Large language model

A large language model (LLM) is a language model notable for its ability to achieve general-purpose language generation and
understanding. LLMs acquire these abilities by learning statistical relationships from text documents during a computationally
intensive self-supervised and semi-supervised training process.[1] LLMs are artificial neural networks, the largest and most capable of
which are built with a transformer-based architecture. Some recent implementations are based on other architectures, such as recurrent
neural network variants and Mamba (a state space model).[2][3][4]

LLMs can be used for text generation, a form of generative AI, by taking an input text and repeatedly predicting the next token or
word.[5] Up to 2020, fine tuning was the only way a model could be adapted to be able to accomplish specific tasks. Larger sized
models, such as GPT-3, however, can be prompt-engineered to achieve similar results.[6] They are thought to acquire knowledge
about syntax, semantics and "ontology" inherent in human language corpora, but also inaccuracies and biases present in the
corpora.[7]

Some notable LLMs are OpenAI's GPT series of models (e.g., GPT-3.5 and GPT-4, used in ChatGPT and Microsoft Copilot),
Google's PaLM and Gemini (used in Bard), Meta's LLaMA family of open-source models, and Anthropic's Claude models.

History
At the 2017 NeurIPS conference, Google researchers introduced the transformer
architecture in their landmark paper "Attention Is All You Need". This paper's goal
was to improve upon 2014 Seq2seq technology, [8] and was based mainly on the
attention mechanism developed by Bahdanau et al. in 2014.[9] The following year
in 2018, BERT was introduced and quickly became "ubiquitous".[10] Though the
original transformer has both encoder and decoder blocks, BERT is an encoder-
only model.

Although decoder-only GPT-1 was introduced in 2018, it was GPT-2 in 2019 that
caught widespread attention because OpenAI at first deemed it too powerful to
release publicly, out of fear of malicious use.[11] GPT-3 in 2020 went a step further
and as of 2024 is available only via API with no offering of downloading the
model to execute locally. But it was the 2022 consumer-facing browser-based
ChatGPT that captured the imaginations of the general population and caused
An illustration of main components of the
some media hype and online buzz.[12] The 2023 GPT-4 was praised for its
transformer model from the original paper, where
increased accuracy and as a "holy grail" for its multimodal capabilities.[13]
layers were normalized after (instead of before)
OpenAI did not reveal high-level architecture and the number of parameters of
multiheaded attention.
GPT-4.

In the meantime, competing language models have for the most part been playing
catch-up to the GPT series, at least in terms of number of parameters.[14] Notable exceptions in terms of number of parameters
included Google's 2019 T5-11B and 2022 PaLM-E. In terms of Elo ratings, on January 26, 2024, Google's Bard (Gemini Pro)
surpassed the regular GPT-4, but not the limited-availability GPT-4-Turbo.[15]

Since 2022, source-available models have been gaining popularity, especially at first with BLOOM and LLaMA, though both have
restrictions on the field of use. Mistral AI's models Mistral 7B and Mixtral 8x7b have the more permissive Apache License. As of
January 2024, Mixtral 8x7b is the most powerful open LLM according to the LMSYS Chatbot Arena Leaderboard, being more
powerful than GPT-3.5 but not as powerful as GPT-4.[16]

Dataset preprocessing

Probabilistic tokenization

Using a modification of byte-pair encoding, in the first step, all unique characters (including blanks and punctuation marks) are treated
as an initial set of n-grams (i.e. initial set of uni-grams). Successively the most frequent pair of adjacent characters is merged into a bi-
gram and all instances of the pair are replaced by it. All occurrences of adjacent pairs of (previously merged) n-grams that most
frequently occur together are then again merged into even lengthier n-gram repeatedly until a vocabulary of prescribed size is obtained
(in case of GPT-3, the size is 50257).[17] Token vocabulary consists of integers, spanning from zero up to the size of the token
vocabulary. New words can always be interpreted as combinations of the tokens and the initial-set uni-grams.[18]
A token vocabulary based on the frequencies extracted from mainly English corpora uses as few tokens as possible for an average
English word. An average word in another language encoded by such an English-optimized tokenizer is however split into
suboptimal amount of tokens.

tokenizer: texts -> series of numerical "tokens" may be split into:

n-grams: token izer : texts -> series of numerical " t ok ens "

numbers as "tokens": 30001 7509 25 13399 4613 2168 286 29052 366 83 482 641 1

Probabilistic tokenization also compresses the datasets, which is the reason for using the byte pair encoding algorithm as a tokenizer.
Because LLMs generally require input to be an array that is not jagged, the shorter texts must be "padded" until they match the length
of the longest one. How many tokens are, on average, needed per word depends on the language of the dataset.[19][20]

Dataset cleaning

In the context of training LLMs, datasets are typically cleaned by removing toxic passages from the dataset, discarding low-quality
data, and de-duplication.[21] Cleaned datasets can increase training efficiency and lead to improved downstream performance.[22][23]

With the increasing proportion of LLM-generated content on the web, data cleaning in the future may include filtering out such
content. LLM-generated content can pose a problem if the content is similar to human text (making filtering difficult) but of lower
quality (degrading performance of models trained on it).[24]

Training and architecture

Reinforcement learning from human feedback (RLHF)

