➢ Coordinate systems

,Geodetic Datum
and map Projections .

BAKHAT ALI
Institute of Geoinformatics and Earth Observation,
Pir Mehr Ali Shah Arid Agriculture University Rawalpindi , Punjab, Pakistan
[email protected]
 ➢ Outline:

❑ Coordinate systems
❑ Geodetic Datum
❑ Map projections
 ➢ Coordinate systems:
❖ "Coordinate system is a reference system used to
represent the locations of geographic features,
imagery and observation within a common
geographic framework".
❖ Two types of coordinate systems :
1. Geographic Coordinate Systems (GCS)
2. Projected Coordinate Systems (PCS)
1. Geographic Coordinate Systems (GCS):

▪ A geographic coordinate system (GCS)

uses a three-dimensional spherical
surface to define location on the
earth. A point referenced by
its latitude and longitude values
▪ A global address is given as two
numbers called coordinates. The two
numbers are a location's latitude
number and its longitude number
 ➢ Latitude and Longitude line:

▪ Latitude: It measures the north-south position on the Earth's surface

and is represented in degrees north (N) or south (S) of the equator. The
equator is at 0° latitude, and the North Pole is at 90° N, while the South
Pole is at 90° S Lines of latitude are called parallels knows as equator

.
▪ Longitude: It measures the east-west position on the Earth's surface
and is represented in degrees east (E) or west (W) of the Prime
Meridian, which is typically located at 0° longitude. Longitudes
range from -180° to 180°. Lines of longitude are called meridians.
 ➢ Gratitude :
• The parallels and meridians of latitude
and longitude form a
• gratitude on a globe, a grid of
orthogonal lines
▪ The GCS uses a network of imaginary lines (longitude and latitude) to
define locations. This network is called a graticule.
▪ A GCS is round, and so records locations in angular units (usually
degrees). A PCS is flat, so it records locations in linear units (usually
meters).
▪ The latitude and longitude coordinates are measured in degrees,
minutes, and seconds, with the equator as the reference line for latitude
and the Prime Meridian (Greenwich Meridian) as the reference line for
longitude.
The most commonly used geographic coordinate system is the World
Geodetic System 1984 (WGS 84). It is used by GPS receivers and is the
standard for most GIS applications.
 2. Projected Coordinate Systems (PCS)​:

▪ The surface of the earth is curved but maps are flat.

▪ To convert feature locations from the spherical earth to a flat map, the latitude
and longitude coordinates from a geographic coordinate system must be
converted, or projected, to planar coordinates.
▪ A projected coordinate system is a reference system for identifying locations
and measuring features on a flat surface.
▪ It consists of lines that intersect at right angles, forming a grid.
▪ Projected coordinate systems, which are based on Cartesian coordinates,
have an origin, an x and a y axis, and a unit for measuring distance.
• The origin of the projected coordinate system (0,0)
commonly coincides with the center of the map.
• This means that x and y coordinate values will be positive only in
one quadrant of the map (the upper right).
• On published maps, it is desirable to have all the coordinate
values be positive numbers.

• To offset this problem usually two numbers are added to each

x and y value.
• The numbers should be big enough to ensure that all
coordinate values, at least in the area of interest, are positive
values.
• The number added to the x coordinate is called a false easting.
• The number added to the y coordinate is called a false northing
• In a projected coordinate system, locations are identified by x and y coordinates on a grid, with the origin
at the center of the grid. Each position has two values that reference it to that central location. One
specifies its horizontal position and the other its vertical position. The two values are called the x-
coordinate and y-coordinate. Using this notation, the coordinates at the origin are x = 0 and y = 0.​
• On a gridded network of equally spaced horizontal and vertical lines, the horizontal line in the center is
called the x-axis and the central vertical line is called the y-axis. Units are consistent and equally spaced
across the full range of x and y. Horizontal lines above the origin and vertical lines to the right of the origin
have positive values; those below or to the left have negative values. The four quadrants represent the
four possible combinations of positive and negative X and Y coordinates.​
 ➢ Geodetic Datum:
▪ A datum is essentially the model that is used to translate a spheroid into locations on the earth
▪ A spheroid only gives you a shape—a datum gives you locations of specific places on that shape.
▪ In order to manage the complexities of the shape of a geoid model of the Earth, we use something called a
geodetic datum
▪ Datum -- n. (dat - m) \ any numerical or geometric quantity which serves as a reference or base for other
quantities
▪ A geodetic datum is used as a reference basefor mapping
▪ It can be horizontal or vertical
▪ It is always tied to a reference ellipsoid
 ➢ Datum:

▪ An ellipsoid gives the base elevation for mapping, called a datum.

• Spheroids approximate earth’s shape
• Datum defines position of spheroid relative to center of the earth
• Datum defines origin and orientation of lat/long lines
• Local datum aligns spheroid to fit surface in a particular area
▪ North American Datum 1927 (NAD27)
▪ North American Datum 1983 (NAD83)
▪ Particular datums are based on specific spheroids:
▪ NAD27 is based on the Clarke 1866 spheroid
▪ NAD83 is based on the GRS_1980 spheroid
▪ Conversions between datums are called Transformations
 ➢Map projections:

▪ map projection is any method of representing the surface of a sphere or

other three-dimensional body on a plane.
▪ Map projections are necessary for creating maps.
 ➢ Distortion

▪ Earth on a flat piece of paper creates distortions. Four types of distortions can result:
▪ The shape of an area can be distorted, so that it appears more elongated or squat than in reality
▪ The distance between two points may become increased or decreased
▪ The relative size of different areas may be altered, so that one area may appear larger than another on a map
but is in reality smaller
▪ The direction from one place to another can be distorted
 ➢ DEVELOPABLE PROJECTION SURFACES:

❖ Determine specific method of physical projection

❑ Three kinds of developable projection surfaces:
▪ Cone
▪ Cylinder
▪ Plane
❑ The name of the projections made from these surface are:
1. Conic Projection
2. Cylindrical Projection
3. Planar Projection
 1. Conic Projection:

• Conic projection is fan shaped, characterized by an upside down cone

over the sphere
• Conic projection are at an true scale along a standard parallel/s between
the equator and a pole
• Conic projections are used for midlatitude zones that have an east– west
orientation
• If equally space, distance preserve
• If distance between parallels increase near border, shape preserve
• If distance towards north and south
• pole decreases, area preserve
 2. Cylindrical Projection:

▪ Cylindrical projection is a rectangular grid representation,

characterized by a cylinder over a sphere
▪ Cylindrical projections are at an true scale along a central
meridian/s and standard parallel/s near a equator
▪ Cylindrical projection mostly use for tropical zones
▪ All cylindrical projections are equidistant along central
meridian/s and standard parallel/s
 3. Planar Projection:

▪ Planar projection is a circular representation with a focus,

characterized by plane over a sphere
▪ Planar projection is also called Azimuthal projection or Zenithal
projection
▪ Planar projections are true only at their focus
▪ Planar projections mostly use for polar zones

▪ rectangular regions
•Azimuthal Projection is further
divided into three different
projection on the basis ofprojection
focus:
1. Gnomonic/ Central projection
2. Stereographic Projection
3. Orthographic Projection
1.Gnomonic Projection:
•Azimuthal projection in which
projection focus is at center of the Earth
2.Stereographic Projection:
Azimuthal projection in which projection
focus is from pole
•to pole
3. Orthographic Projection:
•Azimuthal projection in which
projection focus is at infinity
 ➢ LOCATION OF DEVELOPABLE
PROJECTIONSURFACE:

▪ There are two cases in which developable projection

surface meet Earth:
1.Tangent:
▪ DPS touches the Earth
▪ One standard parallel/ One Central meridian
2.Secant:
▪ DPS cuts the Earth
▪ Two standard parallels/ Two central meridians
 ➢ ASPECT OF DEVELOPABLE PROJECTION SURFACE:

▪ Projection aspect is the relative orientation of the developable projection surface and
Earth with respect to the observer
▪ There are four kinds of projection aspects:
1. Normal
2. Transverse
3. Oblique
4. Polar
1.Normal Aspect:
▪ standard parallel is equator
▪ Normal aspect is Azimuthal aspect if
▪ standard parallel touches poles
2. Transverse Aspect:
▪ Oriented perpendicular to polar axis
▪ Based on meridians
3.Oblique Aspect:
▪ Oriented at any angle with polar axis
▪ Based on central meridian and standard parallel
▪ Use for geographical areas that are centered along lines that are neither parallel nor meridians
▪ Directed as northwest, northeast, southwest and southeast

4. Polar Aspect:
▪ Oriented on focus as north or south pole
▪ Based on straight meridians with a concentric parallels
▪ Polar aspect only related to planar projection or Azimuthal projection or Zenithal projection
 ➢ PROJECTION CLASSIFICATIONS:

▪ Classification defines a properties of the projected surfaces

▪ The names of the properties that preserves by the projected surfaces are given below:
▪ Shape: Conformal or Orthomorphic
▪ Area: Equal Area or Equivalent
▪ Distance: Equidistant
▪ Direction: Azimuthal
1 Conformal Projection:
▪ Preserve shapes of small regions of the Earth that’s why use for medium
▪ scale to large scale applications
▪ Shape preserve either angle preserve or scale preserve
▪ Can preserve Direction by maintaining an angle between gratitude lines
▪ Area of the region distorted for large scale applications
• 2 Equal Area or Equivalent:
▪ Preserve area of all regions of the Earth’s surface that’s why use for
▪ small scale to large scale applications
▪ Area preserve when scale vary equally on both sided of the standard parallel
▪ Area and shape cannot preserve simultaneously For small scale applications, Direction also distorted
3. Equidistant:
▪ Preserve distance between entire regions of the Earth that are at true scale that’s why use for small scale to large scale
applications . Distance only preserve when scale preserve. No projection is equidistant to and from all points on a map
4. Azimuthal:
▪ Preserve direction of all regions of the Earth that’s why use for medium to large scale applications
▪ Direction preserve when angle preserve Azimuthal projection can be equal area, conformal or equidistant
❖ Formation of Map Projections:
▪ DPS can exhibit more than one classification The conic projection, cylindrical projection and planar projection can be
combined with one or more of the projection classifications to control the appearance and distortion for any
particular application. There are lot of projections that can made by this procedure.
 ➢ MERCATOR PROJECTION:

▪ Cylindrical projection
▪ Normal aspect Equator/ Two latitudes symmetrical around the equator
▪ Meridians are parallel to each other and equally spaced
▪ Parallels are parallel but become artherpart toward the poles
▪ Distance preserve along Equator or Two latitudes Shape preserve accurately
▪ Direction preserve accurately along gratitude lines
▪ Area not preserved and increase towards the top and bottom of the map
▪ Use in Standard sea navigation charts, Wind direction, Air travel and Ocean currents
▪ Application in Conformal world map
 ➢ CYLINDRICAL EQUAL AREA
PROJECTION:

▪ Cylindrical projection
▪ Equatorial aspect
▪ Tangent to the equator
▪ All meridians are equally spaced and 0.32 times the length of the
equator Parallels are equally spaced and farthest apart near the equator
▪ Poles are lines of length equal to the equator
▪ Distance preserve along equator
▪ Shape not preserve because of scale
▪ Direction not preserved but local angle preserve along standard parallels
▪ Area preserve accurately
▪ Use for narrow areas extending along the equatorial regions
 ➢ UNIVERSAL TRANSVERSE
MERCATOR PROJECTION:

▪ Cylindrical projection
▪ Transverse aspect
▪ Two parallel lines spaced from each central meridian by 180 km
▪ Earth is divided into 60 zones that are spanning 6⁰ of longitude form 84⁰N & 80⁰S
with central meridian of each zone and equator
▪ Distance preserve along each central meridian
▪ Direction preserve for each zone
▪ Area preserved and minimal distortion along the boundary of zone
▪ Extent should be limited to 15⁰-20 ⁰ on both sides of the central meridian
▪ Many countries use local UTM zones based on the official geographic coordinate
systems in use
 ➢ EQUIDISTANT CONIC PROJECTION:

▪ Conical Projection
▪ Normal aspect
▪ Tangential/ Secant
▪ Concentric circles of parallels and all meridians are evenly spaced
▪ Distance preserve accurately along meridians and standard parallels
▪ Shape preserve along standard parallels
▪ Direction not preserve but local angle preserve
▪ Area not preserved and increases as moving away from standard parallels
▪ Range in parallels should be limited to 30°
▪ Use for Regional mapping of midlatitude areas with a predominantly east–west
extent . Application in Atlas maps of small countries
 ➢ ALBERS EQUAL AREA PROJECTION:

▪ Conic projection
▪ Normal aspect
▪ Secant
▪ All meridians equally spaced
▪ Distance between concentric parallels decreases toward poles
▪ Distance preserve for mid latitude
▪ Shape not preserve and distortion increases between standard parallels
▪ Direction not preserve but local angle preserve
▪ Area preserve accurately
▪ Used for small countries but not for continents.
▪ Used for the conterminous United States
 ➢ LAMBERT AZIMUTHAL EQUAL
AREA PROJECTION:

▪ Planar projection
▪ Equatorial, polar and oblique aspect
▪ Tangent of single pint anywhere
▪ Equatorial aspect: The equator
▪ Polar aspect: All meridians Oblique aspect: Central meridian
▪ Distance preserve only along focus
▪ Shape not preserved because of about 2% error within 15° from focus
▪ Direction preserve accurately from focus Area preserve accurately
▪ Use for Population density, Political boundaries
▪ Use in Oceanic mapping for energy, Minerals, Geology, and Tectonics
 ➢ LAMBERT CONFORMAL CONICAL
PROJECTION:

▪ Conic projection
▪ Normal aspect
▪ Secant
▪ All meridians are equally spaced
▪ Distance between arc of parallels increases near a border
▪ Distance preserve for mid latitude
▪ Shape preserve accurately[object
▪ Direction preserve accurately
▪ Area not preserved except small regions near standard parallels
▪ All latitudinal range should not exceed 35° Use for regions that have east-west
extension.
 ➢UNIVERSAL POLAR
STEREOGRAPHIC PROJECTION:

▪ Stereographic projection
▪ Polar aspect
▪ Tangent at pole
▪ The focus is either a north pole or south pole to 84° N and 80° S
▪ The latitude 81°06'52.3" N or 81°06'52.3" Sat true scale and all meridians
▪ Distance preserve only at focus and latitude of 81°06'52.3" N or 81°06'52.3" S
▪ Shape preserve accurately
▪ Direction preserve accurately from focus
▪ Area not preserve and increases movie away from focus
▪ Use for Conformal mapping of polar regions
▪ Use for mapping polar regions of the UTM coordinate system
 ▪ The other projections which are not conceptually made and not easily related to
developable projection surface
▪ There are three kinds of these projections:
▪ Modified projection
▪ Pseudo projection
▪ Compromise projection
1. Modified Projection:

➢ OTHER ▪ Modified form of conceptual projections to reduce distortion

▪ For example, the Space Oblique Mercator projection is a modified form of Mercator
PROJECTINS projection, Aitoff is a modifiedform of planar projection etc
2.Pseudo Projection:
▪ Have some Characteristics of another class of projection
▪ For example, the Sinusoidal is called a pseudo cylindrical projection, Bonne is called
pseudo conic projection and Werner is called pseudo planar projection etc
3.Compromise Projection:
▪ Average or interrupted form of different projection
▪ For example, Goode's Homolosine projection is a combination of the Mollweide