Bachelor of Technology

Information and Communication Technology

Basics of Electronics Engineering (01EC1101)

Assignment-Semiconductors
CO-1

Q-1 Draw the atomic structure of Si atom. Consider a crystal with only Si atoms, draw the
covalent bonding and indicate the covalent bond.

Ans:
Atomic Structure of Silicon (Si) Atom:
Silicon (Si) has an atomic number of 14, which means it has 14 electrons and 14 protons.
The electron configuration is:
o 2 electrons in the first shell (K-shell),
o 8 electrons in the second shell (L-shell),
o 4 electrons in the third shell (M-shell).
The 4 electrons in the outermost (third) shell are the valence electrons that participate in
covalent bonding.
Covalent Bonding in a Silicon Crystal:
In a silicon crystal, each silicon atom forms covalent bonds with four neighboring silicon
atoms. This is due to the fact that silicon has 4 valence electrons and needs 4 more to
complete its outer shell (achieving a stable configuration).

Covalent Bond: Each silicon atom shares one of its valence electrons with each of its
neighboring silicon atoms, forming strong covalent bonds.
The result is a tetrahedral structure where each silicon atom is bonded to four others,
creating a three-dimensional network.

Si Si
/\ / \
Si - Si - Si - Si - Si
\/ \ /
Si Si

Q-2 What is the meaning of intrinsic semiconductor and extrinsic semiconductor?

Ans:

Intrinsic Semiconductor:
An intrinsic semiconductor is a pure semiconductor material, without any added impurities.
The most common example is silicon (Si) or germanium (Ge).
In an intrinsic semiconductor, the number of free electrons (negative charge carriers) is
equal to the number of holes (positive charge carriers) because the electrons in the material
are excited to the conduction band from the valence band by thermal energy.
 Bachelor of Technology
Information and Communication Technology
Basics of Electronics Engineering (01EC1101)
Extrinsic Semiconductor:
An extrinsic semiconductor is a semiconductor that has been doped with impurities to
improve its electrical conductivity.
The doping process introduces either extra electrons (n-type) or extra holes (p-type) in the
semiconductor.
Types of Extrinsic Semiconductors:
1. N-type Semiconductor:
Doped with impurities that have more valence electrons than the semiconductor
(e.g., phosphorus in silicon).
These extra electrons are the majority charge carriers, while holes are the minority
charge carriers.
Improved Conductivity: Extra free electrons enhance electrical conductivity.
2. P-type Semiconductor:
Doped with impurities that have fewer valence electrons than the semiconductor
(e.g., boron in silicon).
This creates holes (missing electrons) that act as majority charge carriers, and the
free electrons become minority charge carriers.
Improved Conductivity: The movement of holes increases conductivity.

Q-3 Draw the energy band diagram for intrinsic Si atoms when bounded together.

Ans:
1.The valence band (at the bottom) is completely filled with electrons.
2.The conduction band is empty at absolute zero temperature.
3.The band gap (Eg) is the energy difference between the valence band and the conduction
band.
4.At higher temperatures, some electrons can gain enough energy to jump from the valence
band to the conduction band, creating electron-hole pairs.

In intrinsic silicon, the number of electrons in the conduction band is equal to the number of
holes in the valence band because each electron that jumps to the conduction band leaves behind
a hole. The material is electrically neutral, but its conductivity is relatively low compared to
extrinsic semiconductors, where doping enhances the number of charge carriers.

Q-4 Draw the energy band diagram for N-type semiconductor material and briefly explain
that why do we have free electrons at room temperature?

Ans:
The donor energy level is just below the conduction band and contains the extra
electrons donated by the dopants (e.g., phosphorus).

These extra electrons can easily be excited to the conduction band at room temperature,
contributing to electrical conductivity.
 Bachelor of Technology
Information and Communication Technology
Basics of Electronics Engineering (01EC1101)
At room temperature, these electrons have enough energy to move from the donor level
to the conduction band, creating free electrons in the conduction band.

