Bimolecules

Carbohydrates
The carbohydrates may be defined as optically active polyhydroxy aldehydes or
ketones or the compounds which produce such units on hydrolysis.
Some common examples are cane sugar, glucose, starch, etc. Most of them
have a general formula, Cx(H2O)y, and were considered as hydrates of carbon from
where the name carbohydrate was derived. For example, the molecular formula of
glucose (C6H12O6) fits into this general formula, C6(H2O)6.
Classification of Carbohydrates :
(1)On the basis of their behaviour on hydrolysis. They have been divided into
following three groups.

(a) Monosaccharides: A carbohydrate that cannot be hydrolysed further to give

simpler unit of polyhydroxy aldehyde or ketone is called a monosaccharide. Some
common examples are glucose, fructose, ribose, etc

(b) Oligosaccharides: Carbohydrates that yield two to ten monosaccharide units, on

hydrolysis, are called oligosaccharides. Depending upon the number of
monosaccharides, they provide on hydrolysis they are further classify as disaccharides,
trisaccharides, tetrasaccharides, etc.
(i)Disaccharides : they provide two monosaccharides on hydrolysis eg:
sucrose ,maltose,lactose etc.
(ii)Trisaccharides : they provide three monosaccharides on hydrolysis eg : raffinose
(iii)Tetrasaccharides etc.
(c) Polysaccharides: Carbohydrates which yield a large number of monosaccharide
units on hydrolysis are called polysaccharides. Some common examples are starch,
cellulose, glycogen, gums, etc.

(2) Reducing sugars and Non- reducing sugars :The carbohydrates may also be
classified as either reducing or nonreducing sugars. All those carbohydrates which
reduce Fehling’s
solution and Tollens’ reagent are referred to as reducing sugars. All monosaccharides
whether aldose or ketose are reducing sugars. Eg. glucose, fructose, among
disaccharides maltose and lactose etc
Non- reducing sugars : All those carbohydrates which do not reduce Fehling’s
solution and Tollens’ reagent.eg sucrose, starch, cellulose, glycogen etc.

(3)Sugars and Non-Sugars :

Sugars :The carbohydrates, which are sweet in taste, crystalline solid and soluble in
water are also called sugars.eg. glucose, fructose
Non-Sugars : The carbohydrates, which are tasteless , amorphous solid and
insoluble in water are also called Non-sugars. starch, cellulose

Classification of Monosaccharides: Monosaccharides are further classified on the

basis of number of carbon atoms and the functional group present in them. If a
monosaccharide contains an aldehyde group, it is known as an aldose and if it contains
a ketonic group, it is known as a ketose.

S Type Functional Examples

No. group
1 Aldotriose -CHO Glyceraldehyde
2 Aldotetrose -CHO Erythrose
3 Aldopentose -CHO Ribose,xylose
4 Aldohexose -CHO Glucose,glactose ,mannose
4 Ketotriose -C=O Dihydroxyacetone
5 Ketotetrose -C=O Erythrulose
6 Ketopentose -C=O Ribulose, xylulose
7 Ketohexose -C=O Fructose

Glucose (dextrose)
Glucose occurs freely in nature as well as in the combined form. It is present in sweet
fruits and honey, Ripe grapes. Glucose is an aldohexose and is also known as dextrose.
Its molecular formula was found to be C6H12O6. It contain aldehyde group ,one
primary –OH group and four secondary –OH groups. it has following structure.

Evidences in favour of open chain structure of glucose:

(i) On prolonged heating with HI, it forms n-hexane, suggesting that all the six carbon
atoms are linked in a straight chain.
HI/HEAT
CH2OH-(CHOH)4-CHO CH3-CH2- CH2- CH2- CH2- CH3
glucose n-Hexane
(ii) Glucose reacts with hydroxylamine to form an oxime and adds a molecule of
hydrogen cyanide to give cyanohydrin. These reactions confirm the presence of a
carbonyl group (>C = 0) in glucose.

