Logarithm

In mathematics, the logarithm to base b is the inverse

function of exponentiation with base b. That means that
the logarithm of a number x to the base b is the
exponent to which b must be raised to produce x. For
example, since 1000 = 103, the logarithm base of
1000 is 3, or log10 (1000) = 3. The logarithm of x to
base b is denoted as logb (x), or without parentheses,
logb x. When the base is clear from the context or is
irrelevant it is sometimes written log x.

The logarithm base 10 is called the decimal or common

logarithm and is commonly used in science and Plots of logarithm functions, with three commonly
engineering. The natural logarithm has the used bases. The special points logb b = 1 are
number e ≈ 2.718 as its base; its use is widespread in indicated by dotted lines, and all curves intersect
mathematics and physics because of its very simple in logb 1 = 0.
derivative. The binary logarithm uses base 2 and is
frequently used in computer science.

Logarithms were introduced by John Napier in 1614 as a means of simplifying calculations.[1] They were
rapidly adopted by navigators, scientists, engineers, surveyors, and others to perform high-accuracy
computations more easily. Using logarithm tables, tedious multi-digit multiplication steps can be replaced by
table look-ups and simpler addition. This is possible because the logarithm of a product is the sum of the
logarithms of the factors:

provided that b, x and y are all positive and b ≠ 1. The slide rule, also based on logarithms, allows quick
calculations without tables, but at lower precision. The present-day notion of logarithms comes from
Leonhard Euler, who connected them to the exponential function in the 18th century, and who also
introduced the letter e as the base of natural logarithms.[2]

Logarithmic scales reduce wide-ranging quantities to smaller scopes. For example, the decibel (dB) is a unit
used to express ratio as logarithms, mostly for signal power and amplitude (of which sound pressure is a
common example). In chemistry, pH is a logarithmic measure for the acidity of an aqueous solution.
Logarithms are commonplace in scientific formulae, and in measurements of the complexity of algorithms
and of geometric objects called fractals. They help to describe frequency ratios of musical intervals, appear
in formulas counting prime numbers or approximating factorials, inform some models in psychophysics, and
can aid in forensic accounting.

The concept of logarithm as the inverse of exponentiation extends to other mathematical structures as well.
However, in general settings, the logarithm tends to be a multi-valued function. For example, the complex
logarithm is the multi-valued inverse of the complex exponential function. Similarly, the discrete logarithm
is the multi-valued inverse of the exponential function in finite groups; it has uses in public-key
cryptography.

Motivation
Addition, multiplication, and exponentiation are three of
the most fundamental arithmetic operations. The inverse
of addition is subtraction, and the inverse of
multiplication is division. Similarly, a logarithm is the
inverse operation of exponentiation. Exponentiation is
when a number b, the base, is raised to a certain power
y, the exponent, to give a value x; this is denoted

For example, raising 2 to the power of 3 gives 8:

The logarithm of base b is the inverse operation, that The graph of the logarithm base 2 crosses the x-
provides the output y from the input x. That is, axis at x = 1 and passes through the points (2, 1),
(4, 2), and (8, 3), depicting, e.g., log2(8) = 3 and
is equivalent to if b is a positive real
23 = 8. The graph gets arbitrarily close to the y-
number. (If b is not a positive real number, both
axis, but does not meet it.
exponentiation and logarithm can be defined but may
take several values, which makes definitions much more
complicated.)

One of the main historical motivations of introducing logarithms is the formula

by which tables of logarithms allow multiplication and division to be reduced to addition and subtraction, a
great aid to calculations before the invention of computers.

Definition
Given a positive real number b such that b ≠ 1, the logarithm of a positive real number x with respect to
base b[nb 1] is the exponent by which b must be raised to yield x. In other words, the logarithm of x to base b
is the unique real number y such that .[3]

The logarithm is denoted "logb x" (pronounced as "the logarithm of x to base b", "the base-b logarithm of
x", or most commonly "the log, base b, of x").
An equivalent and more succinct definition is that the function logb is the inverse function to the function
.

Examples

log2 16 = 4, since 24 = 2 × 2 × 2 × 2 = 16.

Logarithms can also be negative: since
 log10 150 is approximately 2.176, which lies between 2 and 3, just as 150 lies between
102 = 100 and 103 = 1000.
For any base b, logb b = 1 and logb 1 = 0, since b1 = b and b0 = 1, respectively.

Logarithmic identities
Several important formulas, sometimes called logarithmic identities or logarithmic laws, relate logarithms to
one another.[4]

Product, quotient, power, and root

The logarithm of a product is the sum of the logarithms of the numbers being multiplied; the logarithm of the
ratio of two numbers is the difference of the logarithms. The logarithm of the p-th power of a number is
p times the logarithm of the number itself; the logarithm of a p-th root is the logarithm of the number
divided by p. The following table lists these identities with examples. Each of the identities can be derived
after substitution of the logarithm definitions or in the left hand sides.

