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m ush room s of
t h e sou t h e a s t er n
u n i t ed s t a t e s
MUSHROOMS OF
THE SOUTHEASTERN
UNITED STATES
a l a n e. be s se t t e · w i l l i a m c. roody
a r l een r . be s se t t e · da i l l . du n awa y
s y r ac us e u n i v er si t y pr e s s
Copyright © 2007 by Syracuse University Press
Syracuse, New York, 13244-5290
a l l r ig h t s r e serv ed
First Edition 2007
12 13 14 15 16 6 5 4 3 2
∞ The paper used in this publication meets the minimum requirements

of the American National Standard for Information Sciences—Permanence
of Paper for Printed Library Materials, ANSI Z39.48-1992.
For a listing of books published and distributed by Syracuse University Press,

visit our website at SyracuseUniversityPress.syr.edu.
ISBN: 978-0-8156-3112-5
l ibr a r y o f c o ngr e s s c ata l o ging-i n - publ i c at i o n data

Mushrooms of the southeastern United States / Alan E. Bessette . . . [et al.].
— 1st ed.
p. cm.
Includes bibliographical references and index.
isbn-13: 978-0–8156–3112–5 (cloth : alk. paper)
isbn-10: 0–8156–3112–x (cloth : alk. paper)
1. Mushrooms—Southern States—Identification. I. Bessette, Alan.
qk605.5.s67m87 2007
579.60975—dc22 2006032144
Front cover illustration: Clavaria zollingeri; p. ii: Gomphus floccosus; p. x: Bolbitius vitellinus;
p. xii: Marasmius rotula; p. xvi: Hygrophorus marginatus var. concolor; p. 12: Morchella esculenta complex.
Color separations by Pre Tech, Hartford, Vermont

Printed and bound by CS Graphics Sdn., Bhd., Malaysia
NO T IC E Though this book includes information regarding the

edibility of various mushrooms, it is not intended to function as
a manual for the safe consumption of wild mushrooms. Readers
interested in consuming wild fungi should consult other sources of
information—especially experienced mycophagists, mycologists, and
literary sources—before eating any wild mushrooms. Neither the
authors nor the publisher are responsible for any undesirable out-
comes that may occur for those who fail to heed this warning.
To Emily Johnson, Ray Fatto, and Dan Guravich
Gentle smiles, gentle hearts,
Greatly missed
Ill.
W.Va.
Kans. Va.
Mo. Ky.
N.C.
Tenn.
Okla.
Ark. S.C.
Miss. Ala. Ga.
Tex. La.
Fla.
Map by Jon Luoma
Distribution Range for Mushrooms of the

Southeastern United States
Contents
Preface / xi
Acknowledgments / xiii
Introduction to Mycology / 1
Mushroom Facts and Fallacies 1 · Fungal Anatomy: Parts of a Mushroom 2
Mycorrhizal Relationships 3 · Equipment for Collecting Mushrooms 4
When to Collect Mushrooms 4 · Where to Collect Mushrooms 5 · How to Collect
Mushrooms 5 · Spore Prints 6 · Notes on Descriptions of Illustrated Species 6
How to Use This Book 7 · Mushroom Identification Procedure 8
Key to the Major Groups of Mushrooms / 9
COLO R PLAT ES
Chanterelles and Allies 14 · Split Gill and Ally 15 · Gilled Mushrooms 16
Tooth Fungi 47 · Boletes 48 · Polypores 58 · Stinkhorns 65 · Morels,
False Morels, and Allies 69 · Fiber Fans and Vases 71 · Branched and Clustered
Corals 72 · Earth Tongues, Earth Clubs, and Allies 73 · Cordyceps, Claviceps, and
Allies 75 · Bird’s-nest Fungi 76 · Cup and Saucer Fungi 77 · Jelly Fungi 79
Cauliflower Mushrooms 81 · PuVballs, Earthballs, Earthstars, and Allies 81
Carbon and Cushion Fungi 87 · Crust and Parchment Fungi and Allies 88
Hypomyces 90 · Cedar-Apple Rust 90
S P EC IES DESCR I P TI ON S
Chanterelles and Allies / 93
Cantharellus 93 · Craterellus 96 · Gomphus 97
Split Gill and Ally / 99

Plicaturopsis 99 · Schizophyllum 99
Gilled Mushrooms / 101

Agaricus 101 · Agrocybe 103 · Amanita 104 · Anellaria 114 · Anthracophyllum 115
Armillaria 115 · Asterophora 116 · Baeospora 117 · Bolbitius 117 · Callistosporium 118
Catathelasma 118 · Chlorophyllum 119 · Chroogomphus 119 · Claudopus 120
Clitocybe 120 · Clitocybula 122 · Collybia 122 · Conocybe 123 · Coprinus 123
Cortinarius 126 · Crepidotus 129 · Crinipellis 129 · Cyptotrama 130 · Cystoderma 130
Entoloma 131 · Flammulina 131 · Galerina 132 · Gerronema 132 · Gymnopilus 133
viii / Contents
Gymnopus 135 · Hebeloma 136 · Hohenbuehelia 138 · Hygrocybe 138 · Hygrophorus 142
Hypholoma 144 · Hypsizygus 144 · Inocybe 145 · Laccaria 146 · Lactarius 147
Lentinellus 163 · Lentinula 163 · Lentinus 164 · Lepiota 166 · Leucoagaricus 168
Leucocoprinus 169 · Limacella 171 · Macrocybe 171 · Macrolepiota 172 · Marasmiellus 173
Marasmius 174 · Melanoleuca 175 · Mycena 176 · Nolanea 178 · Omphalina 180
Omphalotus 180 · Panaeolus 180 · Panellus 181 · Paxillus 181 · Pholiota 182
Phyllotopsis 183 · Pleurotus 184 · Pluteus 185 · Pouzarella 186 · Psathyrella 186
Psilocybe 188 · Rhodocollybia 188 · Rhodocybe 189 · Ripartitella 190 · Russula 190
Squamanita 196 · Strobilurus 197 · Stropharia 197 · Tricholoma 198 · Tricholomopsis 200
Volvariella 200 · Xeromphalina 201
Tooth Fungi / 202

