DISTRIBUTION SYSTEM

The distribution system is the electrical system between the substation fed by the
transmission system/Gird station and the consumers meters
OR
Distribution system is the part of the system between transmission and the consumer
service point.
OR
That part of power system which distributes electric power for local use is known as
distribution system
CLASSIFICATION OF DISTRIBUTION SYSTEMS
Primary Distribution System and Secondary Distribution System
Primary Distribution System:
 The part of electric utility system which is between the distribution substation and the
distribution transformer is called primary distribution system. It is made of circuits known as
primary feeders or primary distribution feeders.
OR
 It is that part of a.c. distribution system which operates at voltages some what higher then
general utilization and handles large blocks of electrical energy than the average low voltage
consumer uses.
 The voltage used for primary distribution depends upon the amount of power to be conveyed
and the distance of the substation required to be fed
 In Pakistan 11KV is Primary Distribution voltage.
 Voltage in primary distribution system ranges from 11 kV to 33 kV
 The most commonly used primary distribution voltages are 11kV, 6·6kV and 3.3kV Due to
economic considerations, primary distribution is carried out by 3- phase, 3-wire system. Fig
shows a typical primary distribution system
 Figure shows a one-line diagram of a typical primary distribution feeder.
 A feeder includes a "main" or main feeder, which usually is a three-phase four-wire circuit,
and branches or laterals, which usually are single-phase or three-phase circuits tapped off the
main.
Secondary Distribution System
 Secondary Distribution System is between the primary distribution system and the
consumer’s property to deliver electricity from distribution transformers to customer
service entrances. OR
 It is that part of a.c. distribution system which includes the range of voltages at which the
ultimate consumer utilizes the electrical energy delivered to him.
 Generally, the secondary distribution systems are designed in single-phase or three phase
for areas of residential customers and in three-phase for areas of industrial or commercial
customers with high-load densities.
 Secondary distribution system include step – down distribution transformers, secondary
circuit (secondary mains), consumer services (or service drops), and meters to measure
consumer energy consumption
 The secondary distribution employs 430/220 V, 3-phase, 4-wire system. Fig. shows a
typical secondary distribution system. The primary distribution circuit delivers power to
various substations, called distribution substations. The substations are situated near the
consumers’ localities and contain step down transformers
How the Primary and Secondary Systems Work Together:

1. Primary Distribution System: The journey begins in the primary distribution system,
which is responsible for transporting electricity at high voltages (typically between 11kV
to 33kV in European and 4 kV and 69 kV in USA ) from substations to local areas. It
ensures that large amounts of electricity can travel long distances with minimal energy loss.
2. Voltage Step-Down: Once the electricity reaches a local substation, the voltage is reduced
(stepped down) using transformers so that it is safe for use in homes and businesses. This
step-down process is necessary because high-voltage electricity is not suitable for
consumer devices.
3. Secondary Distribution System: After voltage reduction, the electricity moves into the
secondary distribution system, where it is further distributed at lower voltages (typically
220V to 440 V in European system and 120 V to 480 V in USA system ) through local
power lines, ready to be used by consumers. This part of the system ensures that electricity
is delivered safely to homes, offices, and other buildings.
Technologies Ensuring Reliable Delivery:

1. Smart Grids: Both primary and secondary systems are increasingly integrated with smart
grid technology, which uses sensors, communication networks, and data analytics to
monitor and manage electricity flow in real time. This helps detect issues, reroute power,
and improve the overall efficiency of the system.
2. Automated Fault Detection: Advanced fault detection systems in both networks help
identify problems such as outages or short circuits. For example, automated reclosers can
quickly disconnect faulty sections of the grid and restore power to unaffected areas,
reducing downtime for consumers.
3. Smart Meters: In the secondary distribution system, smart meters provide real-time
usage data, enabling utilities to monitor energy consumption more accurately and improve
grid management. They also help identify unusual usage patterns that may indicate faults
or inefficiencies.
4. Voltage Regulators: Devices like automatic voltage regulators (AVRs) and tap-
changing transformers are used in both systems to adjust voltage levels automatically,
ensuring a stable and consistent voltage supply to consumers, regardless of fluctuations in
demand.
5. Advanced Protection Systems: Both systems use protective relays and circuit breakers
that automatically isolate faults and prevent damage to equipment. These systems ensure
safety by quickly detecting overloads, short circuits, or other abnormalities.
6. Distributed Energy Resources (DERs): As renewable energy sources like solar and wind
become more common, distributed energy resources (such as solar panels or batteries)
are integrated into both the primary and secondary systems, enhancing grid stability and
ensuring a more reliable, flexible electricity supply.

 By combining these technologies, both the primary and secondary distribution systems
can deliver electricity efficiently while maintaining high reliability and minimizing outages
or disruptions to consumers.

 CLASSIFICATION OF POWER DISTRIBUTION SYSTEMS BASED ON
VOLTAGE LEVELS

PRIMARY PRIMARY SECONDARY SECONDARY

DISTRIBUTION DISTRIBUTION DISTRIBUTION DISTRIBUTION VOLTAGES
VOLTAGES VOLTAGES VOLTAGES N.AMERICAN
EUROPEN N. AMERICAN EUROPEN
11 kV,and 33  2.3kV,4.16kV,  440V (3-  120/240 single phase
kV,37kV,40kV 3- 7.2kV, phase) &  120/208 3 phase
phase 3-wire system 50 12.47kV, 220V (1-  277/480 3 phase
Hz 13.2kV, phase), 3-  in USA and some other
13.8,14.4kV, phase 4- countries, 120/240 volts
23.9kV, 25kV wire  120/208 V at 60Hz in USA
and 34.5kV system 50  The 120/240 configuration
Hz is obtained from the low-
 220/440 V side of a HV/240 volt
at 50 Hz in transformer, where HV is
Pakistan the rated voltage on the
 230/415 V high voltage side, and the
at 50 Hz in 240 is the rated voltage on
India the low voltage side.

Tertiary Voltage Range:

Voltage Range Europe USA

Common Tertiary Voltages 440 V (three-phase), 690 480 V (three-phase), 600 V, 240
V, 380 V, 660 V V, 120 V
Voltage for Industrial Loads 690 V (large motors, heavy 480 V (three-phase) for large
equipment) machinery, HVAC
Voltage for Substation 440 V, 690 V for control 480 V for substation auxiliaries,
Auxiliary Equipment and auxiliaries 240 V for control
Residential/Commercial 220 V (single-phase), 440 240 V (split-phase) for
V (three-phase) residential, 208 V (three-phase)
for commercial
Frequency 50 Hz 60 Hz

from the grid to consumers while minimizing losses and ensuring the safe, efficient delivery of
power at the appropriate voltage for everyday use
 TYPES OF POWER DISTRIBUTION SYSTEMS BASED ON DESIGN
CONFIGURATIONS
The design of power distribution systems is essential in determining how power is distributed from
the substation to the end-users. Three main types of distribution systems based on their
configuration are:
1. Radial Distribution System
2. Loop Distribution System
3. Network Distribution System
Radial Distribution System