Product, quotient, power, and root identities of logarithms

Identity Formula Example

Product

Quotient

Power

Root

Change of base
The logarithm logb x can be computed from the logarithms of x and b with respect to an arbitrary base k
using the following formula:[nb 2]

Typical scientific calculators calculate the logarithms to bases 10 and e.[5] Logarithms with respect to any
base b can be determined using either of these two logarithms by the previous formula:

Given a number x and its logarithm y = logb x to an unknown base b, the base is given by:
which can be seen from taking the defining equation to the power of

Particular bases
Among all choices for the base, three are particularly
common. These are b = 10, b = e (the irrational
mathematical constant e ≈ 2.71828183 ), and b = 2 (the
binary logarithm). In mathematical analysis, the logarithm
base e is widespread because of analytical properties
explained below. On the other hand, base 10 logarithms (the
common logarithm) are easy to use for manual calculations in
the decimal number system:[6]

Thus, log10 (x) is related to the number of decimal digits of a Overlaid graphs of the logarithm for bases
positive integer x: The number of digits is the smallest integer 1
2 , 2, and e
⁠
[7]
strictly bigger than log10 (x) . For example, log10(5986)
is approximately 3.78 . The next integer above it is 4, which is
the number of digits of 5986. Both the natural logarithm and the binary logarithm are used in information
theory, corresponding to the use of nats or bits as the fundamental units of information, respectively.[8]
Binary logarithms are also used in computer science, where the binary system is ubiquitous; in music theory,
where a pitch ratio of two (the octave) is ubiquitous and the number of cents between any two pitches is a
scaled version of the binary logarithm, or log 2 times 1200, of the pitch ratio (that is, 100 cents per semitone
in conventional equal temperament), or equivalently the log base 21/1200 ; and in photography rescaled
base 2 logarithms are used to measure exposure values, light levels, exposure times, lens apertures, and film
speeds in "stops".[9]

The abbreviation log x is often used when the intended base can be inferred based on the context or
discipline, or when the base is indeterminate or immaterial. Common logarithms (base 10), historically used
in logarithm tables and slide rules, are a basic tool for measurement and computation in many areas of
science and engineering; in these contexts log x still often means the base ten logarithm.[10] In mathematics
log x usually means to the natural logarithm (base e).[11][12] In computer science and information theory,
log often refers to binary logarithms (base 2). The following table lists common notations for logarithms to
these bases. The "ISO notation" column lists designations suggested by the International Organization for
Standardization.[13]
 Base b Name for logb x ISO notation Other notations

2 binary logarithm lb x [14] ld x, log x, lg x,[15] log2 x

e natural logarithm ln x [nb 3] log x, loge x

10 common logarithm lg x log x, log10 x

b logarithm to base b logb x

History
The history of logarithms in seventeenth-century Europe saw the discovery of a new function that extended
the realm of analysis beyond the scope of algebraic methods. The method of logarithms was publicly
propounded by John Napier in 1614, in a book titled Mirifici Logarithmorum Canonis Descriptio
(Description of the Wonderful Canon of Logarithms).[19][20] Prior to Napier's invention, there had been other
techniques of similar scopes, such as the prosthaphaeresis or the use of tables of progressions, extensively
developed by Jost Bürgi around 1600.[21][22] Napier coined the term for logarithm in Middle Latin,
logarithmus, literally meaning 'ratio-number', derived from the Greek logos 'proportion, ratio, word' +
arithmos 'number'.

The common logarithm of a number is the index of that power of ten which equals the number.[23] Speaking
of a number as requiring so many figures is a rough allusion to common logarithm, and was referred to by
Archimedes as the "order of a number".[24] The first real logarithms were heuristic methods to turn
multiplication into addition, thus facilitating rapid computation. Some of these methods used tables derived
from trigonometric identities.[25] Such methods are called prosthaphaeresis.

Invention of the function now known as the natural logarithm began as an attempt to perform a quadrature of
a rectangular hyperbola by Grégoire de Saint-Vincent, a Belgian Jesuit residing in Prague. Archimedes had
written The Quadrature of the Parabola in the third century BC, but a quadrature for the hyperbola eluded
all efforts until Saint-Vincent published his results in 1647. The relation that the logarithm provides between
a geometric progression in its argument and an arithmetic progression of values, prompted A. A. de Sarasa to
make the connection of Saint-Vincent's quadrature and the tradition of logarithms in prosthaphaeresis,
leading to the term "hyperbolic logarithm", a synonym for natural logarithm. Soon the new function was
appreciated by Christiaan Huygens, and James Gregory. The notation Log y was adopted by Leibniz in
1675,[26] and the next year he connected it to the integral

Before Euler developed his modern conception of complex natural logarithms, Roger Cotes had a nearly
equivalent result when he showed in 1714 that[27]

Logarithm tables, slide rules, and historical applications

By simplifying difficult calculations before calculators and computers became available, logarithms
contributed to the advance of science, especially astronomy. They were critical to advances in surveying,
celestial navigation, and other domains. Pierre-Simon Laplace called logarithms
 "...[a]n admirable artifice
which, by reducing to a
few days the labour of
many months, doubles
the life of the
astronomer, and spares
him the errors and The 1797 Encyclopædia Britannica explanation of
disgust inseparable from logarithms
long calculations."[28]

As the function f(x) = bx is the inverse function of logb x, it has been called an antilogarithm.[29]
Nowadays, this function is more commonly called an exponential function.