(i) glucose oxime

(ii) glucose cyanohydrin

(iii)Glucose gets oxidised to six carbon carboxylic acid (gluconic acid) on reaction
with a mild oxidising agent like bromine water. This indicates that the carbonyl group
is present as an aldehydic group.

(iv) Acetylation of glucose with acetic anhydride gives glucose pentaacetate which
confirms the presence of five –OH groups. groups should be attached to different
carbon atoms.
(v) On oxidation with nitric acid, glucose yield a dicarboxylic acid, saccharic acid.
This indicates the presence of a primary alcoholic (–OH) group in glucose.

Fischer projection formula of Glucose : The exact spatial arrangement of different

—OH groups was given by Fischer after studying many other properties

Relative configuration of Glucose: (D-Glucose and L-Glucose)

The letters ‘D’ or ‘L’ before the name of any compound indicate the relative
configuration of a particular stereoisomer. This refers to their relation with a particular
isomer of glyceraldehydes. For assigning the configuration of monosaccharides, it is
the lowest asymmetric carbon atom on which –OH group is at the right side which is
comparable to (+) glyceraldehyde, it is assigned D-configuration.

If the lowest asymmetric carbon atom on which –OH group is at the left side which is
comparable to (-) glyceraldehyde, it is assigned L-configuration.

LIMITATIONS OF OPEN STRUCTURE OF GLUCOSE:

following reactions and facts could not be explained by open structure of
glucose.
1. Despite having the aldehyde group, glucose does not give 2,4-DNP test, Schiff’s
test and it does not form the hydrogensulphite addition product with NaHSO3.
2. The pentaacetate of glucose does not react with hydroxylamine indicating the
absence of free —CHO group.
3. Glucose is found to exist in two different crystalline forms which are named as α
and β. The α-form of glucose (m.p. 419 K) is obtained by crystallisation from
concentrated solution of glucose at 303 K while the β-form (m.p. 423 K) is obtained
by crystallisation from hot and
saturated aqueous solution at 371 K.
4.Mutarotation: Both α and β-D –glucose undergo mutarotation in aqueous solution.

This behaviour could not be explained by the open chain structure but can be explain
by cyclic structure of glucose.
CYCLIC STRUCTURE OF GLUCOSE :
It was proposed that one of the —OH groups may add to the —CHO group and form a
cyclic hemiacetal structure. Due to this glucose forms a six-membered ring in which
—OH at C-5
is involved in ring formation.
This also explains that due to ring formation -CHO group get involved so the absence
of —CHO group .
also existence of glucose in two forms,ie α- D- (+)-Glucose and β –D-(+)-Glucose. as
shown below

.
These two cyclic forms exist in equilibrium with open chain structure. The structure in
which –OH group is at right side on C1 carbon is called α-form of glucose and on
which –OH group is at left side on C1 carbon is called β -form of glucose.

ANOMERS : The two cyclic hemiacetal forms of glucose differ only in the
configuration of the hydroxyl group at C1, called anomeric carbon Such isomers, i.e.,
α -form and β -form, are called anomers.

Haworth projection formula: The six membered cyclic structure of glucose is called
pyranose structure (α -form and β -form), in analogy with pyran.
EXPLAINATION OF THE LIMITATIONS OF OPEN STRUCTURE OF
GLUCOSE:

(i)Mutarotation : In cyclic structure of glucose both α and β-D –glucose exists as

equilibrium mixture in in following proportions.

α -D-(+) –glucose equilibrium mixturein β -D-(+) –glucose

(specific rotation=+111o) (specific rotation=+52.5o) (specific
rotation=+19.2o)
36%  0.5 % 64%

Freshly prepared solutions of both form are stable but after some time their specific
rotation changes and get an equilibrium value of 52.5 o . This spontaneous change in
specific rotation of an optical active substance to an equilibrium value is called
Mutarotation.
This occurs due to hydrolysis of cyclic form in aqueous solution.

