Advanced Functions Class 5 Notes

Lesson 5 - Rational Functions (1)

𝑛(𝑥)
A rational function is a function of the form 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑑(𝑥) where both the numerator and
denominator 𝑛(𝑥) and 𝑑(𝑥) are polynomials and we restrict the values of 𝑥 so that 𝑑(𝑥) ≠ 0.
Here are some examples of rational functions:
5𝑥 3 +4𝑥+1 2𝑥+1 1
𝑦= , 𝑥 ≠ 3, −2 𝑦= , 𝑥 ≠ −5 𝑦 = 𝑥 2 −9, 𝑥 ≠ ±3.
𝑥 2 −𝑥−6 𝑥+5

In the case where the denominator is a constant (i.e., 𝑑(𝑥) = 𝑘, 𝑘 ∈ ℝ, 𝑘 ≠ 0), the rational
1
function is reduced to the polynomial function 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑛(𝑥).
𝑘

In this lesson, we will cover the techniques of analysing the characteristics of a given rational
function as well as the method of graphing one. Before we delve into that, let’s talk about the
concepts of “infinitely large” and “infinitesimally small” as we will need to operate with them
when analysing rational functions.
Infinity is not a number. It represents a concept when a quantity is endless and unbounded.
We use 𝑥 → ∞ to denote 𝑥 takes on increasingly large positive values, while 𝑥 → −∞ is used to
denote 𝑥 takes on increasingly negative values. Similarly, infinitesimally small is also not a
number. It represents a concept when a quantity is endlessly close to “nothing” which is
represented by zero. We have the notations 𝑥 → 0+ and 𝑥 → 0− to denote approaching the
value 0 from the positive and the negative direction respectively.
The table below illustrate the meaning of the notations:

𝑥→∞ 𝑥 → −∞ 𝑥 → 0+ 𝑥 → 0−
100 -100 0.1 -0.1
1000 -1000 0.01 -0.01
10000 -10000 0.001 -0.001
100000 -100000 0.0001 -0.0001
… … … …

Because infinity and infinitesimally small are not numbers, we should pay special attention
when performing arithmetic with them to remain consistent. While we will see later that some
∞
operations such as ∞ or ∞ − ∞ are indeterminate, below is the list of operations that are
defined:

• 𝑎 + ∞ = ∞ + 𝑎 = ∞ for any 𝑎 ∈ ℝ
• 𝑎 − ∞ = −∞ + 𝑎 = −∞ for any 𝑎 ∈ ℝ
• 𝑎 × ∞ = ∞ × 𝑎 = ∞ for any 𝑎 ∈ ℝ+
• 𝑎 × ∞ = ∞ × 𝑎 = −∞ for any 𝑎 ∈ ℝ−
𝑎
• = 0+ for any 𝑎 ∈ ℝ+
∞

1
Advanced Functions Class 5 Notes

𝑎
• = 0− for any 𝑎 ∈ ℝ+
−∞
𝑎
• = 0− for any 𝑎 ∈ ℝ−
∞
𝑎
• = 0+ for any 𝑎 ∈ ℝ−
−∞
∞
• = ∞ for any 𝑎 ∈ ℝ+
𝑎
∞
• = −∞ for any 𝑎 ∈ ℝ−
𝑎

∞
Now let’s look at why is indeterminate, even though it seems like it should be 1. Consider a
∞
2𝑥+1
rational function such as 𝑓(𝑥) = . As 𝑥 → ∞, we see that both the numerator and the
𝑥−2
∞ ∞
denominator approaches ∞, and so 𝑓(𝑥) → ∞. Examining the expression of 𝑓(𝑥), we see that ∞
should be simplified to 2 in this case:
2𝑥+1 1
𝑥
2+
𝑥 2+0+ 2+
𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥−2 = 2 , so 𝑎𝑠 → ∞, 𝑓(𝑥) → 1−0+ = →2
1− 1−
𝑥 𝑥

