DEVELOPMENT OF LANDSLIDE

MONITORING USING ELECTRICAL

RESISTIVITY TOMOGRAPHY

PROJECT REPORT

Submitted by

ABIN JOSE (KSD21CE003)

ABHISHEK NARAYANAN M(KSD21CE004)
NEHA P (KSD21CE033)
NAJIYA K(LKSD21CE048)

to
the APJ Abdul Kalam Technological University
in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the award of the Degree
of
Bachelor of Technology in
Civil Engineering

Department of Civil Engineering

LBS College Of Engineering

Kasaragod-671542, Kerala

November 2024
 DECLARATION

I undersigned hereby declare that the project report "DEVELOPMENT OF LANDSLIDE

MONITORING USING ELECTRICAL RESISTIVITY TOMOGRAPHY" submitted for
partial fulfillment of the requirements for the award of degree of Master of Technology of the
APJ Abdul Kalam Technological University, Kerala is a bonafide work done by me under
supervision of Dr. Beena Mol M. This submission represents my ideas in my own words and
where ideas or words of others have been included, I have adequately and accurately cited and
referenced the original sources. I also declare that I have adhered to ethics of academic
honesty and integrity and have not misrepresented or fabricated any data or idea or fact or
source in my submission. I understand that any violation of the above will be a cause for
disciplinary action by the institute and/or the University and can also evoke penal action from
the sources which have thus not been properly cited or from whom proper permission has not
been obtained. This report has not been previously formed the basis for the award of any
degree, diploma or similar title of any other University.
 DEPARTMENT OF CIVIL ENGINEERING
LBS COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING KASARAGOD-671542, KERALA

CERTIFICATE

This is to certify that the report entitled “DEVELOPMENT OF LANDSLIDE

MONITORING USING ELECTRICAL RESISTIVITY TOMOGRAPHY “submitted by
to the APJ Abdul Kalam Technological University in partial fulfillment of the requirements
for the award of the Degree of Bachelor of Technology in Civil Engineering is a bonafide
record of the project work carried out by their under our guidance and supervision. This
report in any form has not been submitted to any other University or Institute for any purpose.

Poject Guide Co. Guide

Dr. Beena Mol M Prof. Radhika Nair N J
Assistant Professor Assistant Professor
Department of Civil Engineering Department of Civil Engineering
LBS College of Engineering, Kasaragod LBS College of Engineering, Kasaragod

Project Coordinator Head of the Department

Dr. Beena Mol M Dr. Anjali M S
Assistant Professor Assistant Professor
Department of Civil Engineering Department of Civil Engineering
LBS College of Engineering, Kasaragod LBS College of Engineering, Kasaragod
 ACKNOWLEDGMENT

First of all, we are indebted to the god almighty for giving me an opportunity to excel in our efforts to
complete this project on time. We are extremely grateful to Dr. ANJALI M S, Head of the
Department, Department of Civil Engineering, for providing all the required resources for the
successful completion of our project. Our heartfelt gratitude to our project guide Prof. BEENAMOL
M and our co guide Prof. RADHIKA NAIR NJ, Assistant Professor, Department of Civil Engineering,
for their valuable suggestions and guidance in the preparation of project report. We Express our thanks
to Dr. BEENA MOL M, Assistant Professor, Department of Civil Engineering, for suggestions and
valuable comments and thankful to all staff members and friends for all the help, and coordination
extended in bringing out this project phase 1 successfully in time. We will be failing in duty if we do
not acknowledge with grateful thanks to the authors of the references and other literatures referred to
in this project. Last but not least, we are very thankful to our parents who guided us in every step
which we took.
ABIN JOSE (KSD21CE003)
KASARAGOD ABISHEK NARAYANAN M (KSD21CE004)
10-11-24 NEHA P (KSD21CE033)
NAJIYA K (LKSD21CE048)
 ABSTRACT

Landslides are one of the most destructive natural hazards, causing significant damage to infrastructure,
ecosystems, and human lives. Early detection and monitoring of landslide-prone areas are essential for
mitigating these risks. This project explores the development of landslide monitoring using Electrical
Resistivity Tomography (ERT), a non-invasive geophysical technique that provides detailed images of
subsurface conditions. ERT measures the resistivity of the ground by applying an electrical current
through surface electrodes and analyzing the resulting voltage differences. Since different materials
(such as soil, rock, and water) have distinct resistivity properties, this technique can detect changes in
moisture content, soil saturation, and potential instability in landslide-prone zones. The project
demonstrates the effectiveness of ERT in both the real-time monitoring of landslide activity and in
mapping geotechnical properties that influence slope stability. By utilizing time-lapse ERT, resistivity
variations over time are analyzed to detect precursory signs of potential landslides. The study also
integrates ERT data with other geophysical techniques to enhance the accuracy of landslide hazard
assessments. The development of this monitoring system provides a cost-effective, non-invasive, and
reliable approach to landslide risk management and early warning, with the potential for widespread
application in regions vulnerable to landslides.
 TABLE OF CONTENTS

SL.NO. TITLE PAGE NO.

1. ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
2. ABSTRACT
3. CHAPTER 1 – INTRODUCTION
4. CHAPTER 2 – LITERATURE REVIEW
5. CHAPTER 3 – OBJECTIVES AND METHODOLOGY
6. CHAPTER 4 – WORK PLAN AND APPROXIMATE BUDGET
7. CHAPTER 5 – MODELLING
8. CHAPTER 6 – CONCLUSION

.
 CHAPTER 1
INTRODUCTION

1.1 GENERAL
Landslide are a recurring natural hazard causing significant loss of life and infrastructure damage
worldwide. Accurate prediction and modeling of landslides are crucial for effective risk management
and mitigation strategies. This study aims in developing a model for landslide prediction and modeling
using Electrical Resistive Tomography (ERT), a non-invasive geophysical technique. ERT measures the
electrical resistivity of the subsurface, which can indicate changes in soil moisture, density, and structure.
ERT survey will be conducted on a landslide-prone site, collecting data before, during, and after rainfall
events. Using ERT data with meteorological and geotechnical parameters to develop predictive models
for landslide occurrence.This model will identify that ERT-derived soil moisture content and pore water
pressure are critical factors in landslide prediction. And also, threshold values for these parameters,
indicating high landslide susceptibility

ERT involves injecting an electrical current into the ground through a series of surface electrodes and
measuring the resulting voltage differences. These measurements provide insights into the electrical
resistivity distribution within the subsurface. Since different materials (e.g., soil, rock, water-saturated
zones) have distinct resistivity characteristics, ERT can reveal crucial information about the structure
and condition of the ground, including moisture content, porosity, and the presence of unstable or
shifting layers.
 CHAPTER 2
LITERATURE SURVEY
2.1 Application of petrophysical relationships to electrical resistivity models for assessing the
stability of a landslide in British Columbia, Canada (Jessica Holmes, Jonathan Chambers,
Paul Wilkinson,Philip Meldrum).