Log tables
A key tool that enabled the practical use of logarithms was the table of logarithms.[30] The first such table
was compiled by Henry Briggs in 1617, immediately after Napier's invention but with the innovation of
using 10 as the base. Briggs' first table contained the common logarithms of all integers in the range from 1
to 1000, with a precision of 14 digits. Subsequently, tables with increasing scope were written. These tables
listed the values of log10 x for any number x in a certain range, at a certain precision. Base-10 logarithms
were universally used for computation, hence the name common logarithm, since numbers that differ by
factors of 10 have logarithms that differ by integers. The common logarithm of x can be separated into an
integer part and a fractional part, known as the characteristic and mantissa. Tables of logarithms need only
include the mantissa, as the characteristic can be easily determined by counting digits from the decimal
point.[31] The characteristic of 10 · x is one plus the characteristic of x, and their mantissas are the same.
Thus using a three-digit log table, the logarithm of 3542 is approximated by

Greater accuracy can be obtained by interpolation:

The value of 10x can be determined by reverse look up in the same table, since the logarithm is a monotonic
function.

Computations
The product and quotient of two positive numbers c and d were routinely calculated as the sum and
difference of their logarithms. The product cd or quotient c/d came from looking up the antilogarithm of the
sum or difference, via the same table:

and
For manual calculations that demand any appreciable precision, performing the lookups of the two
logarithms, calculating their sum or difference, and looking up the antilogarithm is much faster than
performing the multiplication by earlier methods such as prosthaphaeresis, which relies on trigonometric
identities.

Calculations of powers and roots are reduced to multiplications or divisions and lookups by

and

Trigonometric calculations were facilitated by tables that contained the common logarithms of trigonometric
functions.

Slide rules
Another critical application was the slide rule, a pair of logarithmically divided scales used for calculation.
The non-sliding logarithmic scale, Gunter's rule, was invented shortly after Napier's invention. William
Oughtred enhanced it to create the slide rule—a pair of logarithmic scales movable with respect to each
other. Numbers are placed on sliding scales at distances proportional to the differences between their
logarithms. Sliding the upper scale appropriately amounts to mechanically adding logarithms, as illustrated
here:

Schematic depiction of a slide rule. Starting from 2 on the lower scale, add the distance to 3
on the upper scale to reach the product 6. The slide rule works because it is marked such
that the distance from 1 to x is proportional to the logarithm of x.

For example, adding the distance from 1 to 2 on the lower scale to the distance from 1 to 3 on the upper
scale yields a product of 6, which is read off at the lower part. The slide rule was an essential calculating tool
for engineers and scientists until the 1970s, because it allows, at the expense of precision, much faster
computation than techniques based on tables.[32]

Analytic properties
A deeper study of logarithms requires the concept of a function. A function is a rule that, given one number,
produces another number.[33] An example is the function producing the x-th power of b from any real
number x, where the base b is a fixed number. This function is written as f(x) = b x. When b is positive and
unequal to 1, we show below that f is invertible when considered as a function from the reals to the positive
reals.

Existence
Let b be a positive real number not equal to 1 and let f(x) = b x.

It is a standard result in real analysis that any continuous strictly monotonic function is bijective between its
domain and range. This fact follows from the intermediate value theorem.[34] Now, f is strictly increasing
(for b > 1), or strictly decreasing (for 0 < b < 1),[35] is continuous, has domain , and has range .
Therefore, f is a bijection from to . In other words, for each positive real number y, there is exactly
one real number x such that .

We let denote the inverse of f. That is, logb y is the unique real number x such that .
This function is called the base-b logarithm function or logarithmic function (or just logarithm).

Characterization by the product formula

The function logb x can also be essentially characterized by the product formula

More precisely, the logarithm to any base b > 1 is the only increasing function f from the positive reals to
the reals satisfying f(b) = 1 and[36]

Graph of the logarithm function

As discussed above, the function logb is the inverse to the
exponential function . Therefore, their graphs correspond to
each other upon exchanging the x- and the y-coordinates (or upon
reflection at the diagonal line x = y), as shown at the right: a point
(t, u = bt) on the graph of f yields a point (u, t = logb u) on the
graph of the logarithm and vice versa. As a consequence, logb (x)
diverges to infinity (gets bigger than any given number) if x grows
to infinity, provided that b is greater than one. In that case, logb(x)
is an increasing function. For b < 1, logb (x) tends to minus infinity
instead. When x approaches zero, logb x goes to minus infinity for
b > 1 (plus infinity for b < 1, respectively).
The graph of the logarithm function
Derivative and antiderivative logb (x) (blue) is obtained by
reflecting the graph of the function
Analytic properties of functions pass to their inverses.[34] Thus, as
bx (red) at the diagonal line (x = y).
f(x) = bx is a continuous and differentiable function, so is logb y.
Roughly, a continuous function is differentiable if its graph has no
sharp "corners". Moreover, as the derivative of f(x) evaluates to
ln(b) bx by the properties of the exponential function, the chain rule
implies that the derivative of logb x is given by[35][37]

That is, the slope of the tangent touching the graph of the base-b
logarithm at the point (x, logb (x)) equals 1/(x ln(b)). The graph of the natural logarithm
(green) and its tangent at x = 1.5
The derivative of ln(x) is 1/x; this implies that ln(x) is the unique (black)
antiderivative of 1/x that has the value 0 for x = 1. It is this very
simple formula that motivated to qualify as "natural" the natural
logarithm; this is also one of the main reasons of the importance of the constant e.