Reinforcement learning from human feedback (RLHF) through algorithms, such as proximal policy optimization, is used to further
fine-tune a model based on a dataset of human preferences.[25]

Instruction tuning

Using "self-instruct" approaches, LLMs have been able to bootstrap correct responses, replacing any naive responses, starting from
human-generated corrections of a few cases. For example, in the instruction "Write an essay about the main themes represented in
Hamlet," an initial naive completion might be 'If you submit the essay after March 17, your grade will be reduced by 10% for each
day of delay," based on the frequency of this textual sequence in the corpus.[26]

Mixture of experts

The largest LLM may be too expensive to train and use directly. For such models, mixture of experts (MoE) can be applied, a line of
research pursued by Google researchers since 2017 to train models reaching up to 1 trillion parameters.[27][28][29]

Prompt engineering, attention mechanism, and context window

Most results previously achievable only by (costly) fine-tuning, can be achieved through prompt engineering, although limited to the
scope of a single conversation (more precisely, limited to the scope of a context window).[30]

In order to find out which tokens are relevant to each other within the scope of the context window, the attention mechanism
calculates "soft" weights for each token, more precisely for its embedding, by using multiple attention heads, each with its own
"relevance" for calculating its own soft weights. For example, the small (i.e. 117M parameter sized) GPT-2 model, has had twelve
attention heads and a context window of only 1k token.[32] In its medium version it has 345M parameters and contains 24 layers,
each with 12 attention heads. For the training with gradient descent a batch size of 512 was utilized.[18]

The largest models can have a context window sized up to 200k (for example, Claude 2.1).[33] Other models with large context
windows includes GPT-4 Turbo, with a context window of up to 128k tokens.[34] Note that this maximum refers to the number of
input tokens and that the maximum number of output tokens differs from the input and is often smaller. For example, the GPT-4
Turbo model has a maximum output of 4096 tokens. Also, As of January 2024, GPT-4 Turbo is, for all tiers of service, "currently
under preview with restrictive rate limits that make them suitable for testing and evaluations, but not for production usage".[35]
Length of a conversation that the model can take into account when generating
its next answer is limited by the size of a context window, as well. If the length of
a conversation, for example with Chat-GPT, is longer than its context window,
only the parts inside the context window are taken into account when generating
the next answer, or the model needs to apply some algorithm to summarize the
too distant parts of conversation.

The shortcomings of making a context window larger include higher

computational cost and possibly diluting the focus on local context, while making
it smaller can cause a model to miss an important long-range dependency.
Balancing them are a matter of experimentation and domain-specific
considerations.

A model may be pre-trained either to predict how the segment continues, or what
is missing in the segment, given a segment from its training dataset.[36] It can be
either

autoregressive (i.e. predicting how the segment continues, the way

GPTs do it): for example given a segment "I like to eat", the model
predicts "ice cream", or "sushi".
"masked" (i.e. filling in the parts missing from the segment, the way
"BERT"[37] does it): for example, given a segment "I like to [__]
[__] cream", the model predicts that "eat" and "ice" are missing.

Models may be trained on auxiliary tasks which test their understanding of the When each head calculates, according to its own
data distribution, such as Next Sentence Prediction (NSP), in which pairs of criteria, how much other tokens are relevant for the
sentences are presented and the model must predict whether they appear "it_" token, note that the second attention head,
consecutively in the training corpus.[37] During training, regularization loss is represented by the second column, is focusing
also used to stabilize training. However regularization loss is usually not used most on the first two rows, i.e. the tokens "The"
during testing and evaluation. and "animal", while the third column is focusing
most on the bottom two rows, i.e. on "tired", which
has been tokenized into two tokens.[31]
Training cost
Advances in software and hardware have reduced the cost substantially since 2020, such that in 2023 training of a 12-billion-
parameter LLM computational cost is 72,300 A100-GPU-hours, while in 2020 the cost of training a 1.5-billion-parameter LLM
(which was two orders of magnitude smaller than the state of the art in 2020) was between $80 thousand and $1.6 million.[38][39][40]
Since 2020, large sums were invested in increasingly large models. For example, training of the GPT-2 (i.e. a 1.5-billion-parameters
model) in 2019 cost $50,000, while training of the PaLM (i.e. a 540-billion-parameters model) in 2022 cost $8 million.[41]

For Transformer-based LLM, training cost is much higher than inference cost. It costs 6 FLOPs per parameter to train on one token,
whereas it costs 1 to 2 FLOPs per parameter to infer on one token.[42]

Tool use
There are certain tasks that, in principle, cannot be solved by any LLM, at least not without the use of external tools or additional
software. An example of such a task is responding to the user's input '354 * 139 = ', provided that the LLM has not already
encountered a continuation of this calculation in its training corpus. In such cases, the LLM needs to resort to running program code
that calculates the result, which can then be included in its response. Another example is 'What is the time now? It is ', where a
separate program interpreter would need to execute a code to get system time on the computer, so LLM could include it in its
reply.[43][44] This basic strategy can be sophisticated with multiple attempts of generated programs, and other sampling strategies.[45]
Cost Savings and Reduced Vendor Dependency

Generally, in order to get an LLM to use tools, one must finetune it for tool-use. If the number of tools is finite, then finetuning may
be done just once. If the number of tools can grow arbitrarily, as with online API services, then the LLM can be finetuned to be able
to read API documentation and call API correctly.[46][47]

A simpler form of tool use is Retrieval Augmented Generation: augment an LLM with document retrieval, sometimes using a vector
database. Given a query, a document retriever is called to retrieve the most relevant (usually measured by first encoding the query and
the documents into vectors, then finding the documents with vectors closest in Euclidean norm to the query vector). The LLM then
generates an output based on both the query and the retrieved documents.[48]

Agency
An LLM is a language model, which is not an agent as it has no goal, but it can be used as a component of an intelligent agent.[49]
Researchers have described several methods for such integrations.