In British Columbia's Thompson River Valley, landslides threaten critical railway lines
connecting Vancouver to Canada and the US. To mitigate risks, a novel Electrical Resistivity
Tomography (ERT) monitoring system was installed. This system provides near-real-time
data on moisture content and soil suction, key factors influencing slope stability. By
calibrating 4-D ERT models with laboratory-based petrophysical relationships, researchers
gained insights into spatial and temporal variations in moisture content and soil suction. This
geoelectrical monitoring approach demonstrates its effectiveness in assessing slope stability
and informing decision-making to protect transportation infrastructure and ecosystems

2.2 Contribution of Python-based BERT software for landslide monitoring using Electrical
Resistivity Tomography datasets. A case study in Tghat-Fez, Morocco (Oussama Jabranea,
Driss El Azzaba, Pedro Martínez-Pagánb, Marcos Martínez-Segura, Himi Mahjoubc).

An electrical resistivity tomography (ERT) survey was conducted on the southern slope of
Jbel Tghat, north of Fez, Morocco, to investigate a landslide. Nine ERT profiles were
implemented to characterize the landslide's geometry, internal structures, and faulting zone
between marly deposits and conglomerate formations. The data was processed using
EarthImagerTM 2D and BERT software, generating 2D subsurface electrical models that
revealed the distribution of geoelectric layers and their defining parameters, such as electrical
resistivity, thickness, and depth. By comparing the inversion findings from both software
packages, researchers aimed to evaluate the capabilities and limitations of the two inversion
methods, ultimately enhancing understanding of the landslide's subsurface characteristics.

2.3 Practical considerations for using petrophysics and geoelectrical methods on clay rich
landslides (James P. Boyd, Andrew Binley, Paul Wilkinson, Jessica Holmes, Edward Bruce).

Understanding geological and hydrological conditions is crucial for assessing landslide risk.
Researchers at the Hollin Hill Landslide Observatory in the UK explored the relationship between
electrical resistivity, moisture content, and matric potential (negative pore pressure) to better
predict landslide failure. They found that clay's shrink-swell properties complicate traditional
petrophysical relationships. However, by analyzing resistivity images and surface movements,
they identified low shear strengths downslope, suggesting moisture accumulation drives slip
surface development. The study concludes that geophysical monitoring alone is insufficient for
predicting pore pressure conditions without developing site-specific petrophysical relationships.
2.4 Electrical Resistivity Tomography (ERT) Monitoring for Landslides: Case Study in the
Lantai Area, Yilan Taiping Mountain, Northeast Taiwan (Wu-Nan Tsai, Chien-Chih Chen,
Chih-Wen Chiang, Pei-YuanChen,Chih-Yu Kuo,Kuo-Lung Wang, Meei-Ling Lin6 and Rou-
Fei Che).

Researchers utilized Electrical Resistivity Tomography (ERT) to monitor landslide hazards in

Northeast Taiwan's Lantai area from 2019-2021. A remote resistivity monitoring system
captured hourly data, revealing temporal and spatial resistivity variations correlated with
precipitation. Analysis identified groundwater pathways and resistivity changes preceding
sliding events. Findings suggest high-frequency time-lapse ERT monitoring can effectively
enhance landslide early warning systems, providing critical insights into water saturation
changes and onsite rock/soil mechanics

2.5 Landslide Investigation Using Electrical Resistivity Tomography: A Non-invasive

Technique (Philips Omowumi Falaea, Debi Prasanna Kanungoa, P. K. S. Chauhana and
Rajesh Kumar Dasha).

Landslides pose a significant threat in the Himalayan region, necessitating comprehensive

investigations. Electrical Resistivity Tomography (ERT) has emerged as a valuable tool for
landslide characterization. In the Garhwal Himalayas, ERT was employed at the Pakhi Landslide
site, providing valuable insights into subsurface resistivity variations. Pre- and post-monsoon data
revealed lithological changes, hydrological conditions, and slip surface delineation. Corroborating
geotechnical and geological findings, ERT proved to be a non-invasive, cost-effective, and time-
saving method for landslide investigation, making it an ideal tool for hazard assessment and
monitoring.

2.6 Internal structure of an active landslide based on ERT and DP data: New insights from
the Hofermühle landslide observatory in Lower Austria (Julia Luhn, Margherita J.
Stumvoll-Schmaltz, Adrian Flores Orozco, Thomas Glade).

The journal presents a comprehensive investigation combining Electrical Resistivity Tomography

(ERT) and Direct Push (DP) techniques to study the subsurface characteristics of an active
landslide. The use of ERT, a non-invasive geophysical method, provided high-resolution images of
the electrical resistivity distribution, allowing researchers to identify subsurface features such as
slip surfaces and areas with variable moisture content. The combination of these methods
facilitated an enhanced understanding of the internal structure and processes driving the landslide,
which is vital for more accurate risk assessments and mitigation strategies. This study highlights
the effectiveness of integrating geophysical and geotechnical methods for a more comprehensive
analysis of active landslides, setting a precedent for future multidisciplinary geohazard research.
2.7 Time-Lapse Electrical Resistivity Tomography (TL-ERT) for Landslide Monitoring:
Recent Advances and Future Directions (Vincenzo Lapenna ,Angela Perrone).

Time-Lapse Electrical Resistivity Tomography (TL-ERT) has emerged as a powerful tool in Earth
sciences, particularly in landslide monitoring. Recent advances in data processing and inversion
enable robust imaging of water-saturated zones, groundwater pathways, and soil moisture changes.
TL-ERT effectively tracks wetting fronts during extreme rainfall events, providing valuable
insights for landslide risk assessment. Despite its advantages, limitations exist, and future research
should focus on improving the method's accuracy and applicability for enhanced landslide
monitoring and early warning systems.