 Configuration: In a radial system, the power flows in one direction from the source (e.g.,
substation) to the load (e.g., consumers) along a single path. There are no alternative paths
for the electricity to reach the load in case of a fault OR The electrical power flow from
the substation to the consumer along a single path.
 In this system, primary feeders take power from the distribution substation to the load areas
by way of sub feeders and lateral-branch circuits

Loop Distribution System:

 Configuration: The loop system connects various distribution feeders in a closed loop.
Power can flow in either direction around the loop, which allows for an alternative path if
one section of the system fails.
 The loop system forms a loop, allowing electricity to flow in multiple directions. This setup
enhances reliability and allows for quick isolation and repair of faults.
 Looped power networks usually come with a back-up source of energy. When power from
one direction fails, switches automatically or manually divert energy to keep electricity
flowing in the other direction. The loop guarantees higher standards of reliability than the
radial type. In the case of line faults, utilities can quickly locate them and switch around to
restore service - enabling fast repair with minimal customer disruption
 A similar level of system reliability to that of the parallel feeders can be achieved by
using ring distribution system. Here, each distribution transformer is fed with two feeders
but in different paths. The feeders in this system form a loop which starts from the
substation bus-bars, runs through the load area feeding distribution transformers and
 returns to the substation bus-bars. The following figure shows a typical single line diagram
of a ring main distribution system

Network Distribution System

 Configuration: A network system consists of multiple interconnected feeders, creating a
mesh or grid of paths that power can take to reach any load. Multiple sources of power can
be provided, and the system can be reconfigured automatically in case of a fault.
 Network systems offer a unique solution for customers needing reliable power in heavily
populated and congested areas. This system consists of interlocking loop networks,
providing multiple sources to deliver energy efficiently - though it comes with the highest
price tag among all alternative options.
 NETWORK is a system of interconnected feeders supplied by a number of substations.
The radial primary feeders can be tapped off the interconnecting tie feeders. They can also
be served directly from the substations. Each tie feeder has two associated circuit breakers
at each end in order to have less load interrupted due to a tie – feeder fault.
 This system supplies a load from several directions. Proper location of transformers to
heavy – load centers and regulation of the feeders at the substation buses provide for
adequate voltage at utilization points. In general, the losses in a primary network are lower
than those in a comparable radial system due to load division.
 The reliability and the quality of service of the primary – network arrangement is much
higher than the radial and loop arrangements. However, it is more difficult to design and
operate than the radial or loop systems.
 Radial, loop, and network distribution systems differ in terms of reliability,
cost, and performance

Feature Radial System Loop System Network System

Design Complexity Simple Moderate Complex
Low (single point of Higher (faults can be Very High (multiple
Reliability
failure) rerouted) redundant paths)
Cost (Installation) Low Moderate High
Cost (Maintenance) Low Moderate High
Moderate (susceptible to Good (improved fault Excellent (optimal load
Performance
faults) tolerance) balancing)
Slow (depends on Quick (automatic or
Recovery from Faults Fast (automatic rerouting)
manual intervention) manual rerouting)
Limited (single path for Moderate (multiple Excellent (multiple sources,
Load Management
power) power sources) flexible)
Rural areas, low-density Urban centers, high-density
Application Suburban areas
regions regions

CLASSIFIED BASED ON THE GEOGRAPHICAL AREAS

Classification of Power Distribution Systems Based on the Geographical Area They Serve Power
distribution systems are also classified based on the geographical area they serve, as the design,
layout, and components of the distribution network can vary significantly depending on whether
the area is urban, suburban, or rural. Each type of area has distinct characteristics in terms of
population density, infrastructure, load requirements, and the available technology for distribution.
These differences influence the choice of system configuration, efficiency, and reliability.
1. Urban Distribution System :
 Urban systems have high load density, smaller substation spacing, larger transformers, and
bigger feeders.
  Urban areas have a large number of consumers packed into a relatively small area. This
requires the distribution system to serve many residential, commercial, and industrial
customers within a compact region
 Due to the dense population and the presence of commercial and industrial sectors, the
demand for electricity is high.
 Urban areas power systems are the most complex, with high demand, many substations,
and extensive use of underground lines.
 The integration of smart grid technology, real-time monitoring, and renewable energy
sources is common. While urban areas generally have high reliability, they suffer from
issues like grid congestion, fluctuating demand, and the need to meet stringent
environmental regulations.
 Urban systems are mostly thermally limited. The total load that a substation can supply is
based on the thermal loading capacity of transformers and feeders. Voltage drop is usually
not a problem.
 Urban areas typically have a well-developed infrastructure, including advanced
technologies for monitoring, automation, and control.

2. Semi / Sub Urban Distribution System:
 Semi-urban systems fall between urban and rural systems in terms of characteristics.
 Suburban areas have moderate complexity, with a mix of overhead and underground lines.
 They have more substations than rural areas, and while the reliability is better than in rural
regions, issues like aging infrastructure and seasonal demand fluctuations still present
challenges.
 Suburban areas often use radial distribution systems, where electricity flows in one
direction from the substation to the consumers. Radial systems are simpler and less costly
to install than looped or meshed networks, but they may have a single point of failure.
 Smart grid technology and some renewable integration are becoming more common.
 Semi-urban systems may experience a combination of thermal and voltage drop limitations
based on design choices

3. Rural Distribution System

 Rural areas primarily use radial distribution systems due to their simplicity and lower cost.
These systems are often more susceptible to power outages due to their single-path nature.
 Rural systems have low load density, larger substation spacing, smaller transformers, and
smaller feeders.
 Rural systems are usually voltage drop-limited due to long feeder lengths.
 Rural Areas Power distribution is typically simple and cost-effective, with overhead lines
and few substations. However, due to the sparsity of the population and the large distances
involved, rural areas face high losses,.
 Overhead lines are common in rural areas because they are cheaper and easier to install in
sparsely populated regions. The risk of damage from weather conditions (such as storms)
is higher with overhead lines, but these systems are less expensive to build and maintain.
 The distance between substations and end consumers is longer, leading to higher
transmission losses and the need for higher voltages on primary feeders to mitigate these
losses.
  Lower Voltage for Secondary Distribution: Secondary distribution in rural areas is
typically done at voltages around 120 V to 220 V for single-phase systems and 415 V to
440V for three-phase systems serving larger farms or industries.
 Reliability is a key challenge due to weather events, and there is limited adoption of
modern technologies

Characteristic Rural Distribution Suburban Urban Distribution

Distribution
Population /load Low Medium / Moderate High
Density
Voltage Levels Medium/Low (11 Medium (11 kV, High (11 kV, 33 kV)
kV) 33kV)
Network type Over head Mix of Predominantly
overhead/underground underground
Secondary LT 2.3 or 4 wire 3 or 4,5 wire 3.4,5,6 wire
Primary HT Generally radial Feeder radial Feeder
open loop Interconnected
OR parallel loop
OR ring main
OR radial

Voltages
Medium-Voltage 11kV,33 kV 11 kV - 33 kV 11 kV - 33 kV
Distribution (medium-voltage lines (substations step
for local distribution) down to 415 V)
Low-Voltage 220 V (single-phase) 220 V (single-phase) 220 V (single-phase)
Distribution or 440 V (three-phase or 440 V (three-phase) or 440 V (three-
phase)
Infrastructure Low (fewer Moderate (mix of High (dense
Complexity substations, long overhead and networks,
lines) underground lines) underground
systems)
Power Demand Low and spread out Moderate (residential High and fluctuating
& commercial mix} (heavy industrial,
commercial demand)
 Reliability Frequent outages, Seasonal variability, Voltage fluctuations,
Challenges long recovery aging infrastructure congestion, high load
Technology Adoption Low (basic Moderate (smart High (smart grid,
infrastructure) meters, grid upgrades) Distributed Energy
Resources (DERs,
renewable
integration)

RADIAL SYSTEM SYSRTEM WITH ADVANTAGES AND

DISADVANTAGES.
In a radial power distribution system, the electrical supply is delivered from a central point,
typically a substation, to various consumers through a series of branches or feeders. This
configuration is the simplest and most commonly used for distributing electricity, particularly in
residential areas. However, it has its advantages and disadvantages compared to other distribution
system topologies, such as ring or mesh configurations.