The ReAct ("Reason + Act") method constructs an agent out of an LLM, using the LLM as a planner. The LLM is prompted to
"think out loud". Specifically, the language model is prompted with a textual description of the environment, a goal, a list of possible
actions, and a record of the actions and observations so far. It generates one or more thoughts before generating an action, which is
then executed in the environment.[50] The linguistic description of the environment given to the LLM planner can even be the LaTeX
code of a paper describing the environment.[51]

In the DEPS ("Describe, Explain, Plan and Select") method, an LLM is first connected to the visual world via image descriptions,
then it is prompted to produce plans for complex tasks and behaviors based on its pretrained knowledge and environmental feedback
it receives.[52]

The Reflexion method[53] constructs an agent that learns over multiple episodes. At the end of each episode, the LLM is given the
record of the episode, and prompted to think up "lessons learned", which would help it perform better at a subsequent episode. These
"lessons learned" are given to the agent in the subsequent episodes.

Monte Carlo tree search can use an LLM as rollout heuristic. When a programmatic world model is not available, an LLM can also be
prompted with a description of the environment to act as world model.[54]

For open-ended exploration, an LLM can be used to score observations for their "interestingness", which can be used as a reward
signal to guide a normal (non-LLM) reinforcement learning agent.[55] Alternatively, it can propose increasingly difficult tasks for
curriculum learning.[56] Instead of outputting individual actions, an LLM planner can also construct "skills", or functions for complex
action sequences. The skills can be stored and later invoked, allowing increasing levels of abstraction in planning.[56]

LLM-powered agents can keep a long-term memory of its previous contexts, and the memory can be retrieved in the same way as
Retrieval Augmented Generation. Multiple such agents can interact socially.[57]

Compression
Typically, LLM are trained with full- or half-precision floating point numbers (float32 and float16). One float16 has 16 bits, or 2
bytes, and so one billion parameters require 2 gigabytes. The largest models typically have 100 billion parameters, requiring 200
gigabytes to load, which places them outside the range of most consumer electronics.

Post-training quantization[58] aims to decrease the space requirement by lowering precision of the parameters of a trained model,
while preserving most of its performance.[59][60] The simplest form of quantization simply truncates all numbers to a given number of
bits. It can be improved by using a different quantization codebook per layer. Further improvement can be done by applying different
precisions to different parameters, with higher precision for particularly important parameters ("outlier weights").[61]

While quantized models are typically frozen, and only pre-quantized models are finetuned, quantized models can still be finetuned.[62]

Multimodality
Multimodality means "having several modalities", and a "modality" refers to a type of input or output, such as video, image, audio,
text, proprioception, etc.[63] There have been many AI models trained specifically to ingest one modality and output another modality,
such as AlexNet for image to label,[64] visual question answering for image-text to text,[65] and speech recognition for speech to text.

A common method to create multimodal models out of an LLM is to "tokenize" the output of a trained encoder. Concretely, one can
construct a LLM that can understand images as follows: take a trained LLM, and take a trained image encoder . Make a small
multilayered perceptron , so that for any image , the post-processed vector has the same dimensions as an encoded token.
That is an "image token". Then, one can interleave text tokens and image tokens. The compound model is then finetuned on an
image-text dataset. This basic construction can be applied with more sophistication to improve the model. The image encoder may be
frozen to improve stability.[66]

Flamingo demonstrated the effectiveness of the tokenization method, finetuning a pair of pretrained language model and image
encoder to perform better on visual question answering than models trained from scratch.[67] Google PaLM model was finetuned into
a multimodal model PaLM-E using the tokenization method, and applied to robotic control.[68] LLaMA models have also been turned
multimodal using the tokenization method, to allow image inputs,[69] and video inputs.[70]
GPT-4 can use both text and image as inputs[71] (although the vision component wasn't released to the public until GPT-4V[72]);
Google DeepMind's Gemini is also multimodal.[73]

Properties

Scaling laws

The following four hyper-parameters characterize a LLM:

cost of (pre-)training ( ),
size of the artificial neural network itself, such as number of parameters (i.e. amount of neurons in its layers,
amount of weights between them and biases),
size of its (pre-)training dataset (i.e. number of tokens in corpus, ),
performance after (pre-)training.

