PRE-MED II LENSES A lens is a device made of a transparent material with index of refraction different from that of the medium from which the light impinges. Focal points and images are produced by refraction at the surfaces. Our analysis will be restricted to lenses with spherical surfaces, and with thickness that is small compared to the radii of curvature of the surfaces. These are called “thin” lenses. TYPES OF LENSES Lenses refract light in order to change its direction, and there are two types of lenses:
Converging (convex) Lens: these are lenses that curved outwards and causes parallel light rays to move closer together or converge at a point. These lenses can form real images, which can be projected onto a screen because the light rays appear to be coming from another point in space. Converging lenses are further divided into three