The derivative with a generalized functional argument f(x) is

The quotient at the right hand side is called the logarithmic derivative of f. Computing f'(x) by means of the
derivative of ln(f(x)) is known as logarithmic differentiation.[38] The antiderivative of the natural logarithm
ln(x) is:[39]

Related formulas, such as antiderivatives of logarithms to other bases can be derived from this equation
using the change of bases.[40]

Integral representation of the natural logarithm

The natural logarithm of t can be defined as the definite integral:

This definition has the advantage that it does not rely on the
exponential function or any trigonometric functions; the definition is The natural logarithm of t is the
in terms of an integral of a simple reciprocal. As an integral, ln(t) shaded area underneath the graph
of the function f(x) = 1/x.
equals the area between the x-axis and the graph of the function 1/x,
ranging from x = 1 to x = t. This is a consequence of the
fundamental theorem of calculus and the fact that the derivative of
ln(x) is 1/x. Product and power logarithm formulas can be derived from this definition.[41] For example, the
product formula ln(tu) = ln(t) + ln(u) is deduced as:
The equality (1) splits the integral into two parts, while the equality (2) is a change of variable (w = x/t). In
the illustration below, the splitting corresponds to dividing the area into the yellow and blue parts. Rescaling
the left hand blue area vertically by the factor t and shrinking it by the same factor horizontally does not
change its size. Moving it appropriately, the area fits the graph of the function f(x) = 1/x again. Therefore,
the left hand blue area, which is the integral of f(x) from t to tu is the same as the integral from 1 to u. This
justifies the equality (2) with a more geometric proof.

A visual proof of the product formula of the natural logarithm

The power formula ln(tr) = r ln(t) may be derived in a similar way:

The second equality uses a change of variables (integration by substitution), w = x1/r.

The sum over the reciprocals of natural numbers,

is called the harmonic series. It is closely tied to the natural logarithm: as n tends to infinity, the difference,

converges (i.e. gets arbitrarily close) to a number known as the Euler–Mascheroni constant γ = 0.5772....
This relation aids in analyzing the performance of algorithms such as quicksort.[42]

Transcendence of the logarithm

Real numbers that are not algebraic are called transcendental;[43] for example, π and e are such numbers, but
is not. Almost all real numbers are transcendental. The logarithm is an example of a
transcendental function. The Gelfond–Schneider theorem asserts that logarithms usually take transcendental,
i.e. "difficult" values.[44]

Calculation
Logarithms are easy to compute in some cases, such as
log10 (1000) = 3. In general, logarithms can be calculated using
power series or the arithmetic–geometric mean, or be retrieved from
a precalculated logarithm table that provides a fixed precision.[45][46]
Newton's method, an iterative method to solve equations
approximately, can also be used to calculate the logarithm, because
its inverse function, the exponential function, can be computed
efficiently.[47] Using look-up tables, CORDIC-like methods can be
used to compute logarithms by using only the operations of addition The logarithm keys (LOG for
and bit shifts.[48][49] Moreover, the binary logarithm algorithm base 10 and LN for base e) on a TI-
calculates lb(x) recursively, based on repeated squarings of x, taking 83 Plus graphing calculator
advantage of the relation

Power series

Taylor series
For any real number z that satisfies 0 < z ≤ 2, the following
formula holds:[nb 4][50]

The Taylor series of ln(z) centered

at z = 1. The animation shows the
first 10 approximations along with
the 99th and 100th. The
approximations do not converge
beyond a distance of 1 from the
center.
Equating the function ln(z) to this infinite sum (series) is shorthand for saying that the function can be
approximated to a more and more accurate value by the following expressions (known as partial sums):

For example, with z = 1.5 the third approximation yields 0.4167, which is about 0.011 greater than
ln(1.5) = 0.405465, and the ninth approximation yields 0.40553, which is only about 0.0001 greater.
The nth partial sum can approximate ln(z) with arbitrary precision, provided the number of summands n is
large enough.

In elementary calculus, the series is said to converge to the function ln(z), and the function is the limit of the
series. It is the Taylor series of the natural logarithm at z = 1. The Taylor series of ln(z) provides a
particularly useful approximation to ln(1 + z) when z is small, |z| < 1, since then

For example, with z = 0.1 the first-order approximation gives ln(1.1) ≈ 0.1, which is less than 5% off the
correct value 0.0953.

Inverse hyperbolic tangent

Another series is based on the inverse hyperbolic tangent function:

for any real number z > 0.[nb 5][50] Using sigma notation, this is also written as

This series can be derived from the above Taylor series. It converges quicker than the Taylor series,
especially if z is close to 1. For example, for z = 1.5, the first three terms of the second series approximate
ln(1.5) with an error of about 3 × 10−6. The quick convergence for z close to 1 can be taken advantage of in
the following way: given a low-accuracy approximation y ≈ ln(z) and putting

the logarithm of z is:

The better the initial approximation y is, the closer A is to 1, so its logarithm can be calculated efficiently. A
can be calculated using the exponential series, which converges quickly provided y is not too large.
Calculating the logarithm of larger z can be reduced to smaller values of z by writing z = a · 10b, so that
ln(z) = ln(a) + b · ln(10).
A closely related method can be used to compute the logarithm of integers. Putting in the above
series, it follows that:

If the logarithm of a large integer n is known, then this series yields a fast converging series for log(n+1),
with a rate of convergence of .