Hericium 202 · Hydnellum 203 · Hydnum 204 · Mycorrhaphium 204 · Phellodon 205
Boletes / 206
Austroboletus 206 · Boletellus 208 · Boletus 208 · Chalciporus 230 · Gyrodon 230
Gyroporus 231 · Leccinum 233 · Phylloporus 234 · Pulveroboletus 235 · Strobilomyces 236
Suillus 237 · Tylopilus 239 · Xanthoconium 244
Polypores / 247
Albatrellus 247 · Antrodia 249 · Bjerkandera 249 · Bondarzewia 250 · Cerrena 250
Coltricia 251 · Daedaleopsis 251 · Fistulina 252 · Fomes 252 · Fomitopsis 253
Ganoderma 253 · Gloeophyllum 255 · Gloeoporus 257 · Hapalopilus 257 · Hexagonia 258
Hydnopolyporus 259 · Inonotus 259 · Ischnoderma 261 · Laetiporus 261 · Lenzites 263
Meripilus 263 · Microporellus 264 · Nigroporus 265 · Phaeolus 265 · Phellinus 266
Polyporus 266 · Pseudofavolus 267 · Pseudofistulina 268 · Pycnoporus 268
Schizopora 269 · Spongipellis 269 · Trametes 270 · Trichaptum 271
Stinkhorns / 273
Aseroe 273 · Blumenavia 274 · Dictyophora 274 · Linderia 274 · Lysurus 275
Mutinus 276 · Phallogaster 277 · Phallus 277
Morels, False Morels, and Allies / 279

Gyromitra 279 · Helvella 280 · Morchella 282
Fiber Fans and Vases / 284

Thelephora 284
Branched and Clustered Corals / 286

Clavaria 286 · Clavicorona 287 · Clavulina 287 · Clavulinopsis 288 · Ramaria 288
Tremellodendropsis 289
Earth Tongues, Earth Clubs, and Allies / 291

Clavariadelphus 291 · Cudonia 292 · Leotia 292 · Microglossum 293
Spathularia 293 · Trichoglossum 293 · Underwoodia 294 · Xylocoremium 294
Cordyceps, Claviceps, and Allies / 295

Cordyceps 295 · Nomuraea 296
Contents / ix
Bird’s-nest Fungi / 298

Crucibulum 298 · Cyathus 298
Cup and Saucer Fungi / 299

Aleuria 299 · Ascocoryne 299 · Chlorociboria 300 · Galiella 300 · Helvella 300
Humaria 301 · Peziza 301 · Plicaria 301 · Sphaerosporella 301 · Urnula 302
Wolfina 302
Jelly Fungi / 303

Arrhytidia 303 · Auricularia 303 · Calocera 304 · Dacrymyces 304
Dacryopinax 304 · Exidia 305 · Sebacina 305 · Syzygospora 306 · Tremella 306
Cauliflower Mushrooms / 307

Sparassis 307
PuVballs, Earthballs, Earthstars, and Allies / 308

Arachnion 308 · Astraeus 309 · Bovista 309 · Bovistella 309 · Calostoma 310
Calvatia 311 · Chorioactis 312 · Disciseda 312 · Elaphomyces 313 · Endoptychum 313
Geastrum 314 · Lycoperdon 316 · Macowanites 317 · Pisolithus 318 · Rhizopogon 318
Rhopalogaster 319 · Scleroderma 320 · Vascellum 321 · Zelleromyces 322
Carbon and Cushion Fungi / 323

Daldinia 323 · Diatrype 323 · Hypoxylon 324 · Peridoxylon 324 · Ustulina 325
Xylaria 325
Crust and Parchment Fungi and Allies / 327

Aleurodiscus 327 · Cotilydia 327 · Hydnochaete 328 · Phlebia 328
Pulcherricium 329 · Stereum 329 · Xylobolus 330
Hypomyces / 331
Hypomyces 331
Cedar-Apple Rust / 333