Note: 2+ denotes a quantity that is infinitely close to 2 and slightly more (2.1, 2.01, 2.001, …) and 1− denotes a
quantity that is infinitely close to 1 and slightly less (0.9, 0.99, 0.999, …)
3𝑥+1
However, if we were given a slightly different function 𝑔(𝑥) = , we will see that with
𝑥−2
∞
similar steps, as 𝑥 → ∞, 𝑔(𝑥) → 3. So, in this case, ∞ simplifies to 3. This is the reason why we
∞
say ∞ is indeterminate, its value depends on the specific function where it arises. In a similar
fashion, ∞ − ∞ is not simply 0 but indeterminate. There are other indeterminate forms
involving infinity which you will come across and study in more details in future Calculus
courses. For now, the brief introduction above will suffice for the purpose of this lesson.

Reciprocal Function
1
Reciprocal functions are rational functions in the form of 𝑦 = 𝑑(𝑥). When the graph of 𝑦 = 𝑑(𝑥)
1
is simple or given, we can use it to help us sketch the graph of its reciprocal 𝑦 = 𝑑(𝑥). Let (𝑥, 𝑦)
1 1
be a point of the graph of 𝑦 = 𝑑(𝑥), then (𝑥, 𝑦) is a point on the graph of 𝑦 = 𝑑(𝑥). We can use
this point mapping to draw the graph of the reciprocal function when we know the graph of the
function in the denominator.

We usually start by identifying any invariant point(s) on the function. This is a point where the
1
𝑦-coordinate is ±1. As 𝑦 = 𝑦 when 𝑦 = ±1, these points are stationary under the
1 1
transformation from 𝑦 = 𝑑(𝑥) to 𝑦 = 𝑑(𝑥) using the mapping (𝑥, 𝑦) → (𝑥, 𝑦).

2
Advanced Functions Class 5 Notes

1
Example 1: Use the graph of 𝑦 = 𝑥 2 + 1 to sketch the graph of ℎ(𝑥) = (𝑥 2 +1).

𝑑(𝑥) The graph of the quadratic denominator 𝑑(𝑥) = 𝑥 2 + 1 is

shown on the left in red. In this case, we have only one
invariant point, (0, 1), which should also be on the graph
of the reciprocal function ℎ(𝑥).

From that point, going to

the right, the 𝑦-value of
𝑑(𝑥) is increasing and
approaching ∞. So, the
reciprocal of that will be
decreasing and approaching 0+ as shown in green. ℎ(𝑥)

As 𝑑(𝑥) has even symmetry (the quadratic graph is

symmetric about the 𝑦-axis), its reciprocal ℎ(𝑥) also
has even symmetry. Therefore, the graph of
1
ℎ(𝑥) = 𝑥 2+1 should look like the one on the right.

1
Example 2: Use the graph of 𝑦 = 𝑥 2 − 2𝑥 − 3 to sketch the graph of 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥 2 −2𝑥−3.

𝑑(𝑥) Since 𝑥 2 − 2𝑥 − 3 = (𝑥 − 3)(𝑥 + 1), we can sketch the

graph of the quadratic denominator 𝑑(𝑥) = 𝑥 2 − 2𝑥 −
3 using its 𝑥 − intercepts (3, 0) and (−1, 0) as shown on
the left in red. There are four invariant points in this case.
These are labelled in green where 𝑦 = ±1 (shown in
dashed blue lines).

Starting from the right

𝑑(𝑥)
most invariant point,
going to the right, the 𝑦-
value of 𝑑(𝑥) is increasing and approaching ∞. So, the
reciprocal of that will be decreasing and approaching
0+ . From that same invariant point, going to the left
towards the point (3, 0), the 𝑦-value of 𝑑(𝑥) is
decreasing and approaching 0+ , so the reciprocal will be
increasing and going to ∞. If we mirror the same
process on the left, we have the reciprocal function
graphed so far shown on the right.