They are related by simple statistical laws, called "scaling laws". One particular scaling law ("Chinchilla scaling") for LLM
autoregressively trained for one epoch, with a log-log learning rate schedule, states that:[74]

where the variables are

is the cost of training the model, in FLOPs.

is the number of parameters in the model.
is the number of tokens in the training set.
is the average negative log-likelihood loss per token (nats/token), achieved by the trained LLM on the test dataset.

and the statistical hyper-parameters are

, meaning that it costs 6 FLOPs per parameter to train on one token. Note that training cost is much higher
than inference cost, where it costs 1 to 2 FLOPs per parameter to infer on one token.[42]

Emergent abilities

When one subtracts out from the y-axis the best performance that can be achieved even with
infinite scaling of the x-axis quantity, large models' performance, measured on various tasks,
seems to be a linear extrapolation of other (smaller-sized and medium-sized) models'
performance on a log-log plot. However, sometimes the line's slope transitions from one slope
to another at point(s) referred to as break(s)[75] in downstream scaling laws, appearing as a
series of linear segments connected by arcs; it seems that larger models acquire "emergent
abilities" at this point(s).[30][76] These abilities are discovered rather than programmed-in or
designed, in some cases only after the LLM has been publicly deployed.[5]
At point(s) referred to as breaks,[75]
The most intriguing among emergent abilities is in-context learning from example the lines change their slopes,
demonstrations.[77] In-context learning is involved in tasks, such as: appearing on a log-log plot as a
series of linear segments connected
reported arithmetics, decoding the International Phonetic Alphabet, by arcs.
unscrambling a word's letters, disambiguate word in context,[30][78][79]
converting spatial words, cardinal directions (for example, replying "northeast"
upon [0, 0, 1; 0, 0, 0; 0, 0, 0]), color terms represented in text.[80]
chain-of-thought prompting: Model outputs are improved by chain-of-thought prompting only when model size
exceeds 62B. Smaller models perform better when prompted to answer immediately, without chain of thought.[81]
identifying offensive content in paragraphs of Hinglish (a combination of Hindi and English), and generating a
similar English equivalent of Kiswahili proverbs.[82]
Schaeffer et. al. argue that the emergent abilities are not unpredictably acquired, but predictably acquired according to a smooth
scaling law. The authors considered a toy statistical model of an LLM solving multiple-choice questions, and showed that this
statistical model, modified to account for other types of tasks, applies to these tasks as well.[83]

Let be the number of parameter count, and be the performance of the model.

When , then is an exponential curve (before it hits the plateau at one),

which looks like emergence.
When , then the plot is a straight line (before it hits the plateau at zero),
which does not look like emergence.
When , then is a step-function, which looks like
emergence.

Interpretation
Large language models by themselves are "black boxes", and it is not clear how they can perform linguistic tasks. There are several
methods for understanding how LLM work.

Mechanistic interpretability aims to reverse-engineer LLM by discovering symbolic algorithms that approximate the inference
performed by LLM. One example is Othello-GPT, where a small Transformer is trained to predict legal Othello moves. It is found
that there is a linear representation of Othello board, and modifying the representation changes the predicted legal Othello moves in
the correct way.[84][85] In another example, a small Transformer is trained on Karel programs. Similar to the Othello-GPT example,
there is a linear representation of Karel program semantics, and modifying the representation changes output in the correct way. The
model also generates correct programs that are on average shorter than those in the training set.[86]

In another example, the authors trained small transformers on modular arithmetic addition. The resulting models were reverse-
engineered, and it turned out they used discrete Fourier transform.[87]

Understanding and intelligence

NLP researchers were evenly split when asked, in a 2022 survey, whether (untuned) LLMs "could (ever) understand natural language
in some nontrivial sense".[88] Proponents of "LLM understanding" believe that some LLM abilities, such as mathematical reasoning,
imply an ability to "understand" certain concepts. A Microsoft team argued in 2023 that GPT-4 "can solve novel and difficult tasks
that span mathematics, coding, vision, medicine, law, psychology and more" and that GPT-4 "could reasonably be viewed as an early
(yet still incomplete) version of an artificial general intelligence system": "Can one reasonably say that a system that passes exams for
software engineering candidates is not really intelligent?"[89][90] Some researchers characterize LLMs as "alien intelligence".[91][92]
For example, Conjecture CEO Connor Leahy considers untuned LLMs to be like inscrutable alien "Shoggoths", and believes that
RLHF tuning creates a "smiling facade" obscuring the inner workings of the LLM: "If you don't push it too far, the smiley face stays
on. But then you give it [an unexpected] prompt, and suddenly you see this massive underbelly of insanity, of weird thought
processes and clearly non-human understanding."[93][94]

In contrast, some proponents of the "LLMs lack understanding" school believe that existing LLMs are "simply remixing and
recombining existing writing",[92] or point to the deficits existing LLMs continue to have in prediction skills, reasoning skills, agency,
and explainability.[88] For example, GPT-4 has natural deficits in planning and in real-time learning.[90] Generative LLMs have been
observed to confidently assert claims of fact which do not seem to be justified by their training data, a phenomenon which has been
termed "hallucination".[95] Specifically, hallucinations in the context of LLMs correspond to the generation of text or responses that
seem syntactically sound, fluent, and natural but are factually incorrect, nonsensical, or unfaithful to the provided source input.[96]
Neuroscientist Terrence Sejnowski has argued that "The diverging opinions of experts on the intelligence of LLMs suggests that our
old ideas based on natural intelligence are inadequate".[88]