Gymnosporangium 333
Appendixes / 337
a. Microscopic Examination of Mushrooms / 337
b. Chemical Reagents and Mushroom Identification / 338
c. Classification / 339
d. Mycophagy / 343
Glossary / 353
Recommended Reading / 359
Index to Common Names / 363
Index to Scientific Names / 367
Preface
The objective of this book is to provide a relatively comprehensive guide to the mush-
rooms of the southeastern United States. Although the book will stand on its own,
it is intended to compliment and serve as a companion to Mushrooms of Northeastern
North America. These volumes together form a foundation and reference for identify-
ing the mushrooms found in eastern North America from Canada to the subtropics
of Florida and Texas. The current volume features more than 450 species that are
fully described and illustrated with photographs, many for the first time in color. The
photographs were selected for high-quality color fidelity and documentary merit. We
hope they also reflect our subject’s aesthetic appeal. The number of species described
and illustrated in color is substantially higher than has previously appeared in any
other single work devoted to the mushrooms of the southeastern United States. We
provide cross-references to additional species occurring in the region that are illus-
trated in Mushrooms of Northeastern North America (abbreviated MNE in the species
descriptions). If you find a mushroom that is not described in this book, it may be
described and illustrated in MNE.
Although we have endeavored to supply the necessary detail required by
advanced students and professional mycologists, this book emphasizes identification
based primarily on macroscopic field characters for easier use by a general audience.
Each species illustration is accompanied by a detailed description of macroscopic and
microscopic features based on the concepts of the authors who first described them.
From the interior mountain habitats to the Piedmont and the coastal lowlands,
the southeastern United States is virtually unrivaled in its fungal diversity. It is esti-
mated that up to five thousand or more mushroom species occur here. Because of
the many habitats and the extensive biodiversity, it is impossible to feature every spe-
cies, variety, or form of mushroom that may be encountered in this vast and diverse
region. Many species are not yet scientifically described, and others remain to be dis-
covered. This work is by no means a complete accounting of the mycoflora found in
the Southeast.
We oVer this guide as a step in the collective process of better comprehending
the mushrooms of the southeastern United States. It is our hope that whatever the
reason for one’s interest in mushrooms—whether it be scientific study, the search for
edible species, or sheer appreciation of their beauty—this book will serve as a trust-
worthy guide to the mushrooms of the southeastern United States.
xi
Acknowledgments
Many individuals have contributed to this work. Our thanks to Brian Akers, Mer-
edith Blackwell, Ernst Both, Bill Burk, Bob Gilbertson, Jim Kimbrough, Steve Miller,
Donna Mitchell, Barrie Overton, Ron Petersen, Gary Samuels, and Walt Sundberg
for their assistance with mycological notes, technical information, and species iden-
tification. For contributing their valuable photographs that greatly enhanced the
beauty and functionality of this book, our thanks to Brian Akers, Ulla Benny, Mer-
edith Blackwell, Robert Chapman, Tim Geho, Don Gray, David Lewis, Joe Liggio,
Owen McConnell, Van Metzler, Jim Murray, Robert Williams, and David Work. We
are especially grateful for Marcia Guravich and Seanna Annis’s kindness in allowing
us to use photography of the late Dan Guravich and Richard Homola, respectively.
Ike Forester and the North American Mycological Association were generous in shar-
ing several illustrations from the Dan Guravich Slide Collection. Thanks also to Tina
Dunaway and Billie Both for collecting specimens for photography and study, to
Sam Norris for the beautiful mushroom illustration included in the introduction,
and to all the members of the many mushroom clubs and mycological societies who
have included us in their activities and have been willing to share their fungi and their
knowledge of them over the years. We greatly appreciate the eVorts and contributions
of Annie Barva, who copyedited the manuscript, and of Christopher Kuntze, who
designed the book. Finally, this book would not have been possible without the sup-
port of Peter Webber and the staV at Syracuse University Press.
xiii
m ush room s of
t h e sou t h e a s t er n
u n i t ed s t a t e s
Introduction to Mycology
MUSHROOMS FAC TS A ND FA LL ACI ES
Mushrooms, being neither plant nor animal, belong to their own kingdom, the
kingdom Fungi. Fungi lack chlorophyll and cannot produce food for themselves.
They obtain nutrients through a process of external digestion and absorption. Some,
as decomposers, extract what they need from dead and decaying materials and are
called saprobes. Those that attack live plants, animals, or other fungi are called para-
sites. The third group exists in a mutually beneficial relationship with living trees or
other plants. This relationship is called mycorrhizal, one in which both partners obtain
what they need, in part, from the other. Learning which food source, or substrate, a
particular kind of mushroom requires greatly improves the likelihood of successfully
finding it.
Still, what exactly is a mushroom? If you go by names, you will surely be con-
fused. Many mushrooms have at least two names: a common name and a scientific
name. The common name may be widely used or regional. It may reflect a particu-
lar feature of the mushroom or honor an individual after whom the mushroom was
named. For example, Boletus frostii has two common names: Frost’s Bolete (in honor
of Charles Christopher Frost) and the Apple Bolete (describing its appearance). Bol-
etus edulis has no fewer than six common names! Some species lack common names
altogether, but each mushroom has a scientific name. Scientific names always have
two parts. The first part is the genus, or “generic name,” the first letter of which is
always capitalized. The second part is the species, or “specific name,” with all letters
in lower case. Owing to disagreement among taxonomists, there are discrepancies in
what are considered some mushrooms’ “correct” scientific names. Therefore, more
than one scientific name may be assigned to a single mushroom, depending on the
reference used.
Imagine a vast underground network of fine, interconnected, and interwoven
filaments (called hyphae). When conditions are correct (temperature, moisture, nutri-
ents, pH, daylight length), this living mat, called a mycelium, periodically sends forth
an above-ground fruiting body, a mushroom. Mushrooms produce seed-like micro-
scopic reproductive structures known as spores. Picking a mushroom, if carefully done,
has no more ecological impact than picking a piece of fruit from a tree.
1
2 / Mushrooms of the Southeastern United States
FU NGA L A NATOMY: PA RTS OF A MUSHROOM
When first starting out as a mushroom collector, you would be wise to become
acquainted with mushroom anatomy because it diVers from that of other organisms
and will likely be unfamiliar to you. Refer to the accompanying illustrations as you
read about the basic macroscopic features described.
As previously stated, a mushroom is the fruiting body that arises from the larger
fungal organism, the mycelium, which is typically concealed beneath the soil or within
decaying wood or other substrate. A mushroom begins as an immature form called a
button. Depending on the species, the button may initially be entirely surrounded by a
membranous structure known as the universal veil. As the mushroom within expands,
it stretches and tears the universal veil, often leaving remnants on the cap. These rem-
nants are referred to as patches or warts. There may also be a cup-like remnant of the
universal veil called a volva around the base of the mushroom stalk. Most mushrooms
lack a universal veil and therefore have neither patches nor warts nor a volva.
The typical mature mushroom has a cap and a stalk. The stalk may be attached to
the cap’s center, oV its center, or at its side. On the cap’s underside, there may be gills,
which are radiating, blade-like structures upon which spores are produced. In place
of gills, there may be teeth or spines or tubes (the open end of each tube is called a pore).
The tubes are packed closely together; their collective pores are known as the pore
Parts of a Mushroom. Drawing by Sam Norris.