2.8 Geoelectrical characterization and monitoring of slopes on a rainfall-triggered landslide

simulator (Azadeh Hojat, Diego Arosio, Vladislav Ivov Ivanov, Laura Longoni, Monica
Papini, Marco Scaioni, Greta Tresoldi, Luigi Zanzi).

Researchers used time-lapse electrical resistivity tomography (ERT) to monitor rainfall-

triggered shallow landslides in a laboratory setting. The study found that landslides become
unstable when water saturation exceeds 45%, particularly at boundaries between areas with
different water saturations. Combining ERT with time-domain reflectometry (TDR)
effectively monitored hydrogeological conditions and fracture zone development. These
findings suggest that time-lapse ERT can be a valuable tool for monitoring landslide risk, with
potential for field-scale applications in areas prone to shallow landslides.

2.9 Determination of the Landslide Slip Surface Using Electrical Resistivity Tomography
(ERT) Technique (Asriza, Supriyanto, T.H.W. Kristyanto, T.L. Indra, R. Syahputra, and
A.S. Tempessy).
The journal article. explores the application of ERT as an effective geophysical tool for
identifying landslide slip surfaces. ERT works by injecting electrical currents into the ground and
measuring potential differences to create a resistivity profile that reveals subsurface characteristics.
The study highlights the method's non-invasive nature, cost-effectiveness, and ability to cover
extensive areas, making it suitable for preliminary site investigations. The authors present case
studies demonstrating successful mapping of slip surfaces, which showed clear differentiation
between stable and unstable zones, aiding in risk assessment and mitigation strategies. However,
challenges such as electrode spacing, depth penetration, and data interpretation are noted,
emphasizing the need for expertise and, ideally, the combination of ERT with other geotechnical
methods for comprehensive assessments. The research affirms ERT's value in geotechnical
engineering for landslide analysis and prevention.
2.10 Application of Electrical Resistivivty Tomography(ERT) for slope failure Investigation:
A study from Kuala Lampur (Nurul Iffah Ismail, Wan Zuhairi Wan Yaacob).

The study demonstrates that variations in resistivity can reveal critical information regarding
subsurface conditions, such as moisture content, porosity, and the presence of water-bearing
materials, all of which are significant indicators of slope stability. The authors applied ERT in an
urban setting in Kuala Lumpur, showcasing its capability to detect weak zones and hidden
geological features that may predispose an area to landslides or slope failures. The findings
highlighted the benefits of ERT in comparison to traditional methods like borehole drilling, which,
while accurate, are invasive, costly, and limited in coverage. This case study reinforces the value
of ERT in providing comprehensive, high-resolution imaging essential for geotechnical
investigations, especially in areas where minimizing environmental and infrastructural disruptions
is crucial.

2.11 Evaluation of Slope Susceptibility Using 2D Electrical Resistivity Tomography

Supplemented with Spatial Resistivity Change (R. Arjwech, Tharatip Phothaworn,
Suriyachai Chaisuriya, T. Thitimakorn, P. Pondthai).

The journal highlights advancements in geophysical methods for slope stability assessment. 2D
Electrical Resistivity Tomography (ERT) is valued for non-invasively mapping subsurface
resistivity, revealing weak zones and moisture that indicate potential slope failure. The integration
of spatial resistivity change analysis enhances monitoring by detecting temporal variations,
providing early warnings of instability. This combined approach improves predictive accuracy,
supporting effective risk mitigation and safer slope management practices.

2.12 A potential landslide area investigated by 2.5D electrical resistivity tomography: case
study from Çanakkale, Turkey (Nart Coşkun1 & Özcan Çakır 1 & Murat Erduran1 &
Yusuf Arif Kutlu1 & Ziya Sedat Çetine).

This paper highlights the growing use of Electrical Resistivity Tomography (ERT) for
landslide risk assessment. The study emphasizes the application of 2.5D ERT to map
subsurface resistivity variations, which are critical for identifying weak zones and water
saturation levels that can contribute to slope failure. Previous research has demonstrated the
utility of 2D and 3D ERT in evaluating slope stability, but this case study showcases the
effectiveness of 2.5D ERT in providing a more detailed, cost-effective, and non-invasive
method for landslide investigation. The combination of resistivity data with other
geotechnical methods offers a comprehensive approach for assessing landslide susceptibility.
The literature indicates that such geophysical techniques are increasingly relied upon for
proactive landslide risk mitigation in regions with complex geological conditions, making
ERT a valuable tool in slope management and geotechnical engineering.
2.13 Electrical resistivity tomography and statistical analysis in landslide modelling: A
conceptual approach (E. Piegari, V. Cataudella, R. Di Maio, L. Milano, M. Nicodemi, M.G.
Soldovieri ).

The journal investigates the application of Electrical Resistivity Tomography (ERT) for landslide
risk assessment. ERT helps map subsurface conditions, identifying potential landslide areas by
detecting moisture and fracture zones. The study integrates ERT data with statistical methods, such
as regression analysis, to improve the accuracy of landslide predictions. By combining geophysical
and statistical tools, the research offers a more reliable approach to understanding and mitigating
landslide hazards​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ .

2.14 2-D Electrical Resistivity Tomography (ERT) Assessment of Ground Failure in Urban
Area (M M Nordiana, A A Bery, Z M Taqiuddin, M Jinmin and I A Abir).

MM Nordiana, A A Bery, Z. M Taqiuddin, M Jinmin, and I A Abir presents an in-depth

exploration of using 2-D ERT as a diagnostic tool to investigate and monitor ground stability
in urban environments. The study underscores the value of ERT for identifying subsurface
anomalies that could indicate potential ground failures such as sinkholes, subsidence, or
weak soil zones, which are critical for urban infrastructure. The method involves injecting
electrical currents into the ground and measuring the resulting resistivity to construct an
image of the subsurface. This non-invasive approach provides detailed spatial resolution,
making it particularly advantageous for use in areas where traditional invasive methods may
be limited due to high population density or existing structures. The paper contributes to the
field by demonstrating the effectiveness of ERT in risk assessment, improving predictive
capabilities, and informing mitigation strategies in civil engineering and urban planning..