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Advanced Functions Class 5 Notes

Between the two leftover invariant points from left to 𝑑(𝑥)

right, 𝑑(𝑥) decreases until it reaches its vertex at (1, -4)
then it increases. So, the reciprocal graph will increase until
1
it reaches its local maximum at (1, − 4) then decreases.

𝑑(𝑥) For the leftover portions of

𝑑(𝑥) near its 𝑥-intercepts,
we see that its 𝑦-values
approached 0 from below (0− ), therefore, the graph of
1
the reciprocal should approach −∞ (0− = −∞). The
1
graph of 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥 2 −2𝑥−3 (shown in green on the left) is
now complete.
𝑓(𝑥)

In the completed graph of 𝑓(𝑥) in Example 2, the two dashed vertical lines indicate where the
vertical asymptotes of the function 𝑓(𝑥) are.

A vertical asymptote (V.A.) of a function is a vertical line 𝑥 = 𝑎 that guides the graph of the
function as its 𝑦-value tends toward positive or negative infinity when its 𝑥-value gets closer to
𝑎. It is not part of the graph and can never be crossed by the graph because it occurs at the 𝑥-
value that is not in the domain of the function.

1
For 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥 2−2𝑥−3 in Example 2, the vertical asymptotes are 𝑥 = −1 and 𝑥 = 3, which are also
the restrictions on 𝑥 as they make the denominator of 𝑓(𝑥) equal to 0. Not all rational
1
functions come with a vertical asymptote. The rational function ℎ(𝑥) = 𝑥 2+1 from Example 1
does not have a V.A. as the function is defined for all 𝑥 ∈ ℝ (no restrictions on 𝑥). The graph of
ℎ(𝑥) is continuous without any breaks and it does not have any portion where it tends to
infinity.

The above observation seems to suggest that the restrictions on 𝑥 of a function gives us its
vertical asymptotes. While it is true that the restricted values of 𝑥 indicate where the functions
are discontinuous, vertical asymptote is only one type of discontinuity. Rational functions can
also exhibit another type of discontinuity called the point of discontinuity (more commonly
known as a hole), as we will see in the next example.

Example 3: For each function, determine its domain and if any, its vertical asymptote(s) and
point(s) of discontinuity.

3𝑥+1 𝑥 3 +1 𝑥+2 𝑥 3 +4𝑥 2 +3𝑥

a) 𝑦 = 𝑥−4
b) 𝑦 = 𝑥+1
c) 𝑦 = 𝑥 2 +4𝑥+4 d) 𝑦 = 𝑥 2 +2𝑥−3

4
Advanced Functions Class 5 Notes

Solution:
a) Since the denominator 𝑥 − 4 is 0 when 𝑥 = 4 , the function is undefined there. The
domain of the function is therefore {𝑥 ∈ ℝ, 𝑥 ≠ 4}. To know whether the restricted value
𝑥 = 4 is graphically a vertical asymptote or a hole of the function, we need to look at what
happens to the 𝑦-value when 𝑥 is very close to 4.

From the right side of 𝑥 = 4 (when 𝑥 is slightly larger than 4):

12 12
𝑥 → 4+ , 𝑦 → 4+ −4 = 0+ = ∞

From the left side of 𝑥 = 4 (when 𝑥 is slightly less than 4):

12 12
𝑥 → 4− , 𝑦 → 4− −4 = 0− = −∞

As the 𝑦-value of the function tends to ±∞ on either side of 𝑥 = 4, there is a vertical

asymptote at 𝑥 = 4.
b) Looking at the denominator of the function, we see that the restricted value on 𝑥 is −1.
The domain is therefore: {𝑥 ∈ ℝ, 𝑥 ≠ −1} . ee also notice that the function can be
𝑥 3 +1 (𝑥+1)(𝑥 2 −𝑥+1)
simplified: 𝑦 = = = 𝑥 2 − 𝑥 + 1 when 𝑥 ≠ −1 . The rational function
𝑥+1 (𝑥+1)
remains undefined for 𝑥 = −1. However, we see that its 𝑦-value should approach 3 when
we let 𝑥 approach from both the left and right of the restricted value −1:
(−1+ + 1)((−1+ )2 − (−1+ ) + 1)
𝑥 → −1+ , 𝑦 = → ((−1)2 − (−1) + 1) = 3
(−1+ + 1)