surface. Both teeth or spines and tubes serve the same basic reproductive function as
gills. In some species, the underside of the immature cap is covered by a piece of tis-
sue stretching from the cap’s edge, or margin, to the stalk. This tissue, the partial veil
(not shown), covers and protects the developing gills or tubes. As the mushroom cap
expands, the partial veil tears, often leaving remnants on the cap margin or adhering
to the stalk, where it forms a skirt or ring.
Refer to the glossary for more precise definitions of these structures and for other
mycological terms that you will encounter in this book.
MYCOR R H IZ A L R EL AT IONSH IPS
Mycorrhiza is a mutually beneficial symbiotic association between fungal hyphae and

the roots of living trees or other type of host plant. Host trees engaged in a mycor-
rhizal relationship tend to grow more rapidly, better tolerate changes in the soil pH,
require fewer nutrients, and be more resistant to many soil-borne diseases caused
by pathogenic fungi and nematodes. The fungal partner in a mycorrhizal relation-
ship enhances the host plant’s ability to obtain water and nutrients, including phos-
phorus and nitrogen. In exchange for providing these benefits to the host plant, the
fungal partner receives nutrients such as carbohydrates and vitamins essential for its
growth.
Two major types of mycorrhizae are recognized: endotrophic mycorrhizae (endomy-
corrhizae) and ectotrophic mycorrhizae (ectomycorrhizae). The fungal partner in an endo-
trophic mycorrhizal relationship enters the root hairs of the host plant and penetrates
the cells of the root cortex, forming extensive fine branches called arbuscules. These
arbuscular fungi do not form the typical mushroom fruiting bodies with which we
are familiar. Although commonly observed microscopically in many plants such as
American Beach Grass, Beach Plum, some orchids, and Rugosa Rose, this type of
mycorrhiza is not formed with most tree species. Instead, trees such as pine and most
other conifers, beech, birch, and oak form ectotrophic mycorrhizae. In this relation-
ship, the hyphae of the fungal partner surround the root tip, forming an extensive
layer called a mantle. The hyphae enter the first few layers of the cortex, growing
between the cortical cells but not penetrating them. This intercortical fungal growth
is called a Hartig net.
More than two thousand ectotrophic mycorrhizal fungi have been identified
to date. Most of these fungi are members of the class Holobasidiomycetes, which
includes boletes, earthballs and their relatives, fiber fans, and gilled mushrooms.
Some of the more commonly encountered genera that have ectotrophic mycorrhizal
members include Amanita, Boletus, Gomphidius, Hebeloma, Laccaria, Lactarius, Pisoli-
thus, Russula, Scleroderma, Suillus, Thelephora, and Tricholoma.
The mutually beneficial relationship between fungi and plants can be described as
one of nature’s perfect partnerships. Without their fungal partners, many trees would
grow much more slowly and in some cases not at all. Impaired growth of tree species
would threaten forest habitats and may have devastating effects on the biodiversity
found there.
EQU I PM EN T FOR COLLECT I NG MUSH ROOMS
One of the advantages of collecting mushrooms is that the required equipment is

both minimal and inexpensive. The following list includes suggested items that we
have found to be useful:
1. A basket or sturdy-sided container for transporting your finds (plas-

tic buckets or bags are not recommended because specimens tend to
become crushed in them)
2. A sturdy knife for digging, cutting, and cleaning
3. Waxed paper, brown lunch bags, or waxed paper sandwich bags for
wrapping specimens and keeping them separate
4. Insect repellant
5. Compass, map, and whistle
6. Pencil and paper for field notes and spore prints
7. Camera equipment
8. Walking stick
W H EN TO COLLECT MUSH ROOMS
Mushroom fruiting patterns are affected by various conditions, including humidity,