2.15 Assessment of Landslide by Its Fracture System using Electric Resistivity Tomography
and Pressure Probe Method (K. Szokoli, L. Szarka, M. Metwaly, J. Kalmár, E. Prácser, M.
K. Baracza, P. Szűcs and S. Szalai).

The journal Current Advances in Geography, Environment and Earth Sciences (CAGEES)
publishes interdisciplinary research on environmental and geological studies, with a focus on
geophysical techniques for earth sciences. Recent articles in this journal cover a range of
topics including landslide assessment, geotechnical investigations, and the application of
advanced methods like Electric Resistivity Tomography (ERT) and Pressure Probe techniques.
These studies explore how such technologies can be used to analyze and predict natural
hazards like landslides, offering practical applications in disaster risk management and
infrastructure protection. The journal is a valuable resource for researchers and practitioners
in the fields of geography, environment, and earth sciences, providing insights into both
fundamental research and its real-world applications.​ ​ ​ .
2.16 Investigating the location of zone prone to reactivation due to water saturation on landslide
debris using electrical resistivity tomography Faheem Ullah, Li‑Jun Su, Elena S. Kazantseva,
Mehtab Alam).

Faheem Ullah et al. (2022) demonstrated the effectiveness of ERT in identifying zones prone
to reactivation due to water saturation on landslide debris. Similar studies by Donnelly et al.
(2020) and Giordan et al. (2019) utilized ERT to investigate subsurface fractures and
landslide structures. Meanwhile, research by Kumar et al. (2018) and Xiao et al. (2017)
employed ERT to analyze soil mechanical properties and stability. Other studies, such as
those by Xu et al. (2021) and Wang et al. (2019), integrated ERT with other geophysical and
geotechnical methods for comprehensive landslide evaluation. These studies highlight the
potential of ERT for enhancing landslide hazard assessment, early warning systems, and
mitigation strategies.

2.17 Application of time-lapse ERT imaging to watershed characterization (Carlyle R.

Miller, Partha S. Routh, Troy R. Brosten, and James P. McNamara).

Time-lapse Electrical Resistivity Tomography (ERT) has become a valuable tool for watershed
characterization, offering insights into subsurface moisture dynamics and groundwater flow.
Recent studies show that ERT effectively tracks temporal changes in resistivity, helping to monitor
hydrological processes such as infiltration and runoff. When combined with other monitoring
techniques like soil moisture sensors and precipitation data, it provides a comprehensive view of
watershed behavior. Research, including work by Miller et al. (2024), highlights the technique's
potential for long-term monitoring, improving hydrological modeling, water resource management,
and flood prediction in watersheds.

2.18 Monitoring Rainfall-Triggered Shallow Landslides using Time-Lapse Electrical

Resistivity Tomography (ERT) (Azadeh Hojat, Diego Arosio, Vladislav ívov Ilvanov, Laura
Longoni, Monica Papini, Marco Scaioni, Greta Tresoldi, Luigi Zanzi).

The study on monitoring rainfall-triggered shallow landslides using Time-Lapse Electrical

Resistivity Tomography (ERT) by Azadeh Hojat and colleagues employed time-lapse ERT
monitoring, time-domain reflectometry (TDR) for measuring volumetric water content, and
Archie's equation for calculating water saturation. Key findings revealed that ERT is effective in
monitoring hydrogeological conditions and detecting fracture zones before collapse. The research
indicated that landslide bodies become unstable when water saturation exceeds 45%, and
instability can occur at boundaries between areas with different water saturations. This study
underscores the utility of ERT in predicting and managing landslide risks
2.19 Detecting soil water redistribution in subsurface dripirrigated processing tomatoes
using electrical resistivity tomography, proximal sensing and hydrological modelling (lael
Raij-Hoffman, Daniela Vanella, Juan Miguel Ramirez-Cuesta, Srinivasa Rao Peddinti, Isaya
Kisekka).

Research on soil water redistribution in subsurface drip irrigation has increasingly utilized a
combination of advanced tools to improve understanding and management of water resources
in agriculture. Electrical Resistivity Tomography (ERT) has gained recognition as an effective
non-invasive technique for mapping soil moisture variations by measuring changes in soil
electrical resistivity, which correlates with water content. Previous studies have shown that
ERT can provide detailed insights into the spatial distribution of moisture, especially when
combined with other technologies. Proximal sensing, using near-field sensors and moisture
probes, complements ERT by offering high-resolution, point-specific data that can validate
the broader imaging provided by ERT. Additionally, hydrological modeling has become a
crucial component in simulating and predicting water movement and redistribution in the soil,
aiding in the interpretation of field data and the assessment of irrigation efficiency. Integrating
these methods in crops such as processing tomatoes—which are water-intensive and sensitive
to moisture levels—has proven beneficial for enhancing precision in water management. The
synergistic use of ERT, proximal sensing, and hydrological models is a significant step
forward in precision agriculture, supporting sustainable irrigation practices and optimizing
crop yields.

2.20 Application of electrical resistivity tomography for investigating the internal structure
of a translational landslide and characterizing its groundwater circulation (Kualiangzi
landslide, Southwest China Chengpeng Ling, Qiang Xu, Qiang Zhang, Jiaxin Ran, Hongbin
Lv ).

The study on the application of electrical resistivity tomography (ERT) for investigating the
internal structure of the Kualiangzi translational landslide in Southwest China, conducted by
Chengpeng Ling and colleagues, involved comprehensive geological exploration using core
drilling and inclinometer measurements across 23 boreholes to assess lithology, stratum thickness,
and groundwater levels. Field real-time monitoring was performed using GPS, pluviometers,
osmometers, and piezometers to track surface displacement, rainfall, groundwater levels, and
pressure. Key findings identified the sliding surface as a deep zone with low resistivity,
corresponding to weathered sandstone and mudstone. Groundwater circulation was characterized
by precipitation recharge flowing along the sliding surface and discharging through seasonal
springs. This study highlights the effectiveness of ERT in understanding landslide dynamics and
groundwater behavior.
2.21 Characterizing preferential infiltration of loess using geostatistical electrical resistivity
tomography (Yue Liang, Rifeng Xia, Tian-Chyi Jim Yeh, Zhiwei Sun, Hongjie Zhang, Bin Xu)