Advantages of a Radial Power Distribution System:

1. Simplicity and Cost-Effectiveness:
 Design and Operation: A radial system is straightforward to design and operate
due to its simple one-way power flow from the source to the load. The structure is
relatively easy to lay out and maintain.
 o Lower Capital Costs: Since the design is simple and requires fewer components
(e.g., fewer switchgear, protection devices), the initial capital investment is
typically lower than more complex systems like mesh or ring networks.
o Lower Maintenance Costs: Fewer components and simpler control systems lead
to reduced maintenance costs over time.
2. Easy to Implement in Residential Areas:
o Radial systems are well-suited for residential areas, where the demand for
electricity is relatively predictable, and the layout of the area tends to be linear or
along streets.
o The simple design makes it ideal for small-to-medium-sized communities, and
expansions can be relatively easy to implement by adding new branches or feeders.
3. Lower System Losses in Small Systems:
o In small-scale radial systems, the losses are typically lower compared to other
configurations because there are fewer parallel paths for current to flow, reducing
complexity and potential for redundant paths.
4. Lower Risk of Overloading:
o As the system generally has a single path for electricity distribution, the risk of
overload is more manageable. The current through each feeder can be more easily
monitored and controlled, avoiding overloading.
Disadvantages of a Radial Power Distribution System:

1. Vulnerability to Outages:
o Single-Point of Failure: The biggest drawback of a radial system is its
vulnerability to faults or outages. If a fault occurs anywhere along the feeder, all
downstream customers will lose power until the fault is cleared and the system is
reconfigured or repaired. This makes the system less reliable than other topologies
like ring or mesh networks.
o Extended Downtime: In case of an outage, restoration times can be longer because
the whole system downstream of the fault needs to be isolated or repaired before
normal service is restored.
2. Limited Reliability and Redundancy:
o Lack of Redundancy: Unlike ring or mesh systems, radial systems do not provide
multiple paths for power to flow. If the primary feeder is damaged or experiences
a failure, there is no alternate route for electricity to reach consumers. This limits
the system's reliability and the ability to recover quickly from faults.
3. Inflexibility in Load Growth:
o As the system grows, particularly in densely populated or expanding residential
areas, the radial system may become less efficient. The capacity of each individual
feeder may become inadequate to handle the growing demand, leading to the need
for costly upgrades.
o Adding new consumers can increase the load on existing feeders, which can cause
voltage drops and overloading if not properly managed.
4. Higher Voltage Drops Over Long Distances:
o In longer radial systems, the voltage drop increases as the distance from the
substation increases. This is particularly problematic for residential customers
 located at the far end of the feeder, as they may experience lower voltage levels,
requiring additional voltage regulation equipment.
5. Limited Fault Isolation and Restoration:
o Faults in a radial system can be harder to isolate and restore efficiently. In a system
without redundant paths, isolating a fault could result in a larger section of
customers being impacted, and manual restoration (switching or repairs) can be
time-consumin

EXPRESS FEEDER IS IN THE CONTEXT OF A RADIAL POWER

DISTRIBUTION SYSTEM. AND DISCUSS ITS PRIMARY PURPOSE AND
EXPLAIN THE CONCEPT OF A RADIAL POWER DISTRIBUTION
SYSTEM.
Express Feeder in the Context of a Radial Power Distribution System
An express feeder in the context of a radial power distribution system refers to a primary feeder
that delivers electricity directly from the substation to the load centers or distribution points in an
efficient manner, often with minimal intermediate steps. Express feeders are typically used for
supplying power to high-priority or critical areas, such as industrial zones or commercial districts,
which require a reliable, high-capacity supply of electricity.
The primary purpose of an express feeder is to provide a dedicated, high-capacity route for power
distribution, ensuring that essential customers or loads receive uninterrupted service. The express
feeder minimizes the number of intermediate distribution transformers and switching points
between the substation and the load, reducing transmission losses and improving the overall
reliability and efficiency of power delivery.
Radial Power Distribution System: Concept and Characteristics
A radial power distribution system is a type of electrical distribution system in which power is
transmitted in a single direction, from a central power source (usually a substation) to end-users
(customers or load points) along a network of feeders. In this system, each consumer is supplied
from a single source along one path, with the power flow traveling in one direction from the
substation to the load points.
Fundamental Characteristics of a Radial System:
1. Single Path for Power Flow: Power flows from the substation through a single feeder or
a series of feeders in a radial pattern toward the consumers. Each feeder branch serves a
specific geographical area.
2. Unidirectional Power Flow: The flow of electricity is unidirectional, moving from the
substation towards the distribution points, without any return paths for power. The feeders
usually do not have a direct return to the substation; instead, the neutral or ground system
typically provides the return path.
3. Simple and Cost-Effective Design: The radial configuration is relatively simple and cost-
effective to design and maintain. It requires fewer components (like switches, transformers,
and protective devices) compared to other more complex systems like ring or network
systems.
4. Limited Redundancy: Radial systems often lack redundancy; if there is a fault on one of
the feeders, the entire section of the distribution network downstream of the fault is
typically affected unless backup protection is implemented.
Primary Reason for Unidirectional Power Flow:
 The primary reason for unidirectional power flow in a radial system is the design of the
network. In a radial system, power is transmitted in one direction, from the substation to
the end customers. There are no alternate paths or loops through which power can flow
back toward the substation. This design simplifies the system and reduces cost, but it also
means that a fault or outage along the feeder can disrupt service to downstream consumers,
which is a notable disadvantage.

Summary:

 Express feeders are high-priority feeders in a radial distribution system that deliver power
efficiently from the substation to important load centers with minimal intermediate steps.
 A radial power distribution system is characterized by unidirectional power flow,
simplicity, and cost-effectiveness, with power flowing from the substation to consumers
along a single path.
 The unidirectional nature of the power flow results from the network's design, which does
not incorporate alternative return paths or loops for power, ensuring a simpler, more
straightforward distribution setup but potentially leading to vulnerabilities in the case of
faults or failures in the system.