Arithmetic–geometric mean approximation

The arithmetic–geometric mean yields high-precision approximations of the natural logarithm. Sasaki and
Kanada showed in 1982 that it was particularly fast for precisions between 400 and 1000 decimal places,
while Taylor series methods were typically faster when less precision was needed. In their work ln(x) is
approximated to a precision of 2−p (or p precise bits) by the following formula (due to Carl Friedrich
Gauss):[51][52]

Here M(x, y) denotes the arithmetic–geometric mean of x and y. It is obtained by repeatedly calculating the
average (x + y)/2 (arithmetic mean) and (geometric mean) of x and y then let those two numbers
become the next x and y. The two numbers quickly converge to a common limit which is the value of
M(x, y). m is chosen such that

to ensure the required precision. A larger m makes the M(x, y) calculation take more steps (the initial x and
y are farther apart so it takes more steps to converge) but gives more precision. The constants π and ln(2)
can be calculated with quickly converging series.

Feynman's algorithm
While at Los Alamos National Laboratory working on the Manhattan Project, Richard Feynman developed a
bit-processing algorithm to compute the logarithm that is similar to long division and was later used in the
Connection Machine. The algorithm relies on the fact that every real number x where 1 < x < 2 can be
represented as a product of distinct factors of the form 1 + 2−k. The algorithm sequentially builds that
product P, starting with P = 1 and k = 1: if P · (1 + 2−k) < x, then it changes P to P · (1 + 2−k). It then
increases by one regardless. The algorithm stops when k is large enough to give the desired accuracy.
Because log(x) is the sum of the terms of the form log(1 + 2−k) corresponding to those k for which the
factor 1 + 2−k was included in the product P, log(x) may be computed by simple addition, using a table of
log(1 + 2−k) for all k. Any base may be used for the logarithm table.[53]

Applications
Logarithms have many applications inside and outside mathematics.
Some of these occurrences are related to the notion of scale
invariance. For example, each chamber of the shell of a nautilus is
an approximate copy of the next one, scaled by a constant factor.
This gives rise to a logarithmic spiral.[54] Benford's law on the
distribution of leading digits can also be explained by scale
invariance.[55] Logarithms are also linked to self-similarity. For
example, logarithms appear in the analysis of algorithms that solve a
problem by dividing it into two similar smaller problems and
A nautilus shell displaying a
patching their solutions.[56] The dimensions of self-similar logarithmic spiral
geometric shapes, that is, shapes whose parts resemble the overall
picture are also based on logarithms. Logarithmic scales are useful
for quantifying the relative change of a value as opposed to its absolute difference. Moreover, because the
logarithmic function log(x) grows very slowly for large x, logarithmic scales are used to compress large-
scale scientific data. Logarithms also occur in numerous scientific formulas, such as the Tsiolkovsky rocket
equation, the Fenske equation, or the Nernst equation.

Logarithmic scale
Scientific quantities are often expressed as logarithms of other
quantities, using a logarithmic scale. For example, the decibel is a
unit of measurement associated with logarithmic-scale quantities. It
is based on the common logarithm of ratios—10 times the common
logarithm of a power ratio or 20 times the common logarithm of a
voltage ratio. It is used to quantify the attenuation or amplification of
electrical signals,[57] to describe power levels of sounds in
acoustics,[58] and the absorbance of light in the fields of
spectrometry and optics. The signal-to-noise ratio describing the
amount of unwanted noise in relation to a (meaningful) signal is also
measured in decibels.[59] In a similar vein, the peak signal-to-noise
ratio is commonly used to assess the quality of sound and image
compression methods using the logarithm.[60]
A logarithmic chart depicting the
value of one Goldmark in
The strength of an earthquake is measured by taking the common
Papiermarks during the German
logarithm of the energy emitted at the quake. This is used in the hyperinflation in the 1920s
moment magnitude scale or the Richter magnitude scale. For
example, a 5.0 earthquake releases 32 times (101.5) and a 6.0
releases 1000 times (103) the energy of a 4.0.[61] Apparent magnitude measures the brightness of stars
logarithmically.[62] In chemistry the negative of the decimal logarithm, the decimal cologarithm, is
indicated by the letter p.[63] For instance, pH is the decimal cologarithm of the activity of hydronium ions
+
(the form hydrogen ions H take in water).[64] The activity of hydronium ions in neutral water is
10−7 mol·L−1, hence a pH of 7. Vinegar typically has a pH of about 3. The difference of 4 corresponds to a
ratio of 104 of the activity, that is, vinegar's hydronium ion activity is about 10−3 mol·L−1.