temperature, daylight length, and precipitation. Although it is impossible to predict
exactly when mushrooms will fruit, following some basic guidelines will help ensure
a successful foray.
Some mushrooms have only one fruiting season, whereas others have split or
multiple fruiting periods. These periods must be discovered for the particular geo-
graphic area in which you are collecting. In general, the collecting season in the
southeastern United States begins in March and extends through November in the
upper range or through January or even year-round in the southern range.
The best time to collect is typically from two to five days after a significant soak-
ing rainfall or sooner if rains have been falling at frequent intervals. Sunny, windy,
dry days may assist with spore dispersal, but they reduce fruiting by minimizing
the moisture essential to it. Some mushrooms fruit optimally during hot, humid
weather, whereas others prefer cooler temperatures. Summer and fall are usually the
most productive seasons for collecting; there are exceptions, however.
Take the time to learn weather and fruiting patterns for your own area. Keep
notes of when and where you collect species so that you can refer to them in the
future. In this way, you have the best chance of keeping your basket filled.
W H ER E TO COLLEC T MUSHROOMS
Once you know when to collect mushrooms, the next question is, Where? Again, the
answer depends on several factors: local weather conditions, the type of mushroom
being sought, time of year, and geographic location.
Because most fungi require moisture to fruit, the best locations to search for
mushrooms during times of extended dry weather are naturally moist areas: along
the shorelines of ponds and lakes; along the banks of streams, creeks, and rivers; and
in cool, sheltered ravines. Fallen trees and stumps often retain moisture longer than
the surrounding soil and are good places to explore. However, after several days of
rain, these same locations may be too wet, and you might do better to search in drier
locations: hillsides, meadows, and sandy areas.
Because all mushrooms require rather specific substrates, and because some exist
in a mycorrhizal relationship with specific trees or other plants, the kind of mush-
room you are hunting will aVect where you should look: on the ground or on trees
and decaying wood; beneath conifers or hardwoods; in meadows; or in bogs. It is
extremely helpful to learn what a mushroom requires in order to know where to look
for it.
Fruiting patterns are usually seasonal, so some mushrooms, such as morels, are
found only in the spring. Others, such as boletes, are most abundant during summer
and fall. Still others—Tricholoma species, for example—are most abundant during fall.
Fruiting patterns vary from one geographic location to another throughout North
America.
HOW TO COLLEC T MUSHROOMS
While you are collecting, your primary concern should be to keep the specimens in
as good condition as possible so that key identifying features are not lost or damaged
by storage and transport. It is also important to keep species from becoming mixed
together. Therefore, we recommend wrapping collections of a single species together
in either waxed paper or brown paper sandwich bags. These materials allow moisture
to escape, unlike plastic bags and wraps, which cause moisture to build up, hastening
decay and the development of harmful bacteria.
For identification purposes, it is also important to collect whole specimens,
including parts that may be partially buried. Carefully dig up specimens rather than
pulling them up or cutting them oV at the base. Gather specimens in various stages
of development whenever possible to help ensure accurate identification. Note the
substrate, location, and nearby tree types. Place your notes with your collections. You
might use an extra sheet of paper to make an in-the-field spore print, as described in
the next section.
SPOR E PR I N TS
Prominent field features alone will not guarantee accurate identification. Spore prints
often bridge the gap between macroscopic and microscopic identification, making it
possible to diVerentiate between similar and not so easily identifiable fungi.
Spore prints are formed when the mushroom spores are allowed to drop undis-
turbed onto a surface. They are simple to make. Cut the cap from the stalk, leaving
about a ½-inch stub to serve as a pedestal. Place the cap with the gill or pore side
down on a piece of clean white paper and cover it with a cup or bowl to prevent
dispersal by drafts. Allow several hours for a good, thick spore deposit. The color of
the spore deposit can be essential in separating similar species, especially at the genus
level. While you are collecting in the field, you might also wrap one or two mature
caps, with the fertile surface facing down, in a piece of white paper. In this way, you
might have an adequate spore print ready for the next step in identification once you
arrive home.
A spore print is also useful if you intend to do microscopic work because it is the
best source of mature spores.
NOT ES ON DESCR IP T IONS OF I LLUST R AT ED SPECI ES
scientific name: A Latin scientific name is provided for each species. The name
used may not be the same one commonly found in other field guides; it may
reflect a recent taxonomic change. We often provide an alternative name in the
Comments section of the species description. We have also provided something
called “author citations” for the convenience of advanced mycologists who may
find this information useful. In some instances, the author citation is simple—for
example, Cantharellus ignicolor Petersen was first described and named by Ronald
Petersen. Sometimes, however, the names of the original authors are enclosed
within parentheses and followed by the names of those who later reclassified the
fungi. Gyrodon merulioides (Schweinitz) Singer was first described as Daedalea
merulioides by Lewis Schweinitz, but Rolf Singer later concluded that the species
should be placed in the genus Gyrodon.
common name: Common names are provided whenever they are known to exist.
macroscopic features: The appearance of the fruiting body is described, including
size, shape, color, staining reactions, odor, and taste. The morphological features
of some mushrooms, such as puVballs and jelly fungi, are described under the
single heading “Fruiting.” Others have morphological features described under
separate headings such as “Cap,” “Gills,” “Pore Surface,” and “Stalk.” Many mush-
rooms have distinctive odors, which is noted if useful. The flesh of some species
has a distinctive taste, which is also indicated if known. If you choose to taste the
tissues of a mushroom, be advised that some mushrooms taste hot and peppery and may
irritate, burn, or numb your mouth if chewed for an extended period. Note also that
there is no significant risk in properly tasting mushrooms so long as you don’t swal-
low the tissue! To taste mushrooms safely, place a small piece in your mouth, chew
it for only a few seconds and spit it out. If the taste is mild (not bitter or pep-
pery), wait a minute, then chew a second small piece for fifteen to thirty seconds,
and again spit it out; some mushrooms’ bitter or acrid tastes are subtle or tardy.
spore print color: Spore print color is a valuable characteristic for mushroom
identification, especially for gilled mushrooms and boletes.
macrochemical tests: Various chemicals, including KOH, NH4OH, and FeSO4,
may be applied to mushroom tissues and the combination observed for any color
reaction produced. Macrochemical testing is best done on fresh specimens at
the time of collection or soon thereafter. Additional information is provided in
appendix B, “Chemical Reagents and Mushroom Identification.”
microscopic features: Information about spore size, shape, surface features, and
microscopic color is presented in the descriptions. Additional information such
as length of asci, shape of paraphyses, presence of setae, and other useful micro-
scopic characters is included where appropriate.
fruiting: The habit (solitary, scattered, in groups, or in fused clusters), the sub-
strate, the habitat, the fruiting period, and the frequency of mushroom growth
are described. The fruiting period is stated as a month-to-month range and
describes the time during which the mushroom is likely to occur. On occasion,
mushrooms will appear outside of their expected fruiting period owing to atyp-
ical weather conditions. Frequency is estimated for the entire region; species
listed as “occasional” may be locally abundant in some areas or rare to absent in
others.
edibility: Species known to be edible are listed so. The term inedible is used for
mushrooms that are too acrid or bitter or too fibrous or woody for consumption.
Any species described as poisonous, not recommended, or edibility unknown
should not be eaten!
comments: This section includes brief descriptions of similar species, alternate
names, warnings, explanations, and other useful or interesting information
about a species.
HOW TO USE T H IS BOOK
The mushroom species illustrated in this book are arranged in major groups based
on similarities in their appearance. The sequence in which those species occur cor-
responds to the sequence in which they appear in the Key to the Major Groups of
Mushrooms. They are not intentionally arranged by order, family, or genus. Repre-
sentatives of each of the twenty major groups are illustrated in the key. This key and
the accompanying brief descriptions in it constitute the foundation upon which this
entire work is based.
If you know the identification of a species and want to read about it, consult the
index. If, however, you wish to identify an unknown mushroom, follow the steps
presented in the next section. Before attempting the identification procedure, be sure
to collect as many diVerent stages of growth as possible (in as good condition as
possible), make notes about the habitat and substrate, and obtain a spore print if pos-
sible. Identifying mushrooms can sometimes be a very diYcult task, and every bit of
information is useful.
MUSHROOM I DEN T IFICAT ION PROCEDUR E
1. Always start at the beginning of the Key to the Major Groups of Mush-
rooms and determine which major group best describes the mushroom
you are attempting to identify by reading the information provided and
by examining the color illustrations.
2. Once you have determined the major group, turn to the page indicated
for that group and read the introductory information presented.
3. Compare the features of your unknown mushroom with the descriptions
of the species within the major group. Determine which species descrip-
tion most closely matches your specimen. Be sure to read the Comments
section when provided.
When reading descriptions, pay particular attention to qualifiers such as usually,