The matter of LLM's exhibiting intelligence or understanding has two main aspects - the first is how to model thought and language in
a computer system, and the second is how to enable the computer system to generate human like language.[88] These aspects of
language as a model of cognition have been developed in the field of cognitive linguistics. American linguist George Lakoff presented
Neural Theory of Language (NTL)[97] as a computational basis for using language as a model of learning tasks and understanding.
The NTL Model (https://www.icsi.berkeley.edu/icsi/projects/ai/ntl) outlines how specific neural structures of the human brain shape
the nature of thought and language and in turn what are the computational properties of such neural systems that can be applied to
model thought and language in a computer system. After a framework for modeling language in a computer systems was established,
the focus shifted to establishing frameworks for computer systems to generate language with acceptable grammar. In his 2014 book
titled The Language Myth: Why Language Is Not An Instinct, British cognitive linguist and digital communication technologist
Vyvyan Evans mapped out the role of probabilistic context-free grammar (PCFG) in enabling NLP to model cognitive patterns and
generate human like language.[98] [99]

Evaluation

Perplexity

The most commonly used measure of a language model's performance is its perplexity on a given text corpus. Perplexity is a measure
of how well a model is able to predict the contents of a dataset; the higher the likelihood the model assigns to the dataset, the lower the
perplexity. Mathematically, perplexity is defined as the exponential of the average negative log likelihood per token:

here is the number of tokens in the text corpus, and "context for token " depends on the specific type of LLM used. If the LLM is
autoregressive, then "context for token " is the segment of text appearing before token . If the LLM is masked, then "context for
token " is the segment of text surrounding token .

Because language models may overfit to their training data, models are usually evaluated by their perplexity on a test set of unseen
data.[37] This presents particular challenges for the evaluation of large language models. As they are trained on increasingly large
corpora of text largely scraped from the web, it becomes increasingly likely that models' training data inadvertently includes portions
of any given test set.[6]

BPW, BPC, and BPT

In information theory, the concept of entropy is intricately linked to perplexity, a relationship notably established by Claude
Shannon.[100] This relationship is mathematically expressed as .

Entropy, in this context, is commonly quantified in terms of bits per word (BPW) or bits per character (BPC), which hinges on
whether the language model utilizes word-based or character-based tokenization.

Notably, in the case of larger language models that predominantly employ sub-word tokenization, bits per token (BPT) emerges as a
seemingly more appropriate measure. However, due to the variance in tokenization methods across different Large Language Models
(LLMs), BPT does not serve as a reliable metric for comparative analysis among diverse models. To convert BPT into BPW, one can
multiply it by the average number of tokens per word.

In the evaluation and comparison of language models, cross-entropy is generally the preferred metric over entropy. The underlying
principle is that a lower BPW is indicative of a model's enhanced capability for compression. This, in turn, reflects the model's
proficiency in making accurate predictions.

Task-specific datasets and benchmarks

A large number of testing datasets and benchmarks have also been developed to evaluate the capabilities of language models on more
specific downstream tasks. Tests may be designed to evaluate a variety of capabilities, including general knowledge, commonsense
reasoning, and mathematical problem-solving.

One broad category of evaluation dataset is question answering datasets, consisting of pairs of questions and correct answers, for
example, ("Have the San Jose Sharks won the Stanley Cup?", "No").[101] A question answering task is considered "open book" if the
model's prompt includes text from which the expected answer can be derived (for example, the previous question could be adjoined
with some text which includes the sentence "The Sharks have advanced to the Stanley Cup finals once, losing to the Pittsburgh
Penguins in 2016." [101]). Otherwise, the task is considered "closed book", and the model must draw on knowledge retained during
training.[102] Some examples of commonly used question answering datasets include TruthfulQA, Web Questions, TriviaQA, and
SQuAD.[102]

Evaluation datasets may also take the form of text completion, having the model select the most likely word or sentence to complete a
prompt, for example: "Alice was friends with Bob. Alice went to visit her friend, ____".[6]

Some composite benchmarks have also been developed which combine a diversity of different evaluation datasets and tasks.
Examples include GLUE, SuperGLUE, MMLU, BIG-bench, and HELM.[103][102]
It was previously standard to report results on a heldout portion of an evaluation dataset after doing supervised fine-tuning on the
remainder. It is now more common to evaluate a pre-trained model directly through prompting techniques, though researchers vary in
the details of how they formulate prompts for particular tasks, particularly with respect to how many examples of solved tasks are
adjoined to the prompt (i.e. the value of n in n-shot prompting).

Adversarially constructed evaluations

Because of the rapid pace of improvement of large language models, evaluation benchmarks have suffered from short lifespans, with
state of the art models quickly "saturating" existing benchmarks, exceeding the performance of human annotators, leading to efforts to
replace or augment the benchmark with more challenging tasks.[104] In addition, there are cases of "shortcut learning" wherein AIs
sometimes "cheat" on multiple-choice tests by using statistical correlations in superficial test question wording in order to guess the
correct responses, without necessarily understanding the actual question being asked.[88]

Some datasets have been constructed adversarially, focusing on particular problems on which extant language models seem to have
unusually poor performance compared to humans. One example is the TruthfulQA dataset, a question answering dataset consisting of
817 questions which language models are susceptible to answering incorrectly by mimicking falsehoods to which they were
repeatedly exposed during training. For example, an LLM may answer "No" to the question "Can you teach an old dog new tricks?"
because of its exposure to the English idiom you can't teach an old dog new tricks, even though this is not literally true.[105]