Semilog (log–linear) graphs use the logarithmic scale concept for visualization: one axis, typically the
vertical one, is scaled logarithmically. For example, the chart at the right compresses the steep increase from
1 million to 1 trillion to the same space (on the vertical axis) as the increase from 1 to 1 million. In such
graphs, exponential functions of the form f(x) = a · b x appear as straight lines with slope equal to the
logarithm of b. Log-log graphs scale both axes logarithmically, which causes functions of the form
f(x) = a · x k to be depicted as straight lines with slope equal to the exponent k. This is applied in
visualizing and analyzing power laws.[65]

Psychology
Logarithms occur in several laws describing human perception:[66][67] Hick's law proposes a logarithmic
relation between the time individuals take to choose an alternative and the number of choices they have.[68]
Fitts's law predicts that the time required to rapidly move to a target area is a logarithmic function of the
ratio between the distance to a target and the size of the target.[69] In psychophysics, the Weber–Fechner law
proposes a logarithmic relationship between stimulus and sensation such as the actual vs. the perceived
weight of an item a person is carrying.[70] (This "law", however, is less realistic than more recent models,
such as Stevens's power law.[71])

Psychological studies found that individuals with little mathematics education tend to estimate quantities
logarithmically, that is, they position a number on an unmarked line according to its logarithm, so that 10 is
positioned as close to 100 as 100 is to 1000. Increasing education shifts this to a linear estimate (positioning
1000 10 times as far away) in some circumstances, while logarithms are used when the numbers to be
plotted are difficult to plot linearly.[72][73]

Probability theory and statistics

Logarithms arise in probability theory: the law of large numbers
dictates that, for a fair coin, as the number of coin-tosses increases to
infinity, the observed proportion of heads approaches one-half. The
fluctuations of this proportion about one-half are described by the
law of the iterated logarithm.[74]

Logarithms also occur in log-normal distributions. When the

logarithm of a random variable has a normal distribution, the
variable is said to have a log-normal distribution.[75] Log-normal
distributions are encountered in many fields, wherever a variable is
formed as the product of many independent positive random
variables, for example in the study of turbulence.[76] Three probability density functions
(PDF) of random variables with log-
Logarithms are used for maximum-likelihood estimation of normal distributions. The location
parametric statistical models. For such a model, the likelihood parameter μ, which is zero for all
function depends on at least one parameter that must be estimated. A three of the PDFs shown, is the
mean of the logarithm of the random
maximum of the likelihood function occurs at the same parameter-
variable, not the mean of the
value as a maximum of the logarithm of the likelihood (the variable itself.
"log likelihood"), because the logarithm is an increasing function.
The log-likelihood is easier to maximize, especially for the
multiplied likelihoods for independent random variables.[77]

Benford's law describes the occurrence of digits in many data sets, such as heights of buildings. According to
Benford's law, the probability that the first decimal-digit of an item in the data sample is d (from 1 to 9)
equals log10 (d + 1) − log10 (d), regardless of the unit of measurement.[78] Thus, about 30% of the data
can be expected to have 1 as first digit, 18% start with 2, etc. Auditors examine deviations from Benford's
law to detect fraudulent accounting.[79]
The logarithm transformation is a type of data transformation used to
bring the empirical distribution closer to the assumed one.

Computational complexity
Analysis of algorithms is a branch of computer science that studies
the performance of algorithms (computer programs solving a certain
problem).[80] Logarithms are valuable for describing algorithms that
divide a problem into smaller ones, and join the solutions of the
Distribution of first digits (in %, red
subproblems.[81]
bars) in the population of the 237
countries of the world. Black dots
For example, to find a number in a sorted list, the binary search
indicate the distribution predicted by
algorithm checks the middle entry and proceeds with the half before Benford's law.
or after the middle entry if the number is still not found. This
algorithm requires, on average, log2 (N) comparisons, where N is
the list's length.[82] Similarly, the merge sort algorithm sorts an unsorted list by dividing the list into halves
and sorting these first before merging the results. Merge sort algorithms typically require a time
approximately proportional to N · log(N).[83] The base of the logarithm is not specified here, because the
result only changes by a constant factor when another base is used. A constant factor is usually disregarded
in the analysis of algorithms under the standard uniform cost model.[84]

A function f(x) is said to grow logarithmically if f(x) is (exactly or approximately) proportional to the
logarithm of x. (Biological descriptions of organism growth, however, use this term for an exponential
function.[85]) For example, any natural number N can be represented in binary form in no more than
log2 N + 1 bits. In other words, the amount of memory needed to store N grows logarithmically with N.

Entropy and chaos

Entropy is broadly a measure of the disorder of some system. In
statistical thermodynamics, the entropy S of some physical system is
defined as

The sum is over all possible states i of the system in question, such Billiards on an oval billiard table.
as the positions of gas particles in a container. Moreover, pi is the Two particles, starting at the center
with an angle differing by one
probability that the state i is attained and k is the Boltzmann degree, take paths that diverge
constant. Similarly, entropy in information theory measures the chaotically because of reflections at
quantity of information. If a message recipient may expect any one the boundary.
of N possible messages with equal likelihood, then the amount of
information conveyed by any one such message is quantified as
log2 N bits.[86]
Lyapunov exponents use logarithms to gauge the degree of chaoticity of a dynamical system. For example,
for a particle moving on an oval billiard table, even small changes of the initial conditions result in very
different paths of the particle. Such systems are chaotic in a deterministic way, because small measurement
errors of the initial state predictably lead to largely different final states.[87] At least one Lyapunov exponent
of a deterministically chaotic system is positive.