sometimes, frequently, typically, when young, at maturity, and others. Frequently does not
mean “always”; it typically means “usually, but not always.” We have endeavored to
avoid such qualifiers, but in many cases they are unavoidable.
The language used in this book is nontechnical, except in instances where sim-
pler definitions become cumbersome or less precise and in the Microscopic Features
sections, as needed. The technical terms used are defined in the glossary.
Key to the Major Groups of Mushrooms
1a Fruit body with gills, vein-like ridges, teeth (spines), or pores present on the under-
surface → 2
1b Fruit body lacking gills, vein-like ridges, teeth (spines), or pores → 7
2a Fruit body with gills or gill- to vein-like ridges on the undersurface → 3
2b Fruit body lacking gills or vein-like ridges → 5
3a Fruit body with cap and stalk or with funnel-like shape; undersurface with blunt, gill- to
vein-like ridges that are often forked and crossveined or nearly smooth; usually growing
on the ground → Chanterelles and Allies (p. 14)
3b Fruit body with normal, split, or crimped gills present on the undersurface → 4
4a Fruit body small, stalkless; undersurface gill-like but longitudinally split or dis-
tinctly crimped, often forked and vein-like; growing on wood → Split Gill and
Ally (p. 15)
4b Fruit body small to large; undersurface with knifeblade-like gills radiating from a
stalk or, on stalkless species, from point of attachment to the substrate; growing
on a variety of substrates → Gilled Mushrooms (p. 16)
5a Fruit body fleshy, corky, or leathery with downward-oriented spines or teeth; shape
varies from cap-and-stalk to branched and icicle-like, fan-shaped, or shelf-like; growing
on the ground, on wood, or on fallen pine cones → Tooth Fungi/Spine Fungi (p. 47).
Note: Also check the section on polypores (p. 58), which includes some species that
become tooth-like on the undersurface in age.
5b Fruit body with pores on the undersurface → 6
6a Fruit body fleshy, with cap and a typically central stalk; cap undersurface with
a sponge-like layer of vertically arranged tubes, each terminating in a pore; the
sponge-like layer usually separates easily from the cap tissue; growing on the
ground or infrequently on wood → Boletes (p. 48)
6b Fruit body woody or fibrous-fleshy to leathery, with pores on its undersurface
(the pores are sometimes minute; use a hand lens); the pore layer typically does
not separate easily from the cap tissue; shape varies from cap-and-stalk to stalkless
and shelf-like or rather complex clusters; growing on wood or arising from buried
wood → Polypores (p. 58)
7a Fruit body erect, with a stalk or stalk-like base, sometimes fan- or vase-shaped or coral-
like; interior tissue never powdery at maturity and not hard and black unless growing on
the inflorescences of grasses → 8
7b Fruit body not as in 7a → 13
8a Fruit body erect and phallus-like with a stalk and head, or pear-shaped to nearly
round and stalkless, or squid-like with arched and tapered arms; fertile surface
usually coated with a foul-smelling slimy layer; growing on the ground, mulch,
wood chips, or decaying wood → Stinkhorns (p. 65)
9
9a Fruit body with a conic to bell-shaped cap that has pits and ridges; or cap brain-like,
saddle-shaped, or irregularly lobed; stalk typically hollow or multichambered, indistinct
to massive; growing on the ground or sometimes on decaying wood → Morels, False
Morels, and Allies (p. 69)
10a Fruit body leathery or fibrous tough, fan- to vase-shaped, often with a split or torn
margin; typically some shade of brown at maturity, with or without whitish tips or
margins; fertile surface smooth or wrinkled or warty, but lacking pores (use a hand
lens); growing on the ground or enveloping roots, branches, seedlings, or mosses
→ Fiber Fans and Vases (p. 71)
11a Fruit body erect, worm-like, typically unbranched, usually arranged in clusters or colo-
nies, often fused at their bases; or erect, coral-like, and repeatedly branched; growing on
the ground or on wood → Branched and Clustered Corals (p. 72)
12a Fruit body erect, resembling tongues or clubs; includes species with a clearly
defined head and stalk as well as those with club-like fruit bodies that lack a clearly
diVerentiated head; fertile surface not roughened like sandpaper; growing on the
ground or on decaying wood → Earth Tongues, Earth Clubs, and Allies (p. 73)
12b Fruit body curved and spindle-shaped to cylindric, hard, purplish to brownish
black, growing on the inflorescences of grasses; or cylindric to oval or club to spin-
dle-shaped and attached to buried insects or to buried false truZes; or cylindric
to club-shaped, whitish to yellowish or brownish orange, fertile surfaces rough-
ened like sandpaper, growing on the ground or on decaying wood → Cordyceps,
Claviceps, and Allies (p. 75)
13a Fruit body small, cylindric to vase-shaped, containing numerous egg-like peridioles
(tiny spore sacs); growing on wood chips, mulch, branches, dung, and other organic
debris → Bird’s-nest Fungi (p. 76)
14a Fruit body resembling a small cup or saucer; flesh thin and brittle; with or without
a stalk; growing on the ground or on decaying wood → Cup and Saucer Fungi
(p. 77)
15a Fruit body distinctly gelatinous, usually rubbery but sometimes soft, with considerable
variation in shape and color; growing on the ground or on wood → Jelly Fungi (p. 79)
16a Fruit body rather large, a more or less globose, cauliflower- or lettuce-like cluster;
branches leaf-like, lacking pores on the undersurface (use a hand lens); usually
growing on the ground at the base of trees or near decaying stumps → Cauli-
flower Mushrooms (p. 81)
17a Fruit body round, oval, pear- to turban-shaped, irregularly rounded, or star-shaped,
with a powdery interior at maturity; usually stalkless but occasionally stalked; growing
on the ground or on decaying wood, sometimes partially or completely buried → Puff-
balls, Earthballs, Earthstars, and Allies (p. 81)
18a Fruit body extremely variable, mostly cushion-shaped to round, sometimes crust-
like and spreading; or erect and cylindric to club-shaped or antler-like; if erect,
fruit body also hard and black, at least on the lower half; fertile surfaces roughened
Key to the Major Groups / 11
like sandpaper (use a hand lens), wrinkled, or furrowed; fibrous tough to woody
or hard and carbonaceous or sometimes gelatinous; creamy white, yellow, green,
brick red, rusty brown, or black; usually growing on decaying wood or leaves →
Carbon and Cushion Fungi (p. 87)
19a Fruit body typically hard, thin, spreading, crust-like to leathery or papery; some nearly
flat, but others small, with projecting shelf-like caps; fertile surface warted, wrinkled,
cracked, toothed or smooth, but lacking pores and not roughened like sandpaper (use
a hand lens); usually growing on decaying wood → Crust and Parchment Fungi and
Allies (p. 88)
20a Fruit body a parasitic fungus that covers and usually disfigures gilled mushrooms,
boletes, polypores, and some Ascomycetes; each has a roughened, sandpaper-like,
moldy, feathery, or powdery appearance and texture → Hypomyces (p. 90)
20b Fruit body a swollen woody gall up to 4" (10 cm) in diameter, at first a small
greenish brown swelling on the upper surface of a cedar needle, enlarging rapidly
to form a reddish brown to dark brown gall that periodically produces conspicu-
ous orange to orange-brown jelly-like horns that arise from small circular depres-
sions → Cedar-Apple Rust (p. 90)
C OL OR PL AT E S
Chanterelles and Allies
Cantharellus cibarius Cantharellus cinnabarinus
Cantharellus confluens Cantharellus ignicolor
Cantharellus lateritius Cantharellus persicinus
Cantharellus tabernensis Cantharellus tubaeformis