Another example of an adversarial evaluation dataset is Swag and its successor, HellaSwag, collections of problems in which one of
multiple options must be selected to complete a text passage. The incorrect completions were generated by sampling from a language
model and filtering with a set of classifiers. The resulting problems are trivial for humans but at the time the datasets were created state
of the art language models had poor accuracy on them. For example:

We see a fitness center sign. We then see a man talking to the camera and sitting and laying on a exercise ball. The man...
a) demonstrates how to increase efficient exercise work by running up and down balls.
b) moves all his arms and legs and builds up a lot of muscle.
c) then plays the ball and we see a graphics and hedge trimming demonstration.
d) performs sit ups while on the ball and talking.[106]

BERT selects b) as the most likely completion, though the correct answer is d).[106]

Wider impact
In 2023, Nature Biomedical Engineering wrote that "it is no longer possible to accurately distinguish" human-written text from text
created by large language models, and that "It is all but certain that general-purpose large language models will rapidly proliferate... It
is a rather safe bet that they will change many industries over time."[107] Goldman Sachs suggested in 2023 that generative language
AI could increase global GDP by 7% in the next ten years, and could expose to automation 300 million jobs globally.[108][109]

Copyright

Memorization is an emergent behavior in LLMs in which long strings of text are occasionally output verbatim from training data,
contrary to typical behavior of traditional artificial neural nets. Evaluations of controlled LLM output measure the amount memorized
from training data (focused on GPT-2-series models) as variously over 1% for exact duplicates[110] or up to about 7%.[111]

Security

Some commenters expressed concern over accidental or deliberate creation of misinformation, or other forms of misuse.[112] For
example, the availability of large language models could reduce the skill-level required to commit bioterrorism; biosecurity researcher
Kevin Esvelt has suggested that LLM creators should exclude from their training data papers on creating or enhancing
pathogens.[113]

A study by researchers at Google and several universities, including Cornell University and University of California, Berkeley,
showed that there are potential security risks in language models such as ChatGPT. In their study, they examined the possibility that
questioners could get, from ChatGPT, the training data that the AI model used; they found that they could get the training data from
the AI model. For example, when asking ChatGPT 3.5 turbo to repeat the word "poem" forever, the AI model will say "poem"
hundreds of times and then diverge, deviating from the standard dialogue style and spitting out nonsense phrases, thus spitting out the
training data as it is. The researchers have seen more than 10,000 examples of the AI model exposing their training data in a similar
method. The researchers said that it was hard to tell if the AI model was actually safe or not.[114]
The potential presence of "sleeper agents" within LLM models is another emerging security concern. These are hidden functionalities
built into the model that remain dormant until triggered by a specific event or condition. Upon activation, the LLM deviates from its
expected behavior to make insecure actions.[115]

Algorithmic bias

While LLMs have shown remarkable capabilities in generating human-like text, they are susceptible to inheriting and amplifying
biases present in their training data. This can manifest in skewed representations or unfair treatment of different demographics, such as
those based on race, gender, language, and cultural groups.[116] Since English data is overrepresented in current large language
models' training data, it may also downplay non-English views.[117]

Stereotyping

AI models can reinforce a wide range of stereotypes, including those based on gender, ethnicity, age, nationality, religion, or
occupation. This can lead to outputs that unfairly generalize or caricature groups of people, sometimes in harmful or derogatory
ways.[118]

Notably, gender bias refers to the tendency of these models to produce outputs that are unfairly prejudiced towards one gender over
another. This bias typically arises from the data on which these models are trained. Large language models often assign roles and
characteristics based on traditional gender norms.[116] For example, it might associate nurses or secretaries predominantly with
women and engineers or CEOs with men.[119]

Political bias

Political bias refers to the tendency of algorithms to systematically favor certain political viewpoints, ideologies, or outcomes over
others. Language models may also exhibit political biases. Since the training data includes a wide range of political opinions and
coverage, the models might generate responses that lean towards particular political ideologies or viewpoints, depending on the
prevalence of those views in the data.[120]

List
For the training cost column, 1 petaFLOP-day = 1 petaFLOP/sec × 1 day = 8.64E19 FLOP.
 Training
[a] Number of cost
Name Release date Developer Corpus size License[c] Notes
parameters[b] (petaFLOP-
day)

First GPT model,

GPT-1 June 2018 OpenAI 117 million MIT[121] decoder-only
transformer.

An early and
influential
340 3.3 billion Apache language model,[7]
BERT October 2018 Google 9[123] but encoder-only
million[122] words[122] 2.0[124] and thus not built
to be prompted or
generative[125]
An alternative to
~340 33 billion Apache BERT; designed
XLNet June 2019 Google
million[126] words 2.0[127] as encoder-
only[128][129]
general-purpose
40GB[131] (~10
[130] [133] model based on
GPT-2 February 2019 OpenAI 1.5 billion billion MIT transformer
tokens)[132] architecture

A fine-tuned
variant of GPT-3,
termed GPT-3.5,
was made
300 billion
GPT-3 May 2020 OpenAI 175 billion[38] 3640[134] proprietary available to the
tokens[132] public through a
web interface
called ChatGPT in
2022.[135]
The first of a
series of free
GPT-3 alternatives
released by
EleutherAI. GPT-
Neo outperformed
GPT-Neo March 2021 EleutherAI 2.7 billion[136] 825 GiB[137] MIT[138] an equivalent-size
GPT-3 model on
some
benchmarks, but
was significantly
worse than the
largest GPT-3.[138]
GPT-3-style
GPT-J June 2021 EleutherAI 6 billion[139] 825 GiB[137] 200[140] Apache 2.0
language model

Standard
530 338.6 billion architecture but
Megatron-Turing Microsoft Restricted
October 2021[141] trained on a
NLG and Nvidia billion[142] tokens[142] web access
supercomputing
cluster.
Chinese-language
260 LLM. Ernie Bot is
Ernie 3.0 Titan December 2021 Baidu 4 Tb Proprietary
billion[143] based on this
model.