DESIGN CONSIDERATIONS FOR AN EXPRESS FEEDER AND IT

CONFIGURED TO OPTIMIZE THE EFFICIENCY AND RELIABILITY
OF POWER DISTRIBUTION?
Express Feeder in the Context of a Radial Power Distribution System
An express feeder in the context of a radial power distribution system refers to a primary feeder
that delivers electricity directly from the substation to the load centers or distribution points in an
efficient manner, often with minimal intermediate steps. Express feeders are typically used for
supplying power to high-priority or critical areas, such as industrial zones or commercial districts,
which require a reliable, high-capacity supply of electricity.
The primary purpose of an express feeder is to provide a dedicated, high-capacity route for power
distribution, ensuring that essential customers or loads receive uninterrupted service. The express
feeder minimizes the number of intermediate distribution transformers and switching points
between the substation and the load, reducing transmission losses and improving the overall
reliability and efficiency of power delivery.

Design Considerations for an Express Feeder

An express feeder in a radial power distribution system is designed to deliver a reliable and high-
capacity flow of electricity from a substation to critical load centers with minimal losses and
interruptions. The design of an express feeder involves various considerations to optimize both the
efficiency and reliability of power distribution. Below are the key design considerations:
1. Capacity and Load Demand
 Load Forecasting: One of the primary considerations when designing an express feeder
is estimating the future demand at the end-user or load center. The feeder must be sized
appropriately to handle both current and future peak loads without overloading. This
requires a detailed load forecasting analysis, taking into account population growth,
industrial development, and seasonal variations in electricity consumption.
 Feeder Sizing: The feeder should be sized to minimize voltage drops and ensure the power
can be delivered efficiently to distant loads. This involves selecting the appropriate
 conductor size (e.g., aluminum or copper) to minimize resistive losses (I²R losses) while
keeping the capital and operational costs within acceptable limits.
2. Voltage Drop and Power Losses

 Minimizing Voltage Drop: To ensure efficient delivery of power over long distances,
express feeders are designed to minimize voltage drop. This can be done by choosing
appropriate conductor sizes, using higher operating voltages (e.g., 33 kV, 66 kV), and
limiting the feeder's length.
 Reducing Power Losses: Power losses in the feeder are primarily caused by the resistance
of the conductors. Using larger diameter cables and higher voltage levels helps to reduce
these losses. Additionally, the choice of conductor material (copper vs. aluminum) will
impact both the cost and efficiency.

3. Reliability and Redundancy

 Fault Tolerance and Protection: The express feeder must be designed with adequate
protection mechanisms to handle faults without affecting the overall reliability of the
distribution network. This includes protective devices such as fuses, circuit breakers, and
reclosers. The feeder should be equipped with fault detection and isolation capabilities to
minimize the impact of faults on the system.
 Single vs. Multiple Feeders: While express feeders are typically designed as single
feeders, redundancy may be built into the system by installing multiple parallel feeders or
by allowing the feeder to be supplied by different substations or sources. This ensures that
critical loads are not impacted if one feeder experiences a failure. However, the primary
goal is to minimize complexity and maintain an efficient design.
4. Path Selection and Routing

 Optimizing the Route: The path of the express feeder should be carefully planned to avoid
areas with a high risk of environmental hazards (e.g., flood-prone regions, densely
populated areas) while still providing a direct and efficient route from the substation to the
load centers.
 Geographical Considerations: The terrain (e.g., mountainous or urban areas) may impact
the cost and feasibility of laying the feeder. Urban areas may require underground cables
due to space constraints and safety concerns, while rural areas may use overhead lines to
reduce costs.

5. Safety and Compliance with Standards

 Regulatory Compliance: The design of an express feeder must adhere to local, national,
and international electrical codes and safety standards (such as those from the IEEE, IEC,
or NEC). This ensures that the system is safe for operation and is built to handle potential
faults, short circuits, and other hazards.
 Clearances and Protection: The feeder design should include sufficient clearances for
overhead lines to avoid accidental contact with objects (trees, buildings, etc.) and ensure
safe operation. For underground feeders, insulation and shielding are critical to prevent
accidental short circuits.
 5. Integration with Other Distribution Elements
 Coordination with Other Feeders: While an express feeder is designed to deliver power
to specific high-priority loads, it must still be coordinated with other feeders in the
distribution network to ensure overall system stability. This includes ensuring that
protection settings (e.g., relay coordination) are correctly configured so that faults on the
express feeder do not affect other parts of the network.
 Voltage Regulation: Express feeders often use voltage regulation equipment, such as on-
load tap changers or voltage regulators, to maintain a constant voltage level at the end
of the feeder, even under varying load conditions. This is particularly important for long
feeders where voltage drop may otherwise be significant
6. Monitoring and Control

 SCADA Systems: Modern express feeders are often integrated into a Supervisory
Control and Data Acquisition (SCADA) system for real-time monitoring and control.
SCADA allows for the remote monitoring of power quality, voltage levels, load flow, and
the identification of faults or issues.
 Telemetry and Remote Fault Detection: Some express feeders are equipped with smart
sensors and telemetry systems that allow for quick detection of faults and isolation of
faulted sections. These systems can send data to central control rooms, enabling faster
response times.
 8. Environmental Impact and Aesthetics
 Environmental Concerns: In certain areas, environmental concerns play a significant role
in feeder design. For example, underground feeders might be required in urban areas for
aesthetic reasons, to avoid visual pollution, or to prevent damage from storms.
Additionally, ecological considerations may dictate the route of the feeder to avoid
sensitive habitats or areas of natural conservation.
 Minimizing Impact: If the express feeder crosses sensitive environmental areas or
ecosystems, considerations such as minimizing disruption, using wildlife-friendly poles,
and adhering to environmental guidelines are important.

Optimizing Efficiency and Reliability
 For Efficiency:

o High Voltage Transmission: High-voltage transmission reduces losses over long

distances. For example, express feeders may operate at higher voltages (33 kV, 66
kV, or even 132 kV) to reduce resistive losses. At higher voltage levels, current is
reduced for the same power output, and losses are proportional to the square of the
current.
o Direct Routing: The path of the express feeder is kept as direct and short as
possible to minimize transmission losses.
o Proper Conductor Sizing: The feeder conductor is sized based on the expected
load and distance, ensuring that the voltage drop and losses are within acceptable
limits.
 For Reliability:
 o Redundant Protection Systems: Express feeders often have backup protection
mechanisms, such as automatic sectionalizing switches, to ensure that faults are
isolated quickly, and service can be restored without affecting critical loads.
o Real-time Monitoring: Integrated SCADA and telemetry systems provide the
ability to monitor the feeder's performance and respond quickly to any issues,
enhancing overall system reliability.
o Regular Maintenance: To ensure reliability, express feeders require periodic
inspection, testing, and maintenance to identify and address potential wear and tear
or damage.

RING MAIN DISTRIBUTION SYSTEM

Concept of Ring Main Distribution System (RMDS):

A Ring Main Distribution System (RMDS) is a type of power distribution network configuration
where the main feeders form a closed loop or ring. In this system, electricity can flow in either
direction around the loop, providing an alternative path for power in case of a fault. Ring main
systems are commonly used in urban and suburban areas for the distribution of electricity to
residential, commercial, and industrial consumers.
In this system, the primaries of distribution transformers form a loop. The loop circuit starts from
the substation bus-bars, makes a loop through the area to be served, and returns to the substation.
Fig. shows the single line diagram of ring main system for a.c. Distribution System Connection
where substation supplies to the closed feeder LMNOPQRS. The distributors are tapped from
different points M, O and Q of the feeder through distribution transformers.