Chanterelles and Allies – Split Gill and Ally / 15
Craterellus fallax Craterellus odoratus
Gomphus clavatus Gomphus floccosus
Split Gill and Ally
Plicaturopsis crispa Schizophyllum commune

Gilled Mushrooms
Agaricus abruptibulbus Agaricus campestris
Agaricus pocillator Agaricus porphyrocephalus
Agaricus subrutilescens
Agrocybe semiorbicularis Amanita abrupta

Amanita chlorinosma
Amanita atkinsoniana
Amanita citrina f. citrina
Amanita cokeri
Amanita daucipes Amanita flavorubescens

18 / Gilled Mushrooms
Amanita hesleri
Amanita frostiana Amanita komarekensis
Amanita longipes Amanita muscaria var. flavivolvata
Amanita mutabilis (A) maturing specimens Amanita mutabilis (B) section showing staining
Amanita parcivolvata Amanita polypyramis
Amanita rhopalopus f. rhopalopus
Amanita ravenelii Amanita rubescens
Amanita spreta Amanita virosa

Amanita volvata Anellaria sepulchralis (A) immature specimens
Anellaria sepulchralis (B) mature specimens Anthracophyllum lateritium
Armillaria mellea Armillaria ostoyae
Armillaria tabescens Asterophora lycoperdoides