Q-5 Draw the energy band diagram for P-type semiconductor material and briefly explain its
effect at room temperature?

Ans:
In a P-type semiconductor, impurities (dopants) like boron are added to silicon. These
dopants create "holes" or vacancies in the valence band, which act as positive charge
carriers.
The acceptor energy level is just above the valence band and contains the holes (the
absence of electrons).
At room temperature, electrons from the valence band jump to the acceptor level,
leaving behind holes.
These holes move and behave like positive charge carriers, contributing to the electrical
conductivity of the material.

Q-6 Draw the current voltage characteristics of Zener diode and explain IZK, IZM, VZ
Explain loaded Zener regulator in detail.

Ans:
The current-voltage (I-V) characteristic of a Zener diode has a sharp breakdown
region in the reverse bias region.

Current (I)
^
|
| ________
| /
| /
| /
| /
|__________
Vz (Zener Voltage)

 IZK: The Zener knee current (minimum current at which Zener breakdown occurs).
 VZ: The Zener voltage (voltage at which the diode breaks down in reverse bias,
typically constant in breakdown).
 IZM: The maximum current the Zener diode can handle in the breakdown region.
Loaded Zener Regulator:
 The Zener diode is used for voltage regulation by maintaining a constant output voltage
(VZ) in the reverse breakdown region.
 The loaded Zener regulator works by placing a load resistor across the Zener diode.
The current through the Zener diode adjusts according to the load, keeping the output
voltage stable as long as the load current doesn’t exceed the Zener current limit.
 Bachelor of Technology
Information and Communication Technology
Basics of Electronics Engineering (01EC1101)

Q-7 List several optoelectronic devices and describe how each works.

Ans:
 LED (Light Emitting Diode): Converts electrical energy into light through
electroluminescence. When current passes through, electrons recombine with holes,
releasing energy in the form of light.

 Photodiode: A semiconductor device that generates current when exposed to light. It

works in reverse bias, where the light generates electron-hole pairs, creating a
photocurrent.

 Laser Diode: Emits coherent light through stimulated emission of radiation, used in
high-precision applications like fiber-optic communications.

 Phototransistor: Similar to a photodiode, but with amplification. It can detect light and
amplify the resulting signal.

 Solar Cell: Converts light energy into electrical energy using the photovoltaic effect,
where absorbed photons generate electron-hole pairs that create a current.

Q-8 What is the problem of general rectifier diodes at high frequency?

How this problem can be solved by Schottky diode?

Ans:
 Problem at High Frequencies: Rectifier diodes have a reverse recovery time, where
they take time to switch off, leading to increased power loss and lower efficiency at
high frequencies.

 Schottky Diode Solution: Schottky diodes have no charge storage due to their metal-
semiconductor junction, allowing for very fast switching and lower reverse recovery
time, making them ideal for high-frequency applications.

Q-9 Explain the working of varactor diode in detail.

Ans:
A Varactor diode is a type of diode that acts as a variable capacitor when reverse
biased. The capacitance varies with the applied reverse voltage. In simple terms:

 Reverse bias increases the depletion region, reducing the effective capacitance.

 Forward bias reduces the depletion region, increasing the capacitance.

Varactor diodes are used in frequency tuning circuits, voltage-controlled oscillators

(VCOs), and RF filters.
 Bachelor of Technology
Information and Communication Technology
Basics of Electronics Engineering (01EC1101)

Q-10 What is varistor? Briefly explain its application.

Ans:
A Varistor is a voltage-dependent resistor that changes its resistance according to the
applied voltage.
 At low voltages, the varistor behaves like a high resistance.

 At high voltages, the resistance decreases rapidly, allowing current to pass through and
protecting circuits from voltage spikes.

Applications:

 Surge Protection: Varistors are commonly used in surge protectors to protect electronic
devices from voltage spikes (e.g., from lightning).

 Power Supply Protection: They are used in power supplies to clamp over-voltage
conditions and prevent damage to sensitive components.