(−1− + 1)((−1− )2 − (−1− ) + 1)

𝑥 → −1− , 𝑦 = → ((−1)2 − (−1) + 1) = 3
(−1− + 1)

This means that the graph does not tend to ±∞ near 𝑥 = −1, instead it gets infinitely
close to the point (−1, 3) on either side but never include it in its graph. So, we have a
hole (point of discontinuity) at 𝑥 = −1. Graphically, we have an empty dot at (−1, 3).

c) Simplifying the function, we have

𝑥+2 𝑥+2 1
𝑦= = = .
𝑥 2 + 4𝑥 + 4 (𝑥 + 2)2 𝑥 + 2
The domain of the function is {𝑥 ∈ ℝ, 𝑥 ≠ −2}. Near the restricted value 𝑥 = −2, we
have:
1 1
𝑥 → −2+ , 𝑦 = −2+ +2 → +∞ and 𝑥 → −2− , 𝑦 = −2−+2 → −∞.

The function has a vertical asymptote at 𝑥 = −2.

5
Advanced Functions Class 5 Notes

d) Simplifying the function, we have

𝑥 3 + 4𝑥 2 + 3𝑥 𝑥(𝑥 + 1)(𝑥 + 3) 𝑥(𝑥 + 1)
𝑦= 2 = = .
𝑥 + 2𝑥 − 3 (𝑥 − 1)(𝑥 + 3) 𝑥−1
The domain of the function is {𝑥 ∈ ℝ, 𝑥 ≠ 1, −3}. Next, we look the behaviour of the 𝑦-
value near the two restricted values of 𝑥:
−3(−3+1) 6 3
𝑥 → −3+ and 𝑥 → −3− , 𝑦 → = −4 = − 2.
−3−1
2 2
𝑥 → 1+ , 𝑦 → 0+ = ∞ and 𝑥 → 1− , 𝑦 → 0− = −∞.
3
Therefore, the function has a hole at (−3, − 2) and a vertical asymptote at 𝑥 = 1.

𝑛(𝑥)
In summary, the restrictions on 𝑥 of a rational function 𝑦 = reveal the following
𝑑(𝑥)
information:

The function will be discontinuous at 𝑥 = 𝑎 if 𝑑(𝑎) = 0:

• If 𝑛(𝑎) = 0 and 𝑑(𝑎) = 0, meaning 𝑥 − 𝑎 is a factor of both the numerator and

denominator of the function and the factor (𝑥 − 𝑎) divides out after simplification,
then a point of discontinuity (a hole) occurs at 𝑥 = 𝑎.

• The function has a vertical asymptote at 𝑥 = 𝑎 if 𝑑(𝑎) = 0 and 𝑛(𝑎) ≠ 0, when

the function is in its simplest form.

Another defining feature of a rational function is its end behaviour. In many cases, the ends of
the graph of a rational function will get infinitely close to a straight line but never quite touch it.
When the straight line is horizontal, it is called a horizontal asymptote (H.A.). And when it is
not, it is called an oblique or slanted asymptote (O.A.). Like vertical asymptote, it is not a part
of the function, but a line that guides the end behaviour of the graph.

A) B)

6
Advanced Functions Class 5 Notes

Diagram A on the previous page shows a rational function with a horizontal asymptote of 𝑦 = 0
(the 𝑥-axis). The right end of the graph approaches the H.A. from above (𝑦 → 0+ ) and the left
end approaches from below (𝑦 → 0− ). The ends of the rational function in Diagram B
approaches an oblique asymptote (𝑦 = 𝑥) instead. In this case, it approaches 𝑦 = 𝑥 from above
at both ends. Keep in mind that a horizontal or an oblique asymptote only guides the end
behaviour of the function. At both ends, the graph should get very close to it but never touches
it. However, it is possible for the graph of a rational function to cross a H.A. or an O.A. in the
middle like the one shown below.

