Dr.

Subhashini
Genetic Code (IInd Sem)
DNA.
The genetic code is the code which body uses to convert the instructions contained in
It is typically discussed using the "codons" found in mRNA, as mRNA is the messenger that
carries information from the DNA to the site of protein synthesis. Therefore, Genetic code is
the set of nules used by living cells to translate information encoded within genetic material
(DNA or mRNA sequence) into proteins. Translation is accomplished by the ribosome, which
links amino acids in an order specified by messenger RNA (mRNA), using transfer
RNA (tRNA)molecules to carry amino acids and to read the mRNA three nucleotides at a
time. The genetic code is highly similar among all organisms and can be expressed in a
simple table with 64 entries.

SECOND LETTER
U A G

UUU1 Phe UCU7 UAU UGU1

UUC UCC UAC TyT UGC Cys
UUA1 Leu UCA Ser
UAA" UGA" A
UUGJ UCG UAG" UGG Tryp
CUU CCU CAU1 His CGU
CUC CCC CAC CGC
Leu Pro
CUA CCA CAAT CGA Ary
CUG CCG CAG GluN CGG
AUU ACU) AAUT AGU Ser
A
AUC
Tleu ACC
Thr AAC AspN AGC
AUA. ACA AAA AGA
AUG} Met ACG AAG Lys AGG Arg
GUU GCU) GAU GGU
GUC
Val
GCC GACS Asp GGC
GæA GCA Ala
GAA1 GGA Gly
GUG GCG GAG Glu
GGG

General features of genetic code:

1. Linear: Genetic code is always written in linear form using ribonucleotide bases that
compose mRNA molecules as letters. DNA is a linear polynucleotide chain and a
protein is a linear polypeptide chain. The sequence of amino acids in a polypeptide
chain corresponds to the sequence of nucleotide bases in the gene (DNA) that codes
for it. Change in a specific codon in DNA produces a change of amino acid in the
corresponding position in the polypeptide. The gene and the polypeptide it codes for
are said to be co-linear.

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Dr. Subhashini
Genetic Code (IInd Sem)
RNA sequence

5
3
A UG GUC AGUCCAU A A

that codons consist of

2. Triplet: The Crick, Brenner experiment first demonstrated
three DNA bases. Marshall Nirenberg and Heinrich J. Matthaei was the first to
reveal the nature of a codon in 1961. Each word within the mRNA contains three

ribonucleotide letters. Each group of three ribonucleotide called a codon specifies one
amino acid and hence the code is triplet. The code defines how sequences of
nucleotide triplets, called codons, specify which amino acid will be added next
during protein synthesis.

SerGuva LysosTvGM Peptide chain (a)

Translation
5 3
UCAGAG GUG AAA UGCUAU GGU mRNA(a)
3
UcG AGA GGU GAA AUG CUA UGG MRNA(b)
Translation

Ser Arg GlyGlu Met Leu Trp

Peptide chain (b)

3. Universal: The same code is used throughout all the life forms being universal in
nature. The universal genetic code is a common language for almost all organisms to
translate nucleotide sequences of deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) and ribonucleic acid
(RNA) to amino acid sequences of proteins eg UUU codes phenylalanine in every
organisms.. However, the genetic code is still evolved. Nonuniversal genetic
codes are found in some organisms and organelle. Eg. In mitochondria UGA is not a
stop codon instead it codes for tryptophans, Methionine is coded by AUG and AUA.
AGA and AGG coding arginine universally codes as stop codon. In fruit fly AGA and
AGG codes for serine.