Components of Ring Main Distribution System:

1. Main Feeders:
 The main feeders form the closed loop or ring, connecting various substations or
distribution points.
2. Branch Feeders:
  Branch feeders extend from the main ring to supply power to different areas,
neighborhoods, or industrial zones.
3. Switchgear:
 Switchgear, including circuit breakers and switches, is used to control the flow of
electricity, isolate faulty sections, and facilitate maintenance.
4. Transformers:
 Transformers are employed to step up or step down the voltage levels as needed for
distribution to different consumer loads.
5. Protection Devices:
 Protection devices, such as relays and fuses, are incorporated to detect and isolate
faults in the system.
Advantages of Ring Main Distribution System:
1. Fault Tolerance:
 One of the primary advantages of a ring main system is its fault tolerance. If a fault
occurs at any point in the ring, the electricity can still flow in the opposite direction,
ensuring continuity of supply to consumers.
2. Improved Reliability:Ring main systems enhance reliability by reducing the impact of
faults. They offer an alternative path for power flow, minimizing downtime in case of
localized issues.
3. Load Balancing:
 Ring main systems facilitate load balancing, as power can flow in either direction
around the ring. This helps in optimizing the distribution of electricity among
different feeders.
4. Redundancy:
 The closed-loop configuration provides a level of redundancy, ensuring that even
if one section of the ring is disrupted, electricity can still be supplied through the
other direction.
5. Scalability:
 Ring main systems can be easily expanded by adding new feeders or connecting
additional substations, making them scalable to accommodate growing electricity
demand.
Disadvantages of Ring Main Distribution System:
1. Complex Design:
 Designing and maintaining a ring main system can be more complex compared to
radial systems. The closed-loop structure requires careful consideration of load
distribution and fault scenarios.
2. Higher Initial Costs:
 The initial installation costs of ring main systems can be higher due to the need for
additional equipment such as switches, circuit breakers, and protection devices.
3. Maintenance Challenges:
 Fault detection and isolation can be more challenging in a ring main system, and
maintenance activities may require temporarily disconnecting sections of the ring.
4. Limited Flexibility in Expansion:
 While ring main systems are scalable, their expansion may be constrained by the
need to maintain the closed-loop configuration, limiting flexibility in certain
scenarios.
Applications Ring Main System is Suitable:
1. Urban and Suburban Areas:
 Ring main systems are well-suited for densely populated urban and suburban areas
where the reliability of electricity supply is critical.
2. Industrial Zones:
 In industrial zones with multiple substations and diverse loads, a ring main system
can offer fault tolerance and reliability.
3. Areas with High Reliability Requirements:
 Locations with high reliability requirements, such as hospitals, data centers, and
critical infrastructure, benefit from the fault-tolerant nature of ring main systems.
4. Growing Communities:
 Ring main systems are suitable for growing communities where scalability is
essential to accommodate increasing electricity demand.
5. Load Diversity:
 In areas with diverse and variable loads, a ring main system can facilitate load
balancing and optimize the distribution of electricity

COMPARISON WITH RADIAL VS. RING MAIN SYSTEMS, RADIAL VS. NETWORK
SYSTEMS, RADIAL VS. TREE-TYPE SYSTEMS:
Power distribution systems are designed to deliver electricity from substations to consumers. The
choice of system depends on factors like the geographical area, load density, reliability
requirements, and cost considerations. Here’s an explanation of the differences between Radial,
Ring Main, Network, and Tree-Type systems based on their design, reliability, cost, and suitability
for different areas.
Design Structure
Radial Ring Main Tree-Type
Aspect Network System
System System System
Simple, one-
Fully meshed,
way power Closed loop, two- Central trunk with
Basic Design interconnected
flow from way power flow multiple branches
sources
substation
Unidirectional
Bidirectional, Unidirectional,
from Bidirectional (can
Power Flow multiple power but with
substation to flow both ways)
paths branching
loads
Single path
Multiple Multiple
from Main trunk with
Connections connections interconnected
substation to branching feeders
(looped network) substations
loads
Fault Isolation and Reliability
Radial Ring Main Tree-Type
Aspect Network System
System System System
Faults can be Faults are isolated
Fault Faults affect Faults can be
bypassed via through multiple
Isolation entire isolated on
alternate paths paths and rerouting
 downstream individual
sections branches
Lower
Very high
reliability, High reliability, More reliable than
reliability, fault-
Reliability depends on the minimal impact radial, but not
tolerant, high
location of from faults fully redundant
redundancy
fault
Long
Shorter
downtimes if Minimal Minimal downtime
System downtimes
fault is not downtime due to due to automatic
Downtime compared to
quickly quick rerouting reconfiguration
radial
isolated
Some redundancy
No Built-in High redundancy through
Redundancy redundancy, redundancy due to with multiple power branching, but
single path loop design paths less than ring or
network
cost
Initial Higher cost due to Moderate cost,
Low cost, Highest cost due to
Installation interconnection more components
simple design complexity
Cost points than radial
Higher High maintenance Moderate
Low
Maintenance maintenance costs costs due to the maintenance costs
maintenance
Cost due to more complexity of due to branching
costs
components system components components
Higher operational
High operational
Low cost (more
Operational cost due to Moderate
operational equipment and
Cost complexity and operational cost
cost monitoring
monitoring
needed)
Suitability for Applications
Radial Ring Main Tree-Type
Aspect Network System
System System System
Rural or low- Urban areas,
High-density urban Suburban areas,
Best Suited density areas critical
areas, industrial moderate-density
For with low infrastructure, and
hubs, city centers urban areas
power demand industrial zones
Areas with high
Areas with Areas where high
load density where
fewer reliability is Suburban regions
Ideal Use service continuity is
customers and critical, such as needing better
Cases essential, e.g., city
low load hospitals, malls, reliability than
centers, industrial
density etc.
parks
Expansion and Scalability
 Radial Ring Main Tree-Type
Aspect Network System
System System System
Difficult to expand
Easy to Easier to expand
More difficult to due to complexity
Ease of expand by than network but
expand due to its and need for
Expansion adding more more complex
looped nature additional
feeders than radial
interconnections
Low Medium Medium
High scalability but
scalability due scalability, but scalability due to
Scalability requires significant
to lack of requires careful branching system
investment
redundancy planning design
Summary Comparison Table:
Aspect Radial Ring Main Network System Tree-Type
System System System
Design Simple Moderate High Moderate
Complexity
Reliability Low High Very High Medium
Fault Poor, large Good, fault Excellent, Fair, some
Isolation areas affected isolation via automatic fault branches isolated
rerouting isolation
Cost Low Moderate to High High Moderate
Maintenance Low Moderate to High High Moderate
Expansion Easy Challenging Complex but Moderate
scalable
Scalability Low Medium High Medium
Best Use Rural, low- Urban, critical High-density urban Suburban,
Case density areas infrastructure areas, industries moderate-density
area

SECONDARY BANKING IN POWER DISTRIBUTION SYSTEMS

The banking of distribution transformers, that is, parallel connection, or, in other word
Interconnection of secondary sides of two or more distribution transformers which are supplied
from the same primary feeder is called secondary banking. This system is used in residential and
light-commercial areas where the services are relatively close to each other, and therefore the
required spacing between transformers is little. However, many utilities prefer to keep the
secondary of each distribution transformer separate from all others. Secondary banking is a special
form of network configuration on a radial distribution system
Secondary banking in power distribution systems refers to the strategic placement of secondary
transformers and distribution equipment that step down electrical voltage from the primary
distribution network to lower levels suitable for delivery to end consumers. This system plays a
critical role in ensuring that electricity is efficiently and reliably transmitted from high-voltage
transmission lines to local distribution networks that serve homes, businesses, and industries.