Fine-tuned for
400 billion desirable behavior
Claude[144] December 2021 Anthropic 52 billion [145] beta
tokens[145] in
conversations.[146]
Sparse mixture of
experts model,
making it more
GLaM (Generalist 1.6 trillion expensive to train
December 2021 Google 1.2 trillion[29] 5600[29] Proprietary
Language Model) tokens[29] but cheaper to run
inference
compared to GPT-
3.

280 300 billion Further developed

Gopher December 2021 DeepMind 5833[149] Proprietary into the Chinchilla
billion[147] tokens[148] model.
 1.56T Specialized for
LaMDA (Language 137 words,[150] 168 response
Models for Dialog January 2022 Google 4110[151] Proprietary
Applications) billion[150] billion generation in
tokens[148] conversations.

based on the
GPT-NeoX February 2022 EleutherAI 20 billion[152] 825 GiB[137] 740[140] Apache 2.0 Megatron
architecture

Reduced-
parameter model
1.4 trillion trained on more
Chinchilla March 2022 DeepMind 70 billion[153] 6805[149] Proprietary data. Used in the
tokens[153][148] Sparrow bot. Often
cited for its neural
scaling law.

Trained for ~60

PaLM (Pathways 540 768 billion [149] days on ~6000
April 2022 Google 29250 Proprietary
Language Model) billion[154] tokens[153] TPU v4 chips.
[149]

Non- GPT-3 architecture

OPT (Open
175 180 billion [140] with some
Pretrained May 2022 Meta 310 commercial
billion[155] tokens[156] adaptations from
Transformer) research[d] Megatron
English-Russian
100 [157] model based on
YaLM 100B June 2022 Yandex 1.7TB Apache 2.0
billion[157] Microsoft's
Megatron-LM.

LLM trained for

38.5B tokens
solving
from
"mathematical and
webpages
scientific
filtered for
questions using
mathematical
540 step-by-step
Minerva June 2022 Google content and Proprietary
billion[158] from papers reasoning".[159]
submitted to Minerva is based
the arXiv on PaLM model,
preprint further trained on
mathematical and
server[158]
scientific data.
Essentially GPT-3
Large but trained on a
collaboration 350 billion multi-lingual
175 Responsible
BLOOM July 2022 led by tokens corpus (30%
billion[160] AI
Hugging (1.6TB)[161] English excluding
Face programming
languages)

106 billion Trained on

Galactica November 2022 Meta 120 billion unknown CC-BY-NC-4.0 scientific text and
tokens[162] modalities.
bidirectional
AlexaTM (Teacher [163] [164] [165] sequence-to-
November 2022 Amazon 20 billion 1.3 trillion proprietary
Models) sequence
architecture

A language model
privately- designed for live-
Neuro-sama December 2022 Independent Unknown Unknown
owned streaming on
Twitch.

Trained on a large
20-language
corpus to aim for
better performance
with fewer
LLaMA (Large Non- parameters.[166]
Language Model February 2023 Meta 65 billion[166] 1.4 trillion[166] 6300[167] commercial Researchers from
Meta AI) research[e] Stanford
University trained
a fine-tuned model
based on LLaMA
weights, called
Alpaca.[168]
GPT-4 March 2023 OpenAI Exact number Unknown Unknown proprietary Available for
unknown[f] ChatGPT Plus
 users and used in
several products.

Trained with
Cerebras-GPT March 2023 Cerebras 13 billion[170] 270[140] Apache 2.0
Chinchilla formula.
1 trillion
tokens, from
RefinedWeb
Technology (filtered web
text Apache
Falcon March 2023 Innovation 40 billion[171] 2800[167]
Institute corpus)[172] 2.0[174]
plus some
"curated
corpora".[173]
LLM trained on
363 billion financial data from
token dataset proprietary
based on sources, that
Bloomberg's "outperforms
Bloomberg data sources, existing models on
BloombergGPT March 2023 50 billion Proprietary
L.P. plus 345 billion financial tasks by
tokens from significant margins
general without sacrificing
purpose performance on
datasets[175] general LLM
benchmarks"

329 billion
PanGu-Σ March 2023 Huawei 1.085 trillion Proprietary
tokens[176]
Trained on
1.5 trillion
OpenAssistant[177] March 2023 LAION 17 billion
tokens
Apache 2.0 crowdsourced
open data
Exact size
Jurassic-2[178] March 2023 AI21 Labs
unknown
Unknown Proprietary Multilingual[179]

PaLM 2 (Pathways 340 3.6 trillion Used in Bard

May 2023 Google 85000[167] Proprietary
Language Model 2) billion[180] tokens[180] chatbot.[181]

2 trillion Llama 2 Successor of

Llama 2 July 2023 Meta 70 billion[182]
tokens[182] license LLaMA.