S.No. Organism or cell Codon Universal code Unusual code

organelle

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Genetic Code (IInd Sem)
1 Tryptophan
UGA Stop
2 Mitochondria AUG and AUA AUG for AUA also coding
methionine methionine
3 AGA and AGG Arginine Stop codn
Serins
Drosophila AGA and AGG Arginine
5. Mycoplasm, UGA Stop Tryptophan
Spiroplasm Glutamate
6 Acetabularia UAA and UAG Stop
7. E. Coli GUG and UUG Valine and Start coden
Leucine

given
4. Degenerate: Degeneracy is the redundancy of the genetic code which means
GAA and
amino acid can be specified by more than one triplet codon. Ex. codons
GAG both specify glutamic acid (redundancy). The codons encoding one amino acid
acid leucine is
may differ in any of their three positions. For example, the amino
specified by YUR or CUN (UUA, UUG, CUU, CUC, CæA, or CUG) codons while
the amino acid serine is specified by UCN or AGY (UCA, UCG, UCC, UCU, AGU,
or AGC) codons (difference in the first, second, or third position).
UUU , Phe
UUC
UUA Leu
UUGI
CUU
CUC Leu
CæA
CUG

triplets. In
5. Nonoverlapping and commaless: The genetic code is composed of nucleotide
other words, three nucleotides in mRNA (a codon) specify one amino acid in a protein.
The code is non-0verlapping. This means that successive triplets are read in order. Each
nucleotide is part of only one triplet codon. A non-overlapping code means that a base in
a mRNA is not used for different codons and once read for a amino acid will not
participate for another amino acid. In Figure it has been shown nine bases code for
not more than three amino acids.

Acomma less code means that no nucleotide or comma (or punctuation) is

present in between two codons. Therefore, code is continuous and comma less and no
letter is wasted between two words or codons.

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 Dr. Subhashini
Genetic Code (IInd Sem)
3
Overlapping
Code

11

mRNA

1 2 3 Growing protein chain

Non-overlapping code
6. Start and stop codon
Translation starts witha chain-initiation codon or start codon. The start codon alone is
not sufficient to begin the process. Nearby sequences such as the Shine
Dalgarno sequence in E. coliand initiation factors are also required to start
translation. The most common start codon is AUG, which is read as methionine or, in
bacteria, as formylmethionine. Alternative start codons depending on the organism
include "GUG" or "UUG": these codons normally represent valine and leucine,
respectively, but as start codons they are translated as methionine
formylmethionine.
The three stop codons have names: UAG is amber, UGA is opal (sometimes
also called umber), and UAA is ochre. Stop codons are also called "termination" or
"nonsense" codons as they encode no amino acid. They signal release of the nascent
polypeptide from the ribosome because no cognate tRNA has anticodons
complementary to these stop signals, allowing a release factor to bind to the ribosome
instead.

START STOP
CODON coDON
$ VGAUCAU GAUCUcGUAAGAUAUC 3 mfNA

Polypeptie

7. Unambiguous: There is no ambiguity in the genetic code. A given codon always

codes for a particular amino acid, wherever it is present. Each codon specifies one
amino acid only. For instance UAU codes for only Tyrosine and none other amino
acid.

Wobble hypothesis
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 Dr,Subhashini
Genetic Code (IInd Sem)
It was tirst proposed that a specific tRNA anticodon would exist for every codon and hence
61 tRNA (excluding stop codon) would be present but 30-50 were found to be present. The
wobble hypothesis discovered by Frances Crick states that ules of base pairing are relaxed
at the third position. It states that the base at the 5' end of the anticodon also shows non
Standard base pairing with any of several bases located at the 3'end of acodon, So, first base
of anticodon and third base of codon is the wobble position, so that The base at the 5' end of
the anticodon and third base of codon

Perfect pairing Wobble pairng

IRNA

mANA Codons Glyclne mRNA codons : GGC, GGS, GGG,

Gycine tRNA Anticodons: ICC,
Wobble palitng of one gycne tRNA wth three codons of mRNA due to Wobble in
5-3'dlrectlon. Wobble Hypothesis (dingrammatie representation)