(ii)Despite having the aldehyde group, glucose does not give 2,4-DNP test, Schiff’s
test and it does not form the hydrogensulphite addition product with NaHSO3. Because
all these reaction is given by open structure of glucose which is present in only .5% in
aq .solution and reactions with these substance are irreversible.

(iii)The pentaacetate of glucose does not react with hydroxylamine. Because in

pentaacetate of glucose do not have free –OH group at C1 so upon hydrolysis of cyclic
structure do not produce –CHO group.ie. absence of free —CHO group.

OPEN AND CYCLIC STRUCTURE OF FRUCTOSE :

Fructose is an important ketohexose. Fructose also has the molecular formula C 6H12O6
and
on the basis of its reactions it was found to contain a ketonic functional group at
carbon number 2 and six carbons in straight chain as in the case of glucose. Its open
chain structure is as shown.

It also exists in two cyclic forms which are obtained by the addition of —OH at C5 to
the (C=O ) group. The ring, thus formed is a five membered ring and is named as
furanose with analogy to the compound furan.
Haworth projection formula:

Proteins
Proteins are the most abundant biomolecules of the living system. They occur in every
part of the body and form the fundamental basis of structure and functions of life.
They are also required for growth and maintenance of body. All proteins are polymers
of α-amino acids.
Chief sources of proteins are milk, cheese, pulses, peanuts, fish, meat, etc.
Amino acids : Amino acids contain amino (–NH2) and carboxyl (–COOH) functional
groups. Depending upon the relative position of amino group with respect to carboxyl
group, the amino acids can be classified as α, β, γ, δ and so on.

Amino acids are generally represented by a three letter symbol, sometimes one letter
symbol is also used. Structures of some commonly occurring amino acids along with
their 3-letter and 1-letter symbols are:

SNo. Name of amino Structure R= Three letter

acid symbol
1 Glycine R=H Gly
2 Alanine R= CH3 Ala
3 Valine* R= (H3C)2CH- Val
4 Leucine* R= (H3C)2CH-CH2- Leu
5 Isoleucine* R= CH3- CH2- CH-CH3 Ile
6 Aspartic acid R= HOOC-CH2- Asp
7 Glutamic acid R= HOOC-CH2-CH2- Glu
8 Lysine* R= H2N-(CH2)4- Lys
9 Arginine* Arg
R=
10 Histidine* His

R=
11 Methionine* R= H3C-S-CH2-CH2- Met
12 Phenylalanine* R= C6H5-CH2- Phe
13 Threonine* R= H3C-CHOH- Thr
14 Tryptophan*
Trp
R=

Classification of Amino Acids (AA): Amino acids are classified as acidic, basic or
neutral depending upon the relative number of amino and carboxyl groups in their
molecule
(a) Neutral amino acid : when molecule of AA have Equal number of amino and
carboxyl groups. Eg. Glycine, Alanine, Valine*, Leucine*, Isoleucine*.
(b)Acidic amino acid : when molecule of AA have more carboxyl groups as
compared to amino groups .eg Aspartic acid, Glutamic acid
(c) Basic amino acid : when molecule of AA have more amino groups as
compared to carboxyl groups.eg. Lysine*, Arginine*, Histidine

2. Essential amino acids And Nonessential amino acids:

Nonessential amino acids : The amino acids, which can be synthesised in the body,
are known as nonessential amino acids. eg. Glycine Alanine, Aspartic acid, Glutamic
acid etc.

Essential amino acids : The amino acids ,which cannot be synthesised in the body
and must be obtained through diet, are known as essential amino acids. Eg .Valine*,
Leucine*, Isoleucine*, Lysine*, Arginine*, Histidine*,*, Methionine* Phenylalanine*,
Threonine*, Tryptophan*.

