, industrial views. Native
peoples in the Americas and elsewhere often viewed the land not as something to be owned or
exploited, but as an integral part of their cultural and spiritual existence. Unlike the Western
notion of controlling nature, many indigenous cosmologies do not separate humans from nature
but see themselves as part of a larger ecological system. These perspectives emphasize the
long-term sustainability of ecosystems, as indigenous peoples often practiced methods of
harvesting that ensured the renewal of the resources they relied upon. However, the European
colonial mindset often disregarded these practices, labeling the land as "empty" and suitable for
exploitation. The legal doctrine of *terra nullius* (empty land) justified the colonization of lands
inhabited by indigenous peoples, leading to the destruction of both ecosystems and cultures.
Understanding these different worldviews is crucial for addressing the contemporary
environmental crisis and rethinking the human-nature relationship in the context of modern
environmentalism.

The global exploitation of resources, particularly petroleum, is a central issue in contemporary

geopolitics and climate change discussions. Petroleum, which powers much of the modern
world, is at the heart of many global conflicts. The control of oil resources has led to political
tensions, particularly in the Middle East, where oil-rich regions have been the site of repeated
conflicts. These struggles reflect broader geopolitical dynamics, where access to resources is
often tied to global power structures. Despite its importance, the extraction and use of petroleum
contributes significantly to climate change, as burning fossil fuels releases greenhouse gases
that destabilize the Earth’s climate. This contradiction—fighting to control a resource that is both
crucial to modern economies and harmful to the planet’s future—underscores the complexities
of the modern global order and its reliance on unsustainable practices.

As climate change accelerates, there is growing recognition of the need to challenge

"carboniferous capitalism," a system that relies on the burning of fossil fuels for economic
growth. This model of development has resulted in significant environmental degradation,
including rising greenhouse gas emissions and the disruption of local ecosystems. The
consequences of these actions are now becoming increasingly apparent, with climate change
causing more frequent and severe weather events, such as hurricanes, droughts, and flooding.
These environmental impacts disproportionately affect marginalized communities, particularly
those living in low-lying areas or vulnerable regions. The environmental consequences of
industrialization, combined with the exploitation of natural resources, highlight the urgent need
for a global shift in how we approach development, consumption, and environmental
stewardship.

The concept of sustainable development, which seeks to balance economic growth with
environmental preservation, has been a central topic in global politics, especially after the 1992
Earth Summit in Rio de Janeiro and the subsequent Paris Agreement in 2015. These global
agreements aimed to address the climate crisis through international cooperation, setting goals
to reduce emissions and limit global warming. However, the implementation of these
agreements has faced significant challenges, particularly in reconciling economic growth with
the need to reduce fossil fuel consumption. The reliance on fossil fuels, particularly in
developing economies such as China and India, complicates efforts to transition to renewable
energy sources. The continued growth of car ownership and the expansion of fossil fuel-based
economies in these regions emphasize the difficulty of achieving sustainable development in a
global economy that remains dependent on carbon-intensive energy sources.

In summary, environmental history reveals the deep interconnections between human

expansion, resource exploitation, and ecological transformation. Indigenous knowledge systems
offer valuable insights into sustainable practices that have been marginalized by modern
industrial practices. Geopolitical struggles over resources, particularly petroleum, continue to
shape global politics and contribute to the climate crisis. The challenge now is to rethink the
models of growth and development that have driven environmental degradation, and to find
ways to build a more sustainable, equitable future for all. The rise of climate change and its
global consequences demand urgent political and economic responses to ensure the long-term
survival of humanity and the planet.

### **Conclusion: Exam-Oriented Notes**

The ongoing climate change crisis and the broader Anthropocene discussion challenge
humanity to confront the fundamental changes in the conditions of human existence. These
changes require a new set of questions and a much deeper examination of how we live
collectively in a rapidly changing biosphere. Current political institutions, which have often failed
to address these new circumstances, continue to rely on outdated assumptions of stability and
security. The urgency of these issues calls for institutions that prioritize the well-being of
humanity without causing further disruption to natural cycles in the biosphere. The challenge is
clear: we must rethink our approach to governance, economics, and society in light of the
environmental crises we now face.