Geostatistical electrical resistivity tomography (ERT) has emerged as a vital tool for understanding
subsurface hydrological processes, particularly in heterogeneous soils such as loess. The study by
Liang et al. builds on prior research that leverages ERT to map variations in soil moisture and
identify preferential flow paths critical to infiltration processes. Previous works have established
ERT as effective in non-invasive subsurface imaging, providing insights into the spatial variability of
soil properties that influence water movement. Researchers such as Yeh and colleagues have
emphasized the integration of geostatistical methods to enhance ERT interpretation by addressing
spatial heterogeneity and uncertainty. This combination allows for more detailed characterizations of
complex subsurface structures compared to traditional ERT alone. The current research by Liang and
co-authors contributes to this evolving field by applying advanced geostatistical approaches to loess,
thereby refining the understanding of preferential infiltration patterns. This approach is pivotal for
applications in hydrology, environmental engineering, and erosion prevention, as loess deposits are
prone to rapid infiltration that can lead to soil instability and degradation.

2.22 Application of combined electrical resistivity tomography (ERT) and seismic refraction
tomography (SRT) methods to investigate Xiaoshan District landslide site: Hangzhou,
China (Parisa Imani, Gang Tian, Saeed Hadiloo, Amr Abd El-Raouf )

Research shows that ERT can identify changes in resistivity that correspond to different soil types,
bedrock, and fault zones, making it a valuable tool for understanding the structural characteristics of
landslide-prone areas. Studies have also pointed out that ERT can provide high-resolution,
continuous profiles of the subsurface without the need for drilling, offering a non-invasive and cost-
effective alternative for large-scale mapping. However, the technique's accuracy can be influenced
by factors like soil heterogeneity, depth of investigation, and the presence of conductive or resistive
materials, requiring careful interpretation of the results. In combination with other geophysical
methods, such as seismic refraction tomography (SRT), ERT provides a more comprehensive
understanding of subsurface conditions, enhancing its reliability for landslide detection.

2.23 Digital photogrammetric analysis and electrical resistivity tomography for investigating
the Picerno landslide-Basilicata region, southern Italy (Claudia de Bari, Vincenzo
Lapenna, Angela Perrone, Claudio Puglisi, Francesco Sdao)

A literature survey on the use of digital photogrammetric analysis and electrical resistivity
tomography (ERT) in landslide investigation highlights the growing trend of integrating
multiple geophysical and remote sensing techniques to improve landslide monitoring and risk

assessment. Studies have demonstrated that digital photogrammetry, through the generation of
detailed 3D topographic models, provides valuable surface displacement data, allowing
researchers to track and analyze landslide movement over time. On the other hand, ERT
offers insights into subsurface conditions, revealing key features such as water-saturated
zones, fractures, and fault lines that may contribute to landslide instability. The combination
of these methods, as exemplified in the investigation of the Picerno landslide in southern Italy,
provides a comprehensive approach to understanding both the surface and subsurface
dynamics of landslides. This integrated approach has been shown to improve the accuracy of
hazard assessments, enabling more effective landslide mitigation strategies, particularly in
complex geological environments. Overall, the literature underscores the increasing use of
multi-technique approaches for landslide detection and monitoring, emphasizing their
potential for enhancing early-warning systems and preventing landslide-related disasters.

2.24 Characterizing preferential infiltration of loess using geostatistical electrical resistivity

tomography (Yue Liang, Rifeng Xia, Tian-Chyi Jim Yeh, Zhiwei Sun, Hongjie Zhang)

The journal presents an innovative approach to understanding the movement of water in loess soils,
which are highly susceptible to erosion and instability in arid and semi-arid regions. The study
uses Electrical Resistivity Tomography (ERT) combined with geostatistical analysis to monitor
and model the preferential infiltration patterns in loess. ERT, a non-invasive geophysical method,
is employed to measure variations in soil moisture content, with lower resistivity indicating higher
water content. By integrating geostatistical methods, the authors can analyze spatial patterns in
moisture distribution and gain insights into how water infiltrates loess in a non-uniform manner.
This approach is crucial for improving water management, assessing soil stability, and mitigating
erosion or landslide risks in regions with loess deposits. The research highlights the effectiveness
of geophysical techniques in understanding complex hydrological processes, especially in soils
with heterogeneous properties like loess.

2.25 Predicting Soil Erodibility Using Electrical Resistivity Tomography

Md Zahidul Karim, Stacey E. Tucker-Kulesza

The study by Md Zahidul Karim and Stacey E. Tucker-Kulesza examines the potential of
Electrical Resistivity Tomography (ERT) as a tool for predicting soil erodibility. ERT measures
subsurface electrical resistivity, which is influenced by soil properties like moisture, texture, and
structure, all of which affect erodibility. The research integrates ERT data with erosion tests to
develop predictive models, offering a non-invasive, high-resolution method for assessing soil
erosion risks. This approach has applications in land management, agriculture, and civil
engineering, improving erosion prediction and mitigation strategies.

2.26 Electrical Resistivity Tomography for Characterizing Cracking of Soil (Asem Hassan and
David G. Toll)
The journal highlights the growing interest in non-invasive geophysical methods, particularly
Electrical Resistivity Tomography (ERT), for soil characterization. ERT has been widely explored
for its ability to provide detailed subsurface images without the need for excavation, making it
ideal for monitoring soil properties such as moisture content, porosity, and the formation of cracks.
Several studies have demonstrated the effectiveness of ERT in detecting subsurface anomalies and
changes in soil structure, with applications ranging from geotechnical engineering to
environmental monitoring. The literature reveals that while ERT is valuable for visualizing soil
cracking, challenges remain in data interpretation, as resistivity changes can be influenced by a
variety of factors like soil composition, temperature, and moisture variations. This paper builds on
previous research by refining the methodology for accurately assessing cracking and its
implications for soil stability, especially in relation to infrastructure resilience. It also highlights
the need for calibration and validation when applying ERT in field studies, offering a deeper
understanding of soil behavior under different environmental conditions.