1. Improvement of Efficiency in Electricity Delivery: Secondary banking optimizes the

flow of electricity by distributing it across different levels of the grid, ensuring that voltage
levels are adjusted appropriately for local use. This reduces losses during transmission and
prevents overloading of the primary network, thus improving overall system efficiency. By
placing transformers and other distribution equipment closer to the consumer, the system
minimizes the distance electricity travels, reducing transmission losses and ensuring stable
and reliable voltage levels at the point of consumption.
2. Enhancement of Reliability and Redundancy: The design and implementation of
secondary banking contribute significantly to the reliability and redundancy of the power
distribution network. By incorporating multiple secondary transformers and circuit
breakers into the setup, secondary banking ensures that if one transformer or circuit
experiences failure, others can quickly take over to prevent interruptions. This redundancy
is especially important in urban, suburban, and rural areas, where the grid might face
varying challenges:
o Urban areas benefit from secondary banking by accommodating high population
densities and complex infrastructure, ensuring rapid power distribution across
densely packed regions.
 oSuburban areas often experience issues with longer distances between consumers
and substations. Secondary banking helps mitigate voltage drops and ensures
consistent service.
o Rural areas, where distribution infrastructure might be less robust, rely on
secondary banking to improve power delivery across wide, less densely populated
regions, providing backup and stability.
3. Key Components of an Effective Secondary Banking Setup:
o Secondary Transformers: These are responsible for stepping down the voltage
from the primary network to levels suitable for residential or commercial use.
o Distribution Boards and Switchgears: These components control the flow of
electricity, directing it to various parts of the local network and providing safety
mechanisms, such as overload protection.
o Circuit Breakers and Fuses: These devices protect the system from faults or
overloads, ensuring that any disruptions in one section of the network don’t cascade
and affect the entire grid.
o Control and Monitoring Systems: These systems help operators monitor the
status of secondary banking equipment in real-time, providing data on load
conditions, voltage levels, and potential faults, allowing for proactive maintenance
and fast response to issues.
o Backup Power Sources: In critical areas, secondary banking setups may include
emergency backup generators or alternative power sources to ensure continuity of
service in case of primary network failure.

SPOT NETWORK IN A POWER DISTRIBUTION SYSTEM

A spot network in a power distribution system plays a crucial role in enhancing the reliability and
security of electricity supply, especially in high-demand areas such as urban centers, hospitals, and
industrial districts. It does so by providing multiple power feeds from different substations,
ensuring that if one feeder or substation fails, the others can maintain the supply without
interruption. This makes spot networks significantly more resilient compared to other distribution
configurations, such as radial and loop systems, which typically have a single path or limited
backup power sources.

Using two or more transformer units in parallel. It is similar to the closed Ring system. The low
voltage bus (spot network bus) is continuously energized by all units operating in parallel.
Automatic disconnection o any unit is obtained by sensitive reverse (directional) power relays in
the protection unit. If one feeder develops a fault, it is isolated by the protection on that feeder.
Switching for the maintenance of the primary feeder can be done without consumer interruption.
Spot networks are generally used in metropolitan or high load density areas for large continuous
process industries and essential service load such as water works etc. A spot network, because of
its multiplicity of feeders and transformers, highly reliable. Momentary and long duration outages
are almost non-existent
How Spot Networks Differ from Radial and Loop Systems:

 Radial Systems: In a radial system, power flows in a single direction from one substation
to consumers. A failure in any part of the network can result in a complete loss of power
for that section, making it less reliable.
 Loop Systems: Loop systems allow for power to flow in both directions, providing a
backup path if one section fails. However, they are still vulnerable to failures in the loop,
which may require longer restoration times.
 Spot Networks: In contrast, spot networks are designed with multiple independent
feeders that provide redundancy and fault tolerance. If one path is disrupted, the system
can quickly switch to another, ensuring continuous power supply. This redundancy is
critical in high-density areas like hospitals, where even a brief power loss could jeopardize
lives, or industrial districts, where downtime can be costly.

Factors in the Design of Transformers in a Spot Network:

The design and placement of primary and secondary transformers in a spot network depend on
several factors:

 Load Density: Transformers must be strategically placed to serve areas with high electrical
demand, ensuring that power is distributed efficiently and without excessive losses.
 Proximity to Demand: Transformers are often located near high-demand zones (such as
hospitals or factories) to minimize the distance electricity must travel, which reduces the
risk of voltage drop and energy losses.
 Redundancy and Accessibility: Multiple transformers are used in a spot network, often
at different locations, to provide backup in case of failure. This redundancy ensures that
critical services are continuously powered.
Managing Load Distribution for Regular and Peak Demand:

 Load Balancing: Spot networks use advanced control systems to balance the load across
multiple feeders. These systems ensure that no single transformer or feeder is overloaded,
and that power is distributed evenly based on real-time demand.
 Peak Demand Management: During periods of peak demand, utilities may use smart
grid technologies and demand response programs to optimize energy distribution.
These technologies allow for real-time monitoring and dynamic adjustment of load,
ensuring that the spot network can efficiently handle fluctuations in demand without
compromising service quality.

DESIGN CONSIDERATIONS FOR FEEDERS, DISTRIBUTORS, AND

BOOSTERS IN DISTRIBUTION SYSTEMS

FEEDERS.
 A feeder is a conductor which connects the sub-station (or localised generating station) to
the area where power is to be distributed.
 Generally, no tapings are taken from the feeder so that current in it remains the same
throughout.
 The main consideration in the design of a feeder is the current carrying capacity.
 Length of 11kV feeder is generally 3km in urban areas while in rural areas feeder length is
20km.
 A feeder usually begins with a feeder breaker at the distribution substation.
 The most common distribution feeder characteristics and classifications are listed below.
 The distribution voltage classes for most utilities are 4.5 kV, 11 kV, 23 kV,33kV and 35
kV, 37 kV
 Radial distribution lines can be less than a mile to more than 20 miles long.
 A distribution line load can be as high as 1,200 A, but in the range of 200,300–400 A
 Distribution feeders include control devices.
 The most common are shunt capacitors to meet local volt-ampere reactive (VAR)
requirements or support voltage regulation.
 Voltage boosters or voltage regulators are used to maintain adequate line voltage.
 Distribution feeders include control devices.
 The most common are shunt capacitors to meet local volt-ampere reactive (VAR)
requirements or support voltage regulation.
 Voltage boosters or voltage regulators are used to maintain adequate line voltage
DISTRIBUTOR.
• A distributor is a conductor from which tappings are taken for supply to the consumers.
• In Fig. , AB, BC, CD and DA are the distributors. The current through a distributor is not
constant because tapings are taken at various places along its length.
• While designing a distributor, voltage drop along its length is the main consideration since
the statutory limit of voltage variations is ± 6% of rated value at the consumers’ terminals.
A.C. 430/230, 3-phase, 4-wire
• D.C. 400/230; 3-wire system, A 400V line is normally be restricted to 0.5 to 1km
SERVICE MAINS.
• A service mains is generally a small cable which connects the distributor to the consumers’
terminals
OR
• The wires which convey power from the distributor to the consumer’s premises are known
as service mains (S).