Structure of protein: proteins are the polymers of α -amino acids and they are
connected to each other by peptide bond or peptide linkage.
Chemically, peptide linkage is an amide formed between –COOH group and
–NH2 group. The reaction between two molecules of similar or different amino acids,
proceeds through the combination of the amino group of one molecule with the
carboxyl group of the other. This results in the elimination of a water molecule and
formation of a peptide bond
–CO–NH–. The product of the reaction is called a peptide.

Types of peptides:
Di- peptide: When two amino-acids combines they form dipeptide for eg.
when carboxyl group of glycine combines with the amino group of alanine we get a
dipeptide, glycylalanine.
Tri- peptide: If a third amino acid combines to a dipeptide, the product is called a
tripeptide .if valine combine with above dipeptide we get glycylalanylvaline (Gly-Ala-
Val)

Glycylalanylvaline
Polypeptides: When the number of such amino acids is more than ten, then the
products are called polypeptides
Protein: A polypeptide with more than hundred amino acid residues, having
molecular mass higher than 10,000u and have a well defined conformation of a protein
is called a protein.

Classification of proteins: on the basis of their molecular shape.Proteins can be

classified into two types. (a) Fibrous proteins & (b) Globular proteins
Fibrous proteins Globular proteins
1 When in the proteins polypeptide When in the proteins polypeptide chains
chains run parallel and are held coil around Itself to give a spherical shape.
together by Is called Globular proteins
hydrogen and disulphide bonds, then
fibre– like structure is formed is
called Fibrous proteins
2 These proteins are generally These are usually soluble in water
insoluble in water
3 These proteins are stable to moderate These proteins are very sensitive to small
change in PH and Temperature. change in PH and Temperature.
4 These serves as structural material of
animal tissue.
5 Some common examples are keratin . Insulin, Antibodies, Hemoglobin and
(present in hair, wool, silk) and albumins are the common examples of
myosin (present in muscles),collagen globular proteins
in tendon, fibroin in silk

Structure of proteins: Structure and shape of proteins can be studied at four different
levels, i.e., primary, secondary, tertiary and quaternary.
(i) Primary structure of proteins: Each polypeptide in a protein has amino acids
linked with each other in a specific sequence and it is this sequence of amino acids
that is said to be the primary structure of that protein. Any change in this primary
structure i.e., the sequence of amino acids creates a different protein.
(ii) Secondary structure of proteins: The secondary structure of protein refers to the
shape in which a long polypeptide chain can exist. They are found to exist in two
different types of structures viz. α-helix and β -pleated sheet structure. These
structures arise due to the regular folding of the backbone of the polypeptide chain due
to hydrogen bonding between and –NH– groups of the peptide bond.

α-Helix form:α-Helix is one of the most common ways in which a polypeptide chain
forms all possible hydrogen bonds by twisting into a right handed screw (helix) with
the –NH group of each amino acid residue hydrogen bonded to the C= O of an
adjacent turn of the helix. myosin (present in muscles)has this structure.
β-pleated sheet structure :In β-structure all peptide chains are stretched out to nearly
maximum extension and then laid side by side with alternate -R group on same side
which are held together by intermolecular hydrogen bonds. The structure resembles
the pleated folds of drapery and therefore is known as β-pleated sheet.eg. keratin and
fibroin has this structure.

α-Helix form β-pleated sheet structure

(iii) Tertiary structure of proteins: The tertiary structure of proteins represents

overall folding of the polypeptide chains i.e., further folding of the secondary structure.
It gives rise to two major
molecular shapes viz. fibrous and globular. The main forces which stabilise the 2° and
3° structures of proteins are hydrogen bonds, disulphide linkages, van der Waals and
electrostatic forces of attraction.eg tertiary structure of Fibrous proteins is rope-like or
rod like.
(iv) Quaternary structure of proteins: Many protein exists as single polypeptide
chain but Some of the proteins are composed of two or more polypeptide chains
referred to as sub-units. The spatial arrangement of these subunits with respect to each
other is known as quaternary structure.