Transfer RNA

Transfer ribonucleic acid (tRNA) is a type of RNA molecule that helps decode a messenger RNA
(mRNA) sequence into a protein. tRNAS function at specific sites in the ribosome during translation,
which is a process that synthesizes a protein from an mRNA molecule. Proteins are built from smaller
units called amino acids, which are specified by three-nucleotide mRNA sequences called codons.
Each codon represents a particular amino acid, and cach codon is recognizcd by a spccific tRNA, The
tRNA molecule has a distinctive folded structure with three hairpin loops that form the shape of a
three-leafed clover. One of these hairpin loops contains a sequence called the anticodon, which can
recognize and decode an mRNA codon, Each tRNA has its corresponding amino acid attached to its
end. When a tRNA recognizes and binds to its corresponding codon in the ribosome, the tRNA

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 Dr. Subhashini
Genetic Code (IInd Sem)
Transters the appropriate amino acid to the end of the growing amino acid chain. Then the UNAS ae
noosome continue to decode the mRNA molecule until the entire sequence is translated into a plOto.

uncion of tRNA, The job of tRNA is to read the message of nucleic acids, or nucleotides, and
translate it into proteins, or amino acids, The process of making a protein from an mRNA
templale lS
called translation. Each individual codon
corresponds to an amino acid.
Amino acid 3'
attachment site OH
A

Acceptor stem
T loop G

CGGASG D loop
GGCJGIUAD

Variable loop KEGClaADS

Anticodon stem
Anticodon
loop Wobble
position

Anticodon
tRNAAla

Ribosome
The ribosome is a complex cellular and molecular
machine, found within all living cells, that
serves as the site of biological protein synthesis
acids together in the order specified by messenger RNA (translation). Ribosomes link amino
(mRNA) molecules. It is largely
made up of specialized RNA known as ribosomal RNA (rRNA) as well as dozens of distinct
proteins (the exact number varies slightly between
components: the small ribosomal subunit which binds species).Ribosomes consist of twO major
to a larger subunit and the mRNA
pattern and reads the RNA, and the large subunit which binds to the
and the smaller subunit and hence joins amino acids to
tRNA the amino acids.
form a polypeptide chain, Each
subunit is composed of one or more ribosomal RNA (rRNA)
of ribosomal proteins (r-protein or rProtein. A molecules and a variety
ribosome is made from complexes of RNAS
and proteins and is therefore a ribonucleoprotein. Ribosomes and
associated molecules are
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GeneticCode (IInd Sem) Dr. Subhashini

also known as the translational

molecule, these two
apparatus. When a ribosome finishes reading an mkNA
subunits split apart. Ribosomes are ribozymes, because
the catalytic peptidyl transferase activity that links amino
ribosomal RNA. Ribosomes are often associated with the acids together is performed by the
up the rough endoplasmic intracellular membranes that make
reticulum.
The ribosomal proteins and rRNAs are arranged into two
distinct
different size, known generally as the large and small subunit of the ribosomal pieces of
Consist of two subunits that fit together and work as one to translate the
ribosome. Ribosomes
mRNA into a
polypeptide chain during protein synthesis. Prokaryotic ribosomes are around 20 nm (200 A)
in diameter and are composed of 65% rRNA and 35% ribosomal proteins. Prokaryotes have
70S ribosomes, each consisting of a small (305) and a large (50S) subunit. Their small subunit
has a 16SRNA subunit (consisting of 1540 nucleotides) bound to 21 proteins. The large
subunit is composed of a 5SRNA subunit (120 nucleotides), a 23S RNA subunit (2900
nucleotides) and 31 protein
16S 23S 5S
rRNA tRNA rRNA rRNA

235
Rgure 230
rRNA
3

50S +55 rRNA

’31 proteins

P(peptidyl) site A(aminoacyl) site

50S subunit 70S
21 proteins
E(exit) site. 30s 165 rRNA

Ribosomes are composed of two subunits, one

small and one large. Four binding sites are located
on the ribosome, one for mRNA and three for tRNA.
mANA-binding The three tRNA sites are labeled P, A, and E. The P
site 30S subunit site, called the peptidyl site, binds to the tRNA
holding the growing polypeptide chain of amino
acids.

Reference Book

1. Lehninger principles of biochemistry

2. Satyanarayana Biochemistry

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