Indigenous cosmologies, which emphasize the interconnectedness of humans with the natural
world, offer valuable insights into how we might reconsider our political institutions. These
perspectives stress that we are not separate from the environment but are an integral part of it.
Ecological science also reinforces this view, reminding us that we are part of the environment,
not its masters. Nature is not an external entity, separate from human civilization. Instead, it is a
part of the life systems that we have dramatically altered through industrialization, energy
consumption, and resource exploitation. This understanding challenges the modern political
assumptions that have dominated policymaking, which typically separate human activities from
environmental impacts.

Climate change forces us to confront these outdated assumptions. The modern approach of
managing the environment as an external resource to maximize production, often at the cost of
human well-being, is no longer viable. Science has clearly shown that the biosphere is not a
stable backdrop for human activity, but a dynamic system that is being reshaped by our actions.
The modern belief in an always-stable natural environment is increasingly untenable, and we
must rethink these assumptions to ensure the survival and thriving of human civilization in the
Anthropocene.

Today, the environment is no longer merely about pollution and resource depletion; it is at the
heart of discussions about human survival and the kind of world we want to leave for future
generations. The key issues of climate change, global inequality, and sustainable development
are deeply intertwined, and addressing them requires a new approach to politics and
governance. The creation of new institutions and decision-making frameworks that account for
the interconnectedness of natural systems is essential. Politicians and scholars alike must
prioritize this holistic view if we are to address the challenges of the Anthropocene effectively.

Looking to history, we can learn valuable lessons. Indigenous perspectives, which emphasize
living within and respecting one’s environment, provide a stark contrast to modern practices of
control and exploitation. The distinction between rural nature and urban civilization is
increasingly irrelevant as we realize that both are part of the same biosphere. Understanding
the flows of materials and energy within the biosphere is critical, as these connections highlight
the political responsibility we now bear for our actions. In the Anthropocene, political
responsibility for environmental degradation is unavoidable, and the need for a new, integrated
approach to politics has never been more urgent. By starting from natural systems and viewing
humanity as part of them, we can better navigate the challenges of climate change and create a
more sustainable future for all.

The Climate of History in a Planetary Age by Dipesh Chakrabarty

Key Themes and Concepts

1. Introduction to the Planetary

○ Human and Planetary Consciousness:
Modern concerns such as climate change, globalization, and biodiversity loss have shifted the
focus from a "global" perspective to a "planetary" awareness.
■ The globe represents a human-centric construct tied to globalization, capitalism, and
nation-states.
■ The planet reflects the Earth's ecological and geological systems, impacted by human
activities on a massive scale.
○ Anthropocene Debate:
■ Humans are recognized as a geological force capable of altering planetary systems (e.g.,
climate, ecosystems).
■ This prompts a rethinking of history to include humanity's role in deep, geological time.
■ The Anthropocene hypothesis suggests that human activity has significantly impacted
Earth's geology and ecosystems.
■ Humanity is viewed as a "geological agent" causing environmental changes, shifting the
perspective from human-centered history to planetary processes.
■ Critiques: The term Anthropocene is debated among scientists and humanists, with some
preferring terms like "Capitalocene" to emphasize the role of capitalism.
○ Dual Human Identity:
■ Humans act both as agents of social justice and equality and as geological agents with
significant environmental impact.
2. Anthropocene and Historical Narratives
○ Planet vs. Globe:
■ The "globe" is associated with human progress, globalization, and economic systems,
while the "planet" represents an ecological entity affected by human-induced changes.
○ Deep and Recorded Histories:
■ The Anthropocene intertwines deep geological time with recorded human history,
emphasizing how industrialization and capitalism have left a lasting imprint on Earth's
systems.
3. Capitalism, Technology, and Climate
○ Capitalism's Role:
■ Capitalism and industrialization have accelerated ecological crises, such as global
warming and resource depletion.
○ The Technosphere:
■ A global network of human technology sustains billions but contributes significantly to
environmental degradation.
■ Human activities like mining and industrialization now outpace natural geological
processes.
● Example: The destruction of ecosystems (e.g., sea-bottom trawling and deforestation)
exemplifies the human impact on Earth's systems.
4. Ethical and Political Dimensions
○ New Politics for the Planetary Age:
 ■ Traditional political frameworks must evolve to address long-term ecological impacts and
include nonhuman entities.
○ Justice and Responsibility:
■ Climate change exacerbates global inequalities, disproportionately affecting poorer
regions while wealthier nations bear greater responsibility.
5. Philosophical and Methodological Insights
○ Interdisciplinary Approach:
■ Combines human history with Earth System Science to understand humanity’s dual role
as social and geological agents.
○ Action and Natality:
■ Drawing from Hannah Arendt, collective political action rooted in human plurality is
essential for addressing ecological and generational challenges.