Denaturation of Proteins:
Native protein: Protein found in a biological system with a unique three-dimensional
structure and biological activity is called a native protein
When a protein in its native form, is subjected to physical change like
change
in temperature or chemical change like change in pH, the hydrogen bonds are
disturbed. Due to this, globules unfold and helix get uncoiled and protein loses its
biological activity. This is called denaturation of protein.
During denaturation 2° and 3° structures are destroyed but 1º structure
remains intact. The coagulation of egg white on boiling is a common example of
denaturation. Another example is curdling of milk which is caused due to the
formation of lactic acid by the bacteria present in milk.

NUCLEIC ACIDS
The particles in nucleus of the cell, responsible for heredity, are called chromosomes
which are made up of proteins and another type of bio molecules called nucleic acids.
These are mainly of two types, the deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) and
ribonucleic acid (RNA). nucleic acids are long chain polymers of nucleotides, so they
are also called polynucleotides

Chemical Composition of Nucleic Acids: nucleic acids are made up of a pentose

sugar, phosphoric acid and nitrogen containing heterocyclic compounds (called
nitrogenous bases).
PENTOSE SUGAR: It is ribose sugar. In RNA molecule, it is β-D-ribose whereas in
DNA molecules, the sugar is β-D-2 de-oxyribose

NITROGENOUS BASES: DNA contains four bases viz. adenine (A), guanine (G),
cytosine (C) and thymine (T).
RNA also contains four bases, adenine (A), guanine (G), cytosine (C) fourth
one is uracil (U).

NITROGENOUS BASES OF DNA:

NITROGENOUS BASES OF RNA:

NUCLEOSIDE: It consist of pentose (ribose) sugar and Nitrogenous bases.
Nucleoside A unit formed by the attachment of a
base to 1′ position of sugar is known as
nucleoside.

Nucleoside when hydrolysed produce ribose sugar and nitrogenous base.

NUCLEOTIDES: When nucleoside is linked to phosphoric acid at 5’-position

of sugar moiety, we get a nucleotide

Nucleoside when hydrolysed produce ribose sugar , nitrogenous base and phosphoric
acid .

POLYNUCLEOTIDES/ NUCLEIC ACIDS : Large number of nucleotides (>10)

joined together to form polynucleotides . Nucleotides are joined together by
phosphodiester linkage between 5′ and 3′ carbon atoms of the pentose sugar.

Structure of nucei Acid: It has two structure (i) primary structure: sequence of
nitrogenous base in the chain of a nucleic acid is called its primary structure.
(ii) Secondary structure : (James Watson and Crick model )
Nucleic acids have a secondary structure also. James Watson and Francis Crick
gave a double strand helix structure for DNA .
Two nucleic acid chains are wound about each other and held together
by hydrogen bonds between pairs of bases. The two strands are complementary to
each other because the hydrogen bonds are formed between specific pairs of bases.
Adenine forms hydrogen bonds with thymine whereas cytosine forms hydrogen bonds
with guanine.
Secondary structure of RNA: In secondary structure of RNA, helices are
present which are
only single stranded. Sometimes they fold back on themselves to form a double helix
structure.
RNA molecules are of three types and they perform different functions.
They are named as messenger RNA (m-RNA), ribosomal RNA (r-RNA) and transfer
RNA (t-RNA).

DNA Replication:the process by which a single DNA molecule produce two identical
copies of itself is called replication. It occure during cell division.
I

Double strand helix structure for DNA

Biological Functions of Nucleic Acids :

(i)Heredity : DNA is exclusively responsible for maintaining the identity of different
species of organisms over millions of years. A DNA molecule is capable of self
duplication during cell division and identical DNA strands are transferred to daughter
cells.

(ii)Protein Synthesis: the proteins are synthesised by various RNA molecules in the
cell but the message for the synthesis of a particular protein is present in DNA.