2.27 Enhanced Analysis of Landslide Failure Mechanisms in the Ozark Plateau Region with
Electrical Resistivity Tomography (Weston J. Koehn Stacey E. Tucker, Vanessa LeBow,
Salman Rahimi, Michelle L. Bernhardt and Clinton M. Wood)

The journal research in geophysical applications to landslide hazard assessment, particularly

utilizing Electrical Resistivity Tomography (ERT) for subsurface imaging. Prior studies have
highlighted the effectiveness of ERT in mapping soil and rock properties, water content, and
detecting anomalous conditions that may lead to slope instability. Previous work in similar
geologically complex regions has used ERT to identify critical zones in landslides and to monitor
slope movements over time. Research has also demonstrated that ERT can complement traditional
geotechnical investigations, such as borehole drilling and surface surveys, by providing non-
invasive, real-time subsurface data. Additionally, the Ozark Plateau region’s diverse terrain and
weather conditions have been a focus in landslide studies, where integrating ERT with other
geophysical and geotechnical methods has proven useful for more accurate hazard mapping and
risk assessment. The novel contribution of this study lies in its enhanced analytical approach to
understanding landslide failure mechanisms, contributing to more robust models of landslide
behavior in the Ozarks and similar regions.

2.28 Electrical resistivity tomography and statistical analysis in landslide modelling: A

conceptual approach (E. Piegari, V. Cataudella, R. Di Maio, L. Milano, M.G. Soldovieri )

The paper integrates electrical resistivity tomography (ERT) and statistical modeling to enhance
landslide hazard assessments. ERT, a non-invasive geophysical technique, helps map subsurface
conditions, revealing variations in resistivity that can indicate areas prone to instability. When
coupled with statistical methods, ERT data provides deeper insights into the factors contributing to
landslides, particularly by modeling how these factors interact over time. This approach allows
researchers to simulate landslide events more accurately by incorporating dynamic subsurface
changes, such as water saturation and soil composition, which are key triggers for landslides.
Studies using this combined method show how variations in resistivity can be linked to landslide
precursors, such as changes in water content, helping to develop more reliable early warning
systems.

2.29 Assessing the risk of slope failure to highway infrastructure using automated time-lapse
electrical resistivity tomography monitoring (Jim Whiteley, Cornelia Inauen, Paul Wilkinson,
Philip Meldrum, Russell Swift, Oliver Kuras, Jonathan Chambers)

The paper focused on the intersection of transportation infrastructure and geotechnical engineering.
It features studies on the application of geotechnical methods for improving road safety,
infrastructure durability, and environmental sustainability. Topics covered include soil mechanics,
slope stability, and the use of non-invasive technologies like electrical resistivity tomography
(ERT) for monitoring subsurface conditions that impact highways, railways, and other transport
networks. A notable example is the study by Whiteley et al. (2023) on assessing the risk of slope
failure to highway infrastructure using automated ERT, which highlights the potential of time-
lapse monitoring to detect moisture-related risks and manage slope stability.

2.30 Landslide investigation using self potential method and electrical resistivity
tomography-Pasanggrahan, South Sumedang, Indonesia (Budy Santoso, Mia Uswatun
Hasanah, and Setianto)

Explores the effectiveness of combining Self Potential (SP) and Electrical Resistivity Tomography
(ERT) techniques for detecting landslides. The research identifies water infiltration as a primary
trigger for landslides in the region, where increased water content weakens slope stability,
particularly in the rainy season. Using SP, which measures natural voltage differences in the earth,
the study maps out groundwater movements, while ERT provides detailed resistivity profiles of
subsurface materials. The findings reveal a clear contrast between different geological layers, such
as water tables and claystones, helping to pinpoint potential slip planes and unstable zones. This
combined geophysical approach is useful for early detection and landslide risk assessment in areas
with similar geological settings.
 CHAPTER 3
OBJECTIVES

3.1 DETECTING SUBSURFACE WATER MOVEMENT

ERT can identify variations in electrical resistivity due to the presence of water in the
soil. This helps monitor groundwater flow, pore-water pressure, and changes in moisture content,
all of which are critical factors in landslide initiation and movement.

3.2 MAPPING THE GEOMETRY OF LANDSLIDES

ERT allows for the detailed mapping of landslide geometry, including the thickness and extent
of the sliding mass, the depth of the failure plane, and the internal structure of the landslide,
which is difficult to determine through traditional methods.

3.3 ASSESSING STABILITY AND POTENTIAL MOVEMENT

By monitoring resistivity changes over time, ERT can help assess the stability of slopes and
detect early signs of movement or failure. This helps in the early warning of potential landslide
events.

3.4 IDENTIFYING CHANGES IN MATERIAL PROPERTIES

ERT can reveal variations in subsurface materials, such as the transition from cohesive to
non-cohesive soils, or changes in the nature of bedrock or fill material, which are important for
understanding the mechanics of landslide movement.

3.5 PROVIDING CONTINUOUS MONITORING

ERT allows for continuous or repeated data acquisition over time, enabling the
monitoring of landslide behavior over long periods. This can be critical for assessing
seasonal or rainfall-related landslide risk and understanding how changes in environmental
conditions affect slope stability.
3.6 SUPPORTING LANDSLIDE HAZARD ASSESSEMENT
By providing detailed and high-resolution data on subsurface conditions, ERT
contributes to the assessment and classification of landslide hazards, helping inform risk
management decisions and mitigation measures.

3.7 OPTIMIZING SITE - SPECIFIC MITIGATION STRATEGIES

ERT data can guide engineers and geologists in developing tailored landslide mitigation
strategies, such as slope reinforcement, drainage improvements, or land-use planning
decisions, based on a better understanding of subsurface conditions .
 METHODOLOGY

The methodology for developing a landslide monitoring model using electrical resistivity
tomography is structured around a comprehensive process that ensures accurate data integration
and analysis. This approach begins with the essential step of selecting an appropriate site, focusing
on areas known for landslide susceptibility or historical landslide activity. Following site selection,
a robust data collection process is initiated, involving the acquisition of landslide inventory data,
environmental data, and geological factors. Each of these data types contributes crucial insights
into understanding the conditions that influence landslide behavior. The integration of these data
sets supports the development of a landslide monitoring model utilizing electrical resistivity
tomography, a method capable of mapping subsurface features through variations in electrical
resistivity. This model serves to highlight potential weaknesses and slip surfaces within the studied
terrain. The methodology culminates in a detailed analysis and discussion phase, where the model
results are examined, validated, and contextualized to provide meaningful conclusions. This
comprehensive approach facilitates the identification of risk-prone areas and contributes to
informed decision-making for landslide prevention and mitigation.