By analysing the end behaviour of a rational function, we will be able to deduce whether it has
a horizontal asymptote or an oblique asymptote or neither.

Example 4: For each function in Example 3, analyze the end behaviour and determine whether
it has a horizontal asymptote or an oblique asymptote or neither.

Solution:

3𝑥+1 13
a) 𝑦 = = 3 + 𝑥−4 , 𝑥 ≠ 4.
𝑥−4

13 13 13
As 𝑥 → ∞, 𝑥−4 → = = 0+ , so 𝑦 → 3+ (approaching 3 from above).
∞−4 ∞

13 13 13
As 𝑥 → −∞, 𝑥−4 → −∞−4 = −∞ = 0− , so 𝑦 → 3− (approaching 3 from below).

The function has a horizontal asymptote at 𝑦 = 3.

Here is the alternative way of determining the horizontal asymptote in this case:

As 𝑥 → ±∞, 3𝑥 and 𝑥 dominates in the numerator and the denominator respectively, so

3𝑥
𝑦 → 𝑥 = 3.

7
Advanced Functions Class 5 Notes

𝑥 3 +1
b) 𝑦 = = 𝑥 2 − 𝑥 + 1, 𝑥 ≠ −1.
𝑥+1

As 𝑥 → ±∞, the leading term 𝑥 2 dominates, so 𝑦 → ∞.

The function has neither a horizontal asymptote nor an oblique asymptote since the
function simplifies into a quadratic form, so its graph should look exactly like the graph
of the parabola except at 𝑥 = −1. From Example 3, we know there should be a hole at
𝑥 = −1.
𝑥+2 1
c) 𝑦 = 𝑥 2 +4𝑥+4 = 𝑥+2 , 𝑥 ≠ −2.

1 1
As 𝑥 → ∞, 𝑦 → = = 0+ , (approaching 0 from above).
∞+2 ∞

1 1
As 𝑥 → −∞, 𝑦 → −∞+2 = −∞ = 0− , (approaching 0 from below).

The function has a horizontal asymptote at 𝑦 = 0.

𝑥 3 +4𝑥 2 +3𝑥 2
d) 𝑦 = = (𝑥 + 2) + 𝑥−1 , 𝑥 ≠ 1, −3.
𝑥 2 +2𝑥−3
2
As 𝑥 → ∞, 𝑥−1 → 0+ , so 𝑦 → (𝑥 + 2) + 0+ (approaching 𝑦 = 𝑥 + 2 from above).

2
As 𝑥 → −∞, 𝑥−1 → 0− , so 𝑦 → (𝑥 + 2) + 0− (approaching 𝑦 = 𝑥 + 2 from below).

The function has an oblique asymptote at 𝑦 = 𝑥 + 2.

Knowing the location of any vertical/horizontal/oblique asymptotes will help us significantly in

sketching the graph of rational functions.

Graphing Rational Functions

We will put everything together now and demonstrate how to sketch the graph of a rational
function.
2𝑥 2 −3𝑥−2
Example 5: Given a function 𝑓(𝑥) = , determine its intercepts, asymptotes and/or
𝑥 2 +𝑥
holes if any. Use the behaviours near the asymptotes to sketch the graph of 𝑓(𝑥).
Solution:
(2𝑥+1)(𝑥−2)
First, we factor function 𝑓: 𝑦 = to see the restricted values of 𝑥, 𝑥 ≠ 0, −1.
𝑥(𝑥+1)

8
Advanced Functions Class 5 Notes

The 𝑥 − intercept occurs when 𝑦 = 0, as the denominator cannot be 0, this is

equivalent to when the numerator equals 0: (2𝑥 + 1)(𝑥 − 2) = 0. So, we have two 𝑥 −
1
intercepts at (− 2 , 0) and (2, 0). The function has no 𝑦 − intercept as 𝑥 ≠ 0.