Factors Influence The Selection Of A Substation

The selection of a substation location in an urban area is influenced by several critical factors that
can significantly impact the efficiency, reliability, and sustainability of the power distribution
system. These factors include:
 To select a suitable location of a substation the following points are to be considered:
 Substations are often located near areas with high electricity demand, such as urban centers,
industrial zones, or commercial districts. This helps in reducing transmission losses and
ensures a more efficient distribution of power.
 Locate the substation as near the load centre of its service are as possible.
 Substation site be such where required voltage regulation can be achieved.
 Select the substation site which provides proper access for incoming and outgoing lines.
 The selected substation location should provide enough space for the future substation
expansion and augmentation.
 Location of present and future load center
 Location of existing and future sources of power
 Availability of suitable right-of-way and access to site by overhead or underground
transmission and distribution circuits
 Alternative land use considerations
 Location of existing distribution lines
 Nearness to all-weather highway and railroad siding, accessibility to heavy equipment under
all weather conditions, and access roads into the site
 Possible objections regarding appearance, noise, or electrical effects
 Site maintenance requirements including equipment repair, watering, mowing, landscaping,
storage, and paintin
 ROLE AND CLASSIFICATION OF SUBSTATION
A substation in an electrical power system serves as a critical point where voltage levels are
adjusted, electrical power is routed, and the system's stability is maintained. It is essentially the
junction between high-voltage transmission lines and low-voltage distribution networks, ensuring
that electricity generated at power plants is safely and efficiently delivered to end-users.

Role of a Substation in Power Systems:

1. Voltage Transformation: One of the primary functions of a substation is to either step up

or step down the voltage. Power generated at a plant is typically stepped up to a higher
voltage for long-distance transmission, reducing energy loss. When it reaches local areas,
substations step down the voltage to levels suitable for use in homes, industries, and
businesses.
2. Switching and Control: Substations are equipped with various control devices such as
circuit breakers, switches, and disconnects, which allow operators to control the flow of
electricity, isolate faulty sections, and reroute power when necessary. This flexibility
ensures that the power system remains stable and that any faults can be quickly localized,
minimizing disruptions to the overall grid.
3. Protection and Safety: Substations also include protective relays that monitor the
electrical system for any anomalies such as faults, overloads, or short circuits. These
protective devices disconnect parts of the system during abnormal conditions to prevent
widespread damage and maintain grid integrity.
4. Power Factor Correction: Many substations include capacitors or synchronous
condensers to improve the power factor, optimizing the system's efficiency. By reducing
reactive power demand, power factor correction helps minimize losses and reduces the
need for additional generation capacity.

Types of Substations Based on Function and Location:

1. Transformer Substations: The most common type, these substations are designed
primarily for voltage transformation. They adjust voltage levels to suit the transmission or
distribution requirements of the system.
2. Switching Substations: These substations do not alter voltage but are crucial for routing
power and isolating parts of the grid during faults or for maintenance. They enhance system
flexibility and allow operators to manage electrical flows across the network more
effectively.
3. Power Factor Correction Substations: These are specifically designed to manage and
improve the power factor of the electrical system, helping to balance the reactive and active
power demands and optimize the grid's efficiency.
4. Frequency Changer Substations: Found in regions where different parts of the grid
operate at different frequencies, these substations convert electrical power from one
frequency to another, ensuring compatibility between interconnected networks.
 5. Converting Substations: Typically used in high-voltage direct current (HVDC) systems,
converting substations convert AC to DC or vice versa. This type of substation is essential
for long-distance power transmission, where DC transmission is more efficient.
6. Location-Based Classifications:
o Indoor Substations: Compact substations typically housed in buildings, often
found in urban areas where space is limited.
o Outdoor Substations: Larger substations located in open areas, often found in
suburban or rural settings where there is more space for expansion.

Types of Substations Based on Voltage Levels:

1. High-Voltage Substations (Transmission Substations): These operate at voltages

typically above 110 kV and are located in the transmission network. Their role is to step
up voltage for long-distance transmission or step down voltage for local distribution. These
substations are integral to reducing energy losses during transmission and ensuring
efficient energy delivery over vast distances.
2. Medium-Voltage Substations (Distribution Substations): Operating at voltages between
1 kV and 69 kV, these substations step down voltage from the transmission level for local
distribution. They serve as the interface between the high-voltage transmission system and
the low-voltage distribution system, ensuring that power reaches consumers in a safe and
usable form.
3. Low-Voltage Substations: These are usually the final link in the power chain, where
voltage is further stepped down to 120V or 240V, the standard household voltage, before
being supplied to end-users.

Contribution to Efficient Power Distribution:

1. Voltage Regulation and Loss Reduction: By stepping up voltage for long-distance

transmission and stepping it down for local distribution, substations help reduce
transmission losses and ensure that voltage remains within acceptable limits throughout the
network.
2. Grid Stability: The strategic placement of substations allows for better load management
and quicker isolation of faults, enhancing grid stability. Switching and converting
substations, in particular, ensure that power flow can be redirected during disruptions,
preventing large-scale outages.
3. System Flexibility: The classification of substations based on function (e.g., switching,
transformer, power factor correction) provides flexibility in grid operation. This allows
operators to balance supply and demand, improve system reliability, and optimize resource
use, all of which are essential for maintaining a stable and efficient electrical grid.
4. Optimized Distribution: By grouping substations based on voltage levels and their
function, the power network is better able to meet varying demands. High-voltage
substations ensure efficient long-distance transmission, while medium- and low-voltage
substations ensure power reaches local consumers with minimal loss and stable voltage
levels.
FUNCTIONS AND TYPES OF EQUIPMENT TYPICALLY FOUND IN A SUBSTATION
Functions of a Substation in a Power Distribution System:
A substation is a key component in a power distribution system, serving as an intermediary point
between the high-voltage transmission system and the lower-voltage distribution network. Its
primary functions include voltage transformation, switching, and the overall control and protection
of the electrical power flowing through the system. Here are the main functions of a substation:
1. Voltage Transformation:
 One of the primary functions is to transform the voltage level of incoming
electricity. Step-up transformers increase the voltage for efficient long-distance
transmission, while step-down transformers reduce the voltage to levels suitable for
distribution to end-users.
2. Switching Operations:
 Substations facilitate the switching of circuits to control the flow of electricity.
Switchgear, including circuit breakers and switches, is used to connect or
disconnect various parts of the power system, enabling maintenance, repairs, and
managing different load conditions.
3. Protection and Control:
 Substations play a crucial role in protecting the power system from faults and
overloads. Protective relays and control systems monitor the health of the system,
detect abnormalities, and trigger appropriate actions, such as isolating faulty
sections or disconnecting equipment to prevent damage.
4. Reactive Power Compensation:
 Substations may incorporate devices like capacitors and reactors to provide reactive
power compensation. This helps maintain the voltage levels within acceptable
limits and improves the overall power factor of the system.
5. Metering and Monitoring:
 Substations house metering equipment to measure parameters such as voltage,
current, and power. This data is essential for billing purposes, load management,
and overall system monitoring.
6. Grounding:
 Substations ensure proper grounding of the system to enhance safety. Grounding
reduces the risk of electric shock, provides a path for fault currents, and stabilizes
voltage levels.
Types of Equipment Found in a Substation and Their Roles:
1. Transformers:
 Role: Transform voltage levels between the transmission and distribution systems.
 Types: Step-up transformers, step-down transformers.
2. Switchgear:
 Role: Enables the switching of electrical circuits for maintenance, repairs, or to
control the flow of electricity.
 Types: Circuit breakers, disconnect switches, load break switches.
3. Protective Relays:
 Role: Monitor the power system for abnormalities and trigger protective actions in
case of faults or overloads.
 Types: Overcurrent relays, voltage relays, differential relays.
4. Capacitors and Reactors:
  Role: Provide reactive power compensation to improve power factor and stabilize
voltage levels.
 Types: Shunt capacitors, shunt reactors.
5. Control Systems:
 Role: Monitor and control various components within the substation for efficient
and reliable operation.
 Types: Supervisory Control and Data Acquisition (SCADA) systems,
Programmable Logic Controllers (PLCs).
6. Busbars:
 Role: Act as a central point for the connection of various electrical components
within the substation.
 Types: Main busbars, transfer busbars.
7. Instrument Transformers:
 Role: Provide accurate measurements of current and voltage for metering and
protection purposes.
 Types: Current transformers (CTs), voltage transformers (VTs).
8. Grounding Systems:
 Role: Ensure the safe dissipation of fault currents and stabilize voltage levels.
 Types: Grounding electrodes, ground grids.
9. Metering Equipment:
 Role: Measure various electrical parameters for billing, load management, and
system monitoring.
 Types: Watt-hour meters, voltage meters, current meters.

CONSIDERATIONS FOR UNDERGROUND VERSUS OVERHEAD

DISTRIBUTION SYSTEMS

OVERHEAD VERSUS UNDERGROUND SYSTEM

i) Public safety. The underground system is more safe than overhead system because all
distribution wiring is placed underground and there are little chances of any hazard.
(ii) Initial cost. The underground system is more expensive due to the high cost of trenching,
conduits, cables, manholes and other special equipment. The initial cost of an underground
system may be five to ten times than that of an overhead system.
(iii) Flexibility. The overhead system is much more flexible than the underground system. In the
latter case, manholes, duct lines etc., are permanently placed once installed and the load
expansion can only be met by laying new lines. However, on an overhead system, poles,
wires, transformers etc., can be easily shifted to meet the changes in load conditions
iv) Faults. The chances of faults in underground system are very rare as the cables are laid
underground and are generally provided with better insulation.
(v) Appearance. The general appearance of an underground system is better as all the distribution
lines are invisible. This factor is exerting considerable public pressure on electric supply
companies to switch over to underground system
(vi) Fault location and repairs. In general, there are little chances of faults in an underground
system. However, if a fault does occur, it is difficult to locate and repair on this system. On
an overhead system, the conductors are visible and easily accessible so that fault locations
and repairs can be easily made
(vii)Current carrying capacity and voltage drop. An overhead distribution conductor has a
considerably higher current carrying capacity than an underground cable conductor of
the same material and cross-section. On the other hand, underground cable conductor
has much lower inductive reactance than that of an overhead conductor because of
closer spacing of conductors.
viii) Useful life.
The useful life of underground system is much longer than that of an overhead system. An
overhead system may have a useful life of 25 years, whereas an underground system
may have a useful life of more than 50 years
(ix) Maintenance cost.
• The maintenance cost of underground system is very low as compared with that
of overhead system because of less chances of faults and service interruptions
from wind, ice, lightning as well as from traffic hazards
(X) Interference with communication circuits.
• An overhead system causes electromagnetic interference with the telephone
lines. The power line currents are superimposed on speech currents, resulting
in the potential of the communication channel being raised to an undesirable
level. However, there is no such interference with the underground system
 DIFFERENCE B/W THE PRIMARY & SECONDARY DISTRIBUTION
SYSTEM

Parameter Primary Distribution Secondary Distribution

Basic description It concerns the portion of the
It concerns the portion of the
power system that delivers power system that provides
high-voltage electricity to low-voltage electricity to the
distribution transformers. end users.
Distance covered This portion of the power This portion of the power
system covers 3-20 kmsystem covers less distance as
distance from Gird station it only delivers the electricity
from distribution transformers
to the end users.
Point of origin This portion of the power This portion of the power
system starts from the Gird system starts from the
station/ some time power distribution transformers.
generating stations
Including components This portion of the power This portion of the power
system includes overhead system includes distribution
lines, underground cables, and transformers that stepped
associated equipment such as down the voltage coming from
circuit breakers, transformers, the primary distribution
switches, etc. system.

Level of Fault current This portion of the power This portion of the power
system involves high fault system involves a small fault
currents current due to low-voltage
lines.
Voltage level magnitude • single-phase, The Secondary Distribution is
120/208V three phase generally carried out at the
or 277/480V three Voltage level of 440 V/ 230V.
phase in U.S system,
whereas, 220/380V or
230/400V or
240/416V three phase
in European System.
• In Pakistan 230/440V
secondary distribution
voltage is used
Power capacity It controls the large power It deals with the smaller power
capacity. capacity.
Line losses More power losses due to a Fewer power losses due to a
larger distance smaller distance
Flexibility Less flexible due to large More flexible because of less
distance distance.
Capital cost This portion of the power This portion of the power
system will require higher system will require less capital
capital costs due to the large cost due to the small
infrastructure and additional infrastructure and small types
components of equipment.
Power factor This distribution system Here, the power factor
transmits the power at a higher depends upon the consumer
power factor. load.
Maintenance requirement It involves more requirements
It involves fewer requirements
of maintenance. of maintenance
Number of lines The primary distribution The Secondary distribution
system involves fewer lines.system has a larger number of
lines and they are in dense.
Inspection There will be more need for There will be less need for
Inspection in this portion Inspection in this portion
because of the complex because of the localized
network. network.
Insulator size This portion of the power This portion of the power
system involves larger system involves smaller
insulators due to high insulators due to low voltages.
voltages.
Interfacing The primary distribution The secondary distribution
system interfaces with higher- system interfaces with lower-
capacity transmission lines. capacity distribution lines.
Voltage Level High (11 kV - 33 kV or Low (120-220V single phase
higher) 415 V to 440 V three phase)

Purpose Transports electricity to local Delivers electricity to end

substations consumers
Components High-voltage lines, Low-voltage distribution
substations, transformers lines, service transformers
Distance & Capacity Long-distance, high capacity Short-distance, lower capacity

Power Losses Minimizes losses due to Higher losses due to lower

higher voltage voltage and higher current
Higher losses due to lower
voltage and higher current
Protection Circuit breakers, fuses, relays Localized fuses, breakers,
grounding