Fig 3.1 Step by step Methodology for performance based design

3.8 SITE SELECTION

The area chosen for the study should have a known history of landslides and a range of environmental
conditions that influence landslide occurrences, such as varying slope gradients, soil types, vegetation
cover, and rainfall patterns. Additionally, the site should be accessible for data collection and have
existing monitoring systems, if possible

3.9 DATA COLLECTION

3.9.1 LANDSLIDE INVENTORY DATA

Collecting historical data on landslides that have occurred in the area.

3.9.2 ENVIORNMENTAL DATA

Gathering data related to environmental conditions such as climate, vegetation, and other
relevant factors.

3.9.3 GEOLOGICAL FACORS

Understanding the geological characteristics of the site, including rock and soil composition.

3.10 DEVELOPMENT OF LANDSLIDE MONITORING MODEL USING

ELECTRICAL RESISTIVITY TOMOGRAPHY

Utilizing the collected data to develop a model that monitors landslides with the help of electrical
resistivity tomography, which helps in assessing subsurface conditions.

3.11 ANALYSIS OF RESULT AND DISCUSSION

Analyzing the data obtained from the model and discussing the findings to draw conclusions or
make recommendations.
 CHAPTER 4
WORK PLAN AND APPROXIMATE BUDGET

4.1 WORK PLAN

4.2 APPROXIMATE BUDGET

 CHAPTER 5
MODELLING
5.1 GENERAL
This section outlines the research design, methods, and procedures employed to investigate the
effectiveness of Electrical Resistivity Tomography (ERT) for monitoring rainfall-triggered shallow
landslides. The study adopted a laboratory-scale experimental approach, utilizing a custom-built
landslide simulator to mimic real-world conditions. A combination of ERT and Time-Domain
Reflectometry (TDR) measurements were used to monitor soil moisture content and resistivity
changes. The methodology was designed to achieve the following objectives;

 Develop a laboratory-scale landslide monitoring system using ERT.

 Investigate the relationship between soil moisture content and resistivity.
 Evaluate the effectiveness of ERT for detecting early warning signs of landslide
activity.

Fig. 5.1 A conceptual diagram of Landslide Monitoring system using ERT

5.2 COMPONENTS
1. Glass Flume: A transparent, rectangular container simulating a slope.
2. Sprinkler System: Simulates rainfall, controlling intensity and duration.
3. Electrodes: Stainless steel or copper electrodes inserted into the flume.
4. Multichannel Resistivity Meter: Measures electrical resistivity between electrodes.
5. Cables and Connectors: Connect electrodes to the resistivity meter.
6. Data Logger: Records and stores measurement data.
7. Power Supply: Provides power to the system.
8. Geological Model: Simulates subsurface geology (soil, rock, water)..
9 .Electrical Resistivity Model: Relates electrical resistivity to subsurface properties.
10. Inversion Model: Converts measured data into resistivity images.
11. Wenner Array: Electrode configuration for ERT.
12. Electrode Spacing: Variable spacing (e.g., 2-10 cm).

5.3 EXPERIMENT PARAMETERS

1. Rainfall Intensity: Controlled by sprinkler system.
2. Rainfall Duration: Variable (e.g., 10-60 minutes).
3. Initial Water Content: Variable (e.g., 10-30%).

5.4 MEASUREMENT PARAMETERS

1. Electrical Resistivity (ρ): Primary measurement parameter.
2. Apparent Resistivity (ρa): Measured resistivity before inversion.
3. True Resistivity (ρt): Inverted resistivity value.

5.5 LANDSLIDE MONITORING PARAMETERS

1. Water Content (θ): Inferred from resistivity changes.
2. Soil Moisture (SM): Related to water content.
3. Landslide Susceptibility (LS): Inferred from resistivity and moisture changes.
 CHAPTER 6
CONCLUTION

The Time-Lapse Electrical Resistivity Tomography (TL-ERT) method has proven to be a powerful
tool for monitoring landslide-prone areas by tracking temporal changes in subsurface moisture and
identifying water infiltration patterns. This capability is critical for assessing landslide triggers
related to soil saturation and extreme weather events. TL-ERT’s utility in mapping water
movement and monitoring moisture levels in the shallow subsurface shows its promise for use in
early warning systems, potentially aiding in the development of more accurate rainfall thresholds
for landslide prediction.

Despite its advantages, the TL-ERT method faces certain limitations. Current petrophysical
models for converting resistivity data to hydrogeological parameters are often site-specific,
limiting their broader application across different geological contexts. Furthermore, while recent
advances in inversion algorithms and data processing have improved TL-ERT’s accuracy,
challenges remain, particularly in urban environments and for monitoring deeper subsurface layers.
The integration of TL-ERT with other geophysical data and the development of new inversion
techniques could help address these issues, enhancing the method’s robustness and adaptability.

In conclusion, TL-ERT has a strong foundation for supporting landslide risk management, with
significant potential for advancement in both technology and methodology. Future research should
focus on refining petrophysical models, improving 3D time-lapse imaging capabilities, and
developing TL-ERT applications in complex environments. With these advancements, TL-ERT
could become an even more integral component of comprehensive landslide monitoring and early
warning systems.
 REFERENCES

 Application of petrophysical relationships to electrical resistivity models for assessing the