Let’s discuss the behaviour of the function near its restricted values of 𝑥:
(1)(−2) −2 (1)(−2) −2
As 𝑥 → 0+ , 𝑦 → → → −∞, and as 𝑥 → 0− , 𝑦 → → → ∞.
(0+ )(1) 0+ (0− )(1) 0−

(−2+1)(−1−2) 3 (−2+1)(−1−2) 3
As 𝑥 → −1+ , 𝑦 → → 0− → −∞, and as 𝑦 → → 0+ → ∞.
(−1)(0+ ) (−1)(0− )

From the above analysis, we know that there are two vertical asymptotes at 𝑥 = 0 and
𝑥 = −1 and the function has no holes.
−5𝑥−2
Next, we use division to rewrite 𝑓 as: 𝑦 = 2 + .
𝑥 2 +𝑥
−5𝑥−2 −5
As 𝑥 → ∞, → → 0− , so 𝑦 → 2 + 0− (approaching 𝑦 = 2 from below).
𝑥 2 +𝑥 𝑥
−5𝑥−2 −5
As 𝑥 → −∞, → → 0+ , so 𝑦 → 2 + 0+ (approaching 𝑦 = 2 from above).
𝑥 2 +𝑥 𝑥

Therefore, the function has a horizontal asymptote at 𝑦 = 2 as indicated by the end

behaviour. Putting everything together, the graph should look like the one shown
below:

𝑥 = −1 𝑥 = 0

𝑦=2

9
Advanced Functions Class 5 Notes

𝑥 3 +𝑥 2 −9𝑥−9
Example 6: Given a function 𝑓(𝑥) = , determine its intercepts, asymptotes and/or
𝑥 2 +3𝑥+2
holes if any. Use the behaviours near the asymptotes to sketch the graph of 𝑓(𝑥).
Solution:
(𝑥+3)(𝑥−3)(𝑥+1) (𝑥+3)(𝑥−3)
First, we factor function 𝑓: 𝑦 = = to see the restricted values
(𝑥+1)(𝑥+2) 𝑥+2
of 𝑥, 𝑥 ≠ −1, −2.
The 𝑥 − intercept occurs when 𝑦 = 0, as the denominator cannot be 0, this is
equivalent to when the numerator equals 0: (𝑥 + 3)(𝑥 − 3) = 0. So, we have two 𝑥 −
9
intercepts at (−3, 0) and (3, 0). Let 𝑥 = 0, 𝑦 = − 2, so the function has 𝑦 − intercept at
9
(0, − 2).
5
Next, use division to rewrite function 𝑓 as: 𝑦 = 𝑥 − 2 − 𝑥+2.

Let’s discuss the behaviour of 𝑓 near its restricted values of 𝑥:

5
As 𝑥 → −1, 𝑦 → −1 − 2 − −1+2 → −8, 𝑓 has a hole at (−1, −8).
5 5
As 𝑥 → −2+ , 𝑦 → −2 − 2 − 0+ → −∞, and as 𝑥 → −2− , 𝑦 → −2 − 2 − 0− → +∞.

So, function 𝑓 has a vertical asymptote at 𝑥 = −2.

−5 −5
As 𝑥 → ∞, → → 0− , so 𝑦 → 𝑥 − 2 + 0− (approaching 𝑦 = 𝑥 − 2 from below).
𝑥+2 𝑥
−5 −5
As 𝑥 → −∞, 𝑥+2 → → 0+ , so 𝑦 → 𝑥 − 2 + 0+ (approaching 𝑦 = 𝑥 − 2 from above).
𝑥

Therefore, the function has an oblique asymptote at 𝑦 = 𝑥 − 2 as indicated by the end

behaviour. Putting everything together, the graph should look like the one shown on
the right.

𝑦=𝑥−2
𝑥 = −2

10