Fractals
Logarithms occur in definitions of the
dimension of fractals.[88] Fractals are
geometric objects that are self-similar in
the sense that small parts reproduce, at The Sierpinski triangle (at the right) is constructed by repeatedly
least roughly, the entire global structure. replacing equilateral triangles by three smaller ones.
The Sierpinski triangle (pictured) can be
covered by three copies of itself, each
having sides half the original length. This makes the Hausdorff dimension of this structure
ln(3)/ln(2) ≈ 1.58. Another logarithm-based notion of dimension is obtained by counting the number of
boxes needed to cover the fractal in question.

Music

Four different octaves shown on a linear scale, then shown on a logarithmic scale (as the ear hears them)

Logarithms are related to musical tones and intervals. In equal temperament tunings, the frequency ratio
depends only on the interval between two tones, not on the specific frequency, or pitch, of the individual
tones. In the 12-tone equal temperament tuning common in modern Western music, each octave (doubling of
frequency) is broken into twelve equally spaced intervals called semitones. For example, if the note A has a
frequency of 440 Hz then the note B-flat has a frequency of 466 Hz. The interval between A and B-flat is a
semitone, as is the one between B-flat and B (frequency 493 Hz). Accordingly, the frequency ratios agree:

Intervals between arbitrary pitches can be measured in octaves by taking the base-2 logarithm of the
frequency ratio, can be measured in equally tempered semitones by taking the base-21/12 logarithm (12
times the base-2 logarithm), or can be measured in cents, hundredths of a semitone, by taking the
base-21/1200 logarithm (1200 times the base-2 logarithm). The latter is used for finer encoding, as it is
needed for finer measurements or non-equal temperaments.[89]
 Interval
(the two tones are Just major
1/12 tone Semitone Major third Tritone Octave
played third
at the same time)

Frequency ratio

Number of
semitones

Number of cents

Number theory
Natural logarithms are closely linked to counting prime numbers (2, 3, 5, 7, 11, ...), an important topic in
number theory. For any integer x, the quantity of prime numbers less than or equal to x is denoted π(x). The
prime number theorem asserts that π(x) is approximately given by

in the sense that the ratio of π(x) and that fraction approaches 1 when x tends to infinity.[90] As a
consequence, the probability that a randomly chosen number between 1 and x is prime is inversely
proportional to the number of decimal digits of x. A far better estimate of π(x) is given by the offset
logarithmic integral function Li(x), defined by

The Riemann hypothesis, one of the oldest open mathematical conjectures, can be stated in terms of
comparing π(x) and Li(x).[91] The Erdős–Kac theorem describing the number of distinct prime factors also
involves the natural logarithm.

The logarithm of n factorial, n! = 1 · 2 · ... · n, is given by

This can be used to obtain Stirling's formula, an approximation of n! for large n.[92]

Generalizations

Complex logarithm
All the complex numbers a that solve the equation

are called complex logarithms of z, when z is (considered as) a complex number. A complex number is
commonly represented as z = x + iy, where x and y are real numbers and i is an imaginary unit, the square
of which is −1. Such a number can be visualized by a point in the complex plane, as shown at the right. The
polar form encodes a non-zero complex number z by its absolute
value, that is, the (positive, real) distance r to the origin, and an
angle between the real (x) axis Re and the line passing through both
the origin and z. This angle is called the argument of z.

The absolute value r of z is given by

Using the geometrical interpretation of sine and cosine and their

periodicity in 2π, any complex number z may be denoted as

Polar form of z = x + iy. Both φ and

φ' are arguments of z.

for any integer number k. Evidently the argument of z is not uniquely specified: both φ and φ' = φ + 2kπ
are valid arguments of z for all integers k, because adding 2kπ radians or k⋅360°[nb 6] to φ corresponds to
"winding" around the origin counter-clock-wise by k turns. The resulting complex number is always z, as
illustrated at the right for k = 1. One may select exactly one of the possible arguments of z as the so-called
principal argument, denoted Arg(z), with a capital A, by requiring φ to belong to one, conveniently
selected turn, e.g. −π < φ ≤ π[93] or 0 ≤ φ < 2π.[94] These regions, where the argument of z is uniquely
determined are called branches of the argument function.

Euler's formula connects the trigonometric functions sine and cosine

to the complex exponential:

Using this formula, and again the periodicity, the following identities
hold:[95]

The principal branch (-π, π) of the

complex logarithm, Log(z). The
black point at z = 1 corresponds to
absolute value zero and brighter
colors refer to bigger absolute
values. The hue of the color
where ln(r) is the unique real natural logarithm, ak denote the encodes the argument of Log(z).
complex logarithms of z, and k is an arbitrary integer. Therefore, the
complex logarithms of z, which are all those complex values ak for
which the ak-th power of e equals z, are the infinitely many values

for arbitrary integers k.