Used in Claude
Claude 2 July 2023 Anthropic Unknown Unknown Unknown Proprietary
chatbot.[183]
Technology 180 3.5 trillion Falcon 180B
Falcon 180B September 2023 Innovation
Institute billion[184] tokens[184] TII license

Mistral 7B September 2023 Mistral AI 7.3 billion[185] Unknown Apache 2.0

Used in Claude
chatbot. Has a
Claude 2.1 November 2023 Anthropic Unknown Unknown Unknown Proprietary context window of
200,000 tokens, or
~500 pages.[186]
Used in Grok
chatbot. Grok-1
has a context
Grok-1 November 2023 x.AI Unknown Unknown Unknown Proprietary length of 8,192
tokens and has
access to X
(Twitter).[187]
Multimodal model,
Google comes in three
Gemini December 2023 Unknown Unknown Unknown Proprietary sizes. Used in
DeepMind
Bard chatbot.[188]
Mixture of experts
model,
outperforms GPT-
46.7B total,
3.5 and Llama 2
12.9B
Mixtral 8x7B December 2023 Mistral AI Unknown Unknown Apache 2.0 70B on many
parameters
benchmarks. All
per token[189] weights were
released via
torrent.[190]
 So-called small
language model,
that "matches or
outperforms
models up to 25x
larger", trained on
"textbook-quality"
Phi-2 December 2023 Microsoft 2.7B 1.4T tokens Unknown MIT data based on the
paper "Textbooks
Are All You Need".
Model training
took "14 days on
96 A100
GPUs".[191]
An "attention-free"
linear transformer
Eagle 7B January 2024 RWKV 7.52B 1.1T tokens Unknown Apache 2.0 based on RWKV-
v5
architecture.[192]

See also
Foundation models

Notes
a. This is the date that documentation describing the model's architecture was first released.
b. In many cases, researchers release or report on multiple versions of a model having different sizes. In these cases,
the size of the largest model is listed here.
c. This is the license of the pre-trained model weights. In almost all cases the training code itself is open-source or can
be easily replicated.
d. The smaller models including 66B are publicly available, while the 175B model is available on request.
e. Facebook's license and distribution scheme restricted access to approved researchers, but the model weights were
leaked and became widely available.
f. As stated in Technical report: "Given both the competitive landscape and the safety implications of large-scale
models like GPT-4, this report contains no further details about the architecture (including model size), hardware,
training compute, dataset construction, training method ..."[169]

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Further reading
Jurafsky, Dan, Martin, James. H. Speech and Language Processing: An Introduction to Natural Language
Processing, Computational Linguistics, and Speech Recognition (https://web.stanford.edu/~jurafsky/slp3/ed3book_j
an72023.pdf), 3rd Edition draft, 2023.
Phuong, Mary; Hutter, Marcus (2022). "Formal Algorithms for Transformers". arXiv:2207.09238 (https://arxiv.org/abs/
2207.09238) [cs.LG (https://arxiv.org/archive/cs.LG)].
Eloundou, Tyna; Manning, Sam; Mishkin, Pamela; Rock, Daniel (2023). "GPTs are GPTs: An Early Look at the Labor
Market Impact Potential of Large Language Models". arXiv:2303.10130 (https://arxiv.org/abs/2303.10130) [econ.GN
(https://arxiv.org/archive/econ.GN)].
Eldan, Ronen; Li, Yuanzhi (2023). "TinyStories: How Small Can Language Models Be and Still Speak Coherent
English?". arXiv:2305.07759 (https://arxiv.org/abs/2305.07759) [cs.CL (https://arxiv.org/archive/cs.CL)].
Frank, Michael C. (27 June 2023). "Baby steps in evaluating the capacities of large language models" (https://www.
nature.com/articles/s44159-023-00211-x). Nature Reviews Psychology. 2 (8): 451–452. doi:10.1038/s44159-023-
00211-x (https://doi.org/10.1038%2Fs44159-023-00211-x). ISSN 2731-0574 (https://www.worldcat.org/issn/2731-05
74). S2CID 259713140 (https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:259713140). Retrieved 2 July 2023.
Zhao, Wayne Xin; et al. (2023). "A Survey of Large Language Models". arXiv:2303.18223 (https://arxiv.org/abs/2303.
18223) [cs.CL (https://arxiv.org/archive/cs.CL)].
Kaddour, Jean; et al. (2023). "Challenges and Applications of Large Language Models". arXiv:2307.10169 (https://ar
xiv.org/abs/2307.10169) [cs.CL (https://arxiv.org/archive/cs.CL)].
Yin, Shukang; Fu, Chaoyou; Zhao, Sirui; Li, Ke; Sun, Xing; Xu, Tong; Chen, Enhong (2023-06-01). "A Survey on
Multimodal Large Language Models". arXiv:2306.13549 (https://arxiv.org/abs/2306.13549) [cs.CV (https://arxiv.org/a
rchive/cs.CV)].
Open LLMs repository (https://github.com/eugeneyan/open-llms) on GitHub.

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