stability of a landslide in British Columbia, Canada (Jessica Holmes, Jonathan Chambers, Paul
Wilkinson,Philip Meldrum).
 Contribution of Python-based BERT software for landslide monitoring using Electrical
Resistivity Tomography datasets. A case study in Tghat-Fez, Morocco (Oussama Jabranea, Driss
El Azzaba, Pedro Martínez-Pagánb, Marcos Martínez-Segura, Himi Mahjoubc).
 Practical considerations for using petrophysics and geoelectrical methods on clay rich landslides
(James P. Boyd, Andrew Binley, Paul Wilkinson, Jessica Holmes, Edward Bruce).
 Electrical Resistivity Tomography (ERT) Monitoring for Landslides: Case Study in the Lantai
Area, Yilan Taiping Mountain, Northeast Taiwan (Wu-Nan Tsai, Chien-Chih Chen, Chih-Wen
Chiang, Pei-YuanChen,Chih-Yu Kuo,Kuo-Lung Wang, Meei-Ling Lin6 and Rou-Fei Che).
 Landslide Investigation Using Electrical Resistivity Tomography: A Non-invasive Technique
(Philips Omowumi Falaea, Debi Prasanna Kanungoa, P. K. S. Chauhana and Rajesh Kumar
Dasha).
 Internal structure of an active landslide based on ERT and DP data: New insights from the
Hofermühle landslide observatory in Lower Austria (Julia Luhn, Margherita J. Stumvoll-
Schmaltz, Adrian Flores Orozco, Thomas Glade).
 Time-Lapse Electrical Resistivity Tomography (TL-ERT) for Landslide Monitoring: Recent
Advances and Future Directions (Vincenzo Lapenna ,Angela Perrone).
 Geoelectrical characterization and monitoring of slopes on a rainfall-triggered landslide
simulator (Azadeh Hojat, Diego Arosio, Vladislav Ivov Ivanov, Laura Longoni, Monica Papini,
Marco Scaioni, Greta Tresoldi, Luigi Zanzi).
 Determination of the Landslide Slip Surface Using Electrical Resistivity Tomography (ERT)
Technique (Asriza, Supriyanto, T.H.W. Kristyanto, T.L. Indra, R. Syahputra, and A.S. Tempessy
 Application of Electrical Resistivivty Tomography(ERT) for slope failure Investigation: A study
from Kuala Lampur (Nurul Iffah Ismail, Wan Zuhairi Wan Yaacob).
 Evaluation of Slope Susceptibility Using 2D Electrical Resistivity Tomography Supplemented
with Spatial Resistivity Change (R. Arjwech, Tharatip Phothaworn, Suriyachai Chaisuriya, T.
Thitimakorn, P. Pondthai).
 Potential landslide area investigated by 2.5D electrical resistivity tomography: case study from
Çanakkale, Turkey (Nart Coşkun1 & Özcan Çakır 1 & Murat Erduran1 & Yusuf Arif Kutlu1 &
Ziya Sedat Çetine).
 2-D Electrical Resistivity Tomography (ERT) Assessment of Ground Failure in Urban Area (M
M Nordiana, A A Bery, Z M Taqiuddin, M Jinmin and I A Abir).
 Assessment of Landslide by Its Fracture System using Electric Resistivity Tomography and
Pressure Probe Method (K. Szokoli, L. Szarka, M. Metwaly, J. Kalmár, E. Prácser, M. K.
Baracza, P. Szűcs and S. Szalai).
 Investigating the location of zone prone to reactivation due to water saturation on landslide
debris using electrical resistivity tomography Faheem Ullah, Li‑Jun Su, Elena S. Kazantseva,
Mehtab Alam).
 Application of time-lapse ERT imaging to watershed characterization (Carlyle R. Miller, Partha
S. Routh, Troy R. Brosten, and James P. McNamara).
 Monitoring Rainfall-Triggered Shallow Landslides using Time-Lapse Electrical Resistivity
Tomography (ERT) (Azadeh Hojat, Diego Arosio, Vladislav ívov Ilvanov, Laura Longoni,
Monica Papini, Marco Scaioni, Greta Tresoldi, Luigi Zanzi).
 Detecting soil water redistribution in subsurface dripirrigated processing tomatoes using
electrical resistivity tomography, proximal sensing and hydrological modelling (lael Raij-
Hoffman, Daniela Vanella, Juan Miguel Ramirez-Cuesta, Srinivasa Rao Peddinti, Isaya Kisekka).
 Application of electrical resistivity tomography for investigating the internal structure of a
translational landslide and characterizing its groundwater circulation (Kualiangzi landslide,
Southwest China Chengpeng Ling, Qiang Xu, Qiang Zhang, Jiaxin Ran, Hongbin Lv ).
 Characterizing preferential infiltration of loess using geostatistical electrical resistivity
tomography (Yue Liang, Rifeng Xia, Tian-Chyi Jim Yeh, Zhiwei Sun, Hongjie Zhang, Bin Xu)
 Application of combined electrical resistivity tomography (ERT) and seismic refraction
tomography (SRT) methods to investigate Xiaoshan District landslide site: Hangzhou, China
(Parisa Imani, Gang Tian, Saeed Hadiloo, Amr Abd El-Raouf )
 Digital photogrammetric analysis and electrical resistivity tomography for investigating the
Picerno landslide-Basilicata region, southern Italy (Claudia de Bari, Vincenzo Lapenna, Angela
Perrone, Claudio Puglisi, Francesco Sdao)
 Characterizing preferential infiltration of loess using geostatistical electrical resistivity
tomography (Yue Liang, Rifeng Xia, Tian-Chyi Jim Yeh, Zhiwei Sun, Hongjie Zhang, Bin Xu)
 Predicting Soil Erodibility Using Electrical Resistivity Tomography (Md Zahidul Karim, Stacey
E. Tucker-Kulesza)
 Electrical Resistivity Tomography for Characterizing Cracking of Soil (Asem Hassan and David
G. Toll)
 Enhanced Analysis of Landslide Failure Mechanisms in the Ozark Plateau Region with Electrical
Resistivity Tomography (Weston J. Koehn Stacey E. Tucker, Vanessa LeBow, Salman Rahimi,
Michelle L. Bernhardt and Clinton M. Wood)
 Assessing the risk of slope failure to highway infrastructure using automated time-lapse electrical
resistivity tomography monitoring (Jim Whiteley, Cornelia Inauen, Paul Wilkinson, Philip
Meldrum, Russell Swift, Oliver Kuras, Jonathan Chambers)
 Landslide investigation using self potential method and electrical resistivity tomography-
Pasanggrahan, South Sumedang, Indonesia (Budy Santoso, Mia Uswatun Hasanah, and Setianto)
 Application of petrophysical relationships to electrical resistivity models for assessing the
stability of a landslide in British Columbia, Canada (Jessica Holmes, Jonathan Chambers, Paul
Wilkinson,Philip Meldrum).
 Electrical resistivity tomography and statistical analysis in landslide modelling: A conceptual
approach (E. Piegari, V. Cataudella, R. Di Maio, L. Milano, M. Nicodemi, M.G. Soldovieri ).