Taking k such that φ + 2kπ is within the defined interval for the principal arguments, then ak is called the
principal value of the logarithm, denoted Log(z), again with a capital L. The principal argument of any
positive real number x is 0; hence Log(x) is a real number and equals the real (natural) logarithm. However,
the above formulas for logarithms of products and powers do not generalize to the principal value of the
complex logarithm.[96]

The illustration at the right depicts Log(z), confining the arguments of z to the interval (−π, π]. This way
the corresponding branch of the complex logarithm has discontinuities all along the negative real x axis,
which can be seen in the jump in the hue there. This discontinuity arises from jumping to the other boundary
in the same branch, when crossing a boundary, i.e. not changing to the corresponding k-value of the
continuously neighboring branch. Such a locus is called a branch cut. Dropping the range restrictions on the
argument makes the relations "argument of z", and consequently the "logarithm of z", multi-valued
functions.

Inverses of other exponential functions

Exponentiation occurs in many areas of mathematics and its inverse function is often referred to as the
logarithm. For example, the logarithm of a matrix is the (multi-valued) inverse function of the matrix
exponential.[97] Another example is the p-adic logarithm, the inverse function of the p-adic exponential.
Both are defined via Taylor series analogous to the real case.[98] In the context of differential geometry, the
exponential map maps the tangent space at a point of a manifold to a neighborhood of that point. Its inverse
is also called the logarithmic (or log) map.[99]

In the context of finite groups exponentiation is given by repeatedly multiplying one group element b with
itself. The discrete logarithm is the integer n solving the equation

where x is an element of the group. Carrying out the exponentiation can be done efficiently, but the discrete
logarithm is believed to be very hard to calculate in some groups. This asymmetry has important applications
in public key cryptography, such as for example in the Diffie–Hellman key exchange, a routine that allows
secure exchanges of cryptographic keys over unsecured information channels.[100] Zech's logarithm is
related to the discrete logarithm in the multiplicative group of non-zero elements of a finite field.[101]

Further logarithm-like inverse functions include the double logarithm ln(ln(x)), the super- or hyper-4-
logarithm (a slight variation of which is called iterated logarithm in computer science), the Lambert W
function, and the logit. They are the inverse functions of the double exponential function, tetration, of
f(w) = wew,[102] and of the logistic function, respectively.[103]

Related concepts
From the perspective of group theory, the identity log(cd) = log(c) + log(d) expresses a group
isomorphism between positive reals under multiplication and reals under addition. Logarithmic functions are
the only continuous isomorphisms between these groups.[104] By means of that isomorphism, the Haar
measure (Lebesgue measure) dx on the reals corresponds to the Haar measure dx/x on the positive
reals.[105] The non-negative reals not only have a multiplication, but also have addition, and form a semiring,
called the probability semiring; this is in fact a semifield. The logarithm then takes multiplication to addition
(log multiplication), and takes addition to log addition (LogSumExp), giving an isomorphism of semirings
between the probability semiring and the log semiring.

Logarithmic one-forms df/f appear in complex analysis and algebraic geometry as differential forms with
logarithmic poles.[106]
The polylogarithm is the function defined by

It is related to the natural logarithm by Li1 (z) = −ln(1 − z). Moreover, Lis (1) equals the Riemann zeta
function ζ(s).[107]

See also

Mathematics
portal
Arithmetic
portal
Chemistry
portal
Geography
portal
Engineering
portal

Decimal exponent (dex)

Exponential function
Index of logarithm articles

Notes
1. The restrictions on x and b are explained in the section "Analytic properties".
2. Proof: Taking the logarithm to base k of the defining identity one gets
The formula follows by solving for
3. z Some mathematicians disapprove of this notation. In his 1985 autobiography, Paul Halmos
criticized what he considered the "childish ln notation", which he said no mathematician had
ever used.[16] The notation was invented by the 19th century mathematician I.
Stringham.[17][18]
4. The same series holds for the principal value of the complex logarithm for complex numbers z
satisfying |z − 1| < 1.
5. The same series holds for the principal value of the complex logarithm for complex numbers z
with positive real part.
6. See radian for the conversion between 2π and 360 degree.

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External links
Media related to Logarithm at Wikimedia Commons
The dictionary definition of logarithm at Wiktionary
Quotations related to History of logarithms at Wikiquote
A lesson on logarithms can be found on Wikiversity
Weisstein, Eric W., "Logarithm" (https://mathworld.wolfram.com/Logarithm.html), MathWorld
Khan Academy: Logarithms, free online micro lectures (https://web.archive.org/web/20121218
200616/http://www.khanacademy.org/math/algebra/logarithms-tutorial)
"Logarithmic function" (https://www.encyclopediaofmath.org/index.php?title=Logarithmic_funct
ion), Encyclopedia of Mathematics, EMS Press, 2001 [1994]
 Colin Byfleet, Educational video on logarithms (http://mediasite.oddl.fsu.edu/mediasite/Viewe
r/?peid=003298f9a02f468c8351c50488d6c479), retrieved 12 October 2010
Edward Wright, Translation of Napier's work on logarithms (https://web.archive.org/web/20021
203005508/http://www.johnnapier.com/table_of_logarithms_001.htm), archived from the
original (http://www.johnnapier.com/table_of_logarithms_001.htm) on 3 December 2002,
retrieved 12 October 2010
Glaisher, James Whitbread Lee (1911), "Logarithm" (https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/1911_Ency
clop%C3%A6dia_Britannica/Logarithm), in Chisholm, Hugh (ed.), Encyclopædia Britannica,
vol. 16 (11th ed.), Cambridge University Press, pp. 868–77

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