Baeospora myosura Bolbitius vitellinus
Callistosporium luteo-olivaceum Catathelasma ventricosa
Chlorophyllum molybdites (A) immature specimens Chlorophyllum molybdites (B) mature specimens
Chroogomphus rutilus Clitocybe clavipes

Clitocybe subconnexa
Clitocybe nuda
Collybia cookei
Clitocybula familia
Copelandia westii
Conocybe lactea Coprinus americanus

Coprinus atramentarius Coprinus comatus
Coprinus disseminatus Coprinus floridanus
Coprinus laniger Coprinus micaceus

Cortinarius delibutus
Coprinus plicatilis
Cortinarius iodes
Cortinarius lewisii
Cortinarius marylandensis
Cortinarius semisanguineus Crepidotus mollis

Cystoderma amianthinum var. rugosoreticulatum
Cyptotrama asprata
Entoloma abortivum
Flammulina velutipes Galerina marginata

Gerronema strombodes Gymnopilus fulvosquamulosus
Gymnopilus liquiritiae Gymnopilus palmicola
Gymnopilus penetrans Gymnopilus spectabilis
Gymnopus confluens Gymnopus dryophilus

Gymnopus iocephalus Hebeloma crustuliniforme
Hebeloma sinapizans Hebeloma syriense
Hohenbuehelia petaloides Hygrocybe acutoconica
Hygrocybe andersonii Hygrocybe chlorophana

Hygrocybe conicoides
Hygrocybe conica
Hygrocybe ovina
Hygrocybe nitida
Hygrophorus hypothejus
Hygrophorus marginatus var. marginatus Hygrophorus pratensis

Hygrophorus roseibrunneus Hypholoma fasciculare (A) immature specimens
Hypholoma fasciculare (B) mature specimens Hypholoma sublateritium
Inocybe geophylla var. lilacina
Hypsizygus tessulatus Inocybe rimosa

Laccaria laccata Laccaria ochropurpurea
Laccaria trullisata Lactarius agglutinatus
Lactarius alachuanus var. alachuanus Lactarius allardii
Lactarius atroviridis Lactarius chelidonium var. chelidonium

Lactarius chrysorheus Lactarius corrugis
Lactarius croceus Lactarius deceptivus
Lactarius floridanus Lactarius glaucescens
Lactarius hygrophoroides var. rugatus Lactarius imperceptus

Lactarius indigo var. diminutivus Lactarius indigo var. indigo
Lactarius luteolus Lactarius maculatipes
Lactarius paradoxus Lactarius peckii var. peckii
Lactarius proximellus Lactarius psammicola f. psammicola

Lactarius pseudodeliciosus var. pseudodeliciosus Lactarius quietus var. incanus
Lactarius salmoneus var. salmoneus Lactarius subplinthogalus
Lactarius tomentoso-marginatus Lactarius volemus var. flavus
Lactarius volemus var. volemus Lactarius xanthydrorheus

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Mushrooms and other fungi of the midcontinental United

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The United States since 1980 Dean Baker

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A Short History of the United States Sixth Edition Remini

First Edition 2007

∞ The paper used in this publication meets the minimum requirements

For a listing of books published and distributed by Syracuse University Press,

l ibr a r y o f c o ngr e s s c ata l o ging-i n - publ i c at i o n data

Color separations by Pre Tech, Hartford, Vermont

NO T IC E Though this book includes information regarding the

Miss. Ala. Ga.

Map by Jon Luoma

Distribution Range for Mushrooms of the

Key to the Major Groups of Mushrooms / 9

Split Gill and Ally / 99

Gilled Mushrooms / 101

Tooth Fungi / 202

Morels, False Morels, and Allies / 279

Fiber Fans and Vases / 284

Branched and Clustered Corals / 286

Earth Tongues, Earth Clubs, and Allies / 291

Cordyceps, Claviceps, and Allies / 295

Bird’s-nest Fungi / 298

Cup and Saucer Fungi / 299

Jelly Fungi / 303

Cauliﬂower Mushrooms / 307

PuVballs, Earthballs, Earthstars, and Allies / 308

Carbon and Cushion Fungi / 323

Crust and Parchment Fungi and Allies / 327

Cedar-Apple Rust / 333

MUSHROOMS FAC TS A ND FA LL ACI ES

FU NGA L A NATOMY: PA RTS OF A MUSHROOM

Parts of a Mushroom. Drawing by Sam Norris.

MYCOR R H IZ A L R EL AT IONSH IPS

Mycorrhiza is a mutually beneﬁcial symbiotic association between fungal hyphae and

EQU I PM EN T FOR COLLECT I NG MUSH ROOMS

One of the advantages of collecting mushrooms is that the required equipment is

1. A basket or sturdy-sided container for transporting your finds (plas-

W H EN TO COLLECT MUSH ROOMS

Mushroom fruiting patterns are affected by various conditions, including humidity,

HOW TO COLLEC T MUSHROOMS

NOT ES ON DESCR IP T IONS OF I LLUST R AT ED SPECI ES

HOW TO USE T H IS BOOK

MUSHROOM I DEN T IFICAT ION PROCEDUR E

When reading descriptions, pay particular attention to qualiﬁers such as usually,

Cantharellus cibarius Cantharellus cinnabarinus

Cantharellus conﬂuens Cantharellus ignicolor

Cantharellus lateritius Cantharellus persicinus

Cantharellus tabernensis Cantharellus tubaeformis

Craterellus fallax Craterellus odoratus

Gomphus clavatus Gomphus ﬂoccosus

Split Gill and Ally

Plicaturopsis crispa Schizophyllum commune