Critical Developments

1. Anthropocene Recognition
○ Marks a new geological epoch where human activities significantly alter Earth's systems.
○ Highlights global warming, biodiversity loss, and ecosystem transformations as direct
consequences of human actions.
2. Planetary and Global Governance
○ Global institutions (e.g., the UN) are limited in addressing planetary-scale issues due to fragmented
political frameworks.
○ Climate change requires immediate and collective action, contrasting with the indefinite timelines
often associated with political negotiations.
3. Technosphere's Impact
○ Technology is indispensable for modern human life but poses severe risks to ecological balance.
○ Human-induced changes surpass natural geological processes, reflecting the scale of
anthropogenic impacts.
4. Intellectual and Ethical Challenges
○ Humanities: Need to integrate environmental concerns, moving beyond a purely anthropocentric
focus.
○ Climate Justice: Must address disparities in responsibility and vulnerability across nations,
classes, and generations.

Temporal Layers and Human Responsibility

● Modern challenges intertwine human historical time with geological and biological timescales.

Examples: Rising climate refugees, extreme weather events, and shrinking habitable areas reflect immediate and
long-term crises.

Key Insights for Exam Preparation

1. Definition and Implications of the Anthropocene

○ Recognize humans as a geological force shaping Earth's systems.
○ Understand how this influences historical and ecological timelines.
2. Role of Capitalism and Technology
○ Examine how industrialization and globalization have intensified ecological crises.
 3. Distinction Between Planet and Globe
○ Explore the philosophical and practical differences between human-centric globalization and
planetary ecological systems.
4. Ethical Considerations in the Planetary Age
○ Investigate concepts of fairness, justice, and intergenerational responsibility, including the political
inclusion of nonhuman entities.
5. Philosophical Foundations
○ Engage with thinkers like Hannah Arendt and Carl Schmitt on freedom, action, and the human
condition in a planetary context.
6. Future Directions
○ Consider interdisciplinary approaches to address ecological challenges, integrating history,
science, and philosophy.
○ Develop new frameworks to tackle global governance issues and the ethical dimensions of climate
change.

Conclusion

Dipesh Chakrabarty’s work emphasizes the urgent need to rethink history and politics in the context of the
Anthropocene. By integrating deep time, geological processes, and human history, the book provides a framework for
understanding humanity's dual role as social and geological agents. It calls for new political, ethical, and philosophical
approaches to address the ecological crises of the planetary age, making it essential reading for understanding the
challenges of our time.

Important Thinkers and Concepts

● Baruch Spinoza and Hegel: Philosophical underpinnings of nature and history.

● Arendt’s Political Theory: Action, natality, and intergenerational time in the face of ecological crises.
● Carl Schmitt’s Technological Perspective: Dependency on technology as a survival condition.
● Peter Haff's Technosphere: The interconnected technological systems shaping modern life.
●

Political Implications of the Planetary Crisis

● Climate change challenges traditional political frameworks, requiring actions across generations
(intergenerational time).
● Arendt's idea of “action” highlights human capacity for collective efforts but emphasizes the need for
enduring structures beyond immediate consumption.
● The political needs to extend beyond human concerns to include nonhuman entities, addressing justice for
both living and non-living elements of the planet.

Philosophical Anthropology and Human Condition

● The crisis urges a redefinition of humanity's relationship with the nonhuman world.
● The concept of a “new commons” suggests reshaping societal structures to address ecological challenges
collaboratively.
● The Anthropocene combines questions of knowledge (What can I know?), action (What should I do?), hope
(What can I expect?), and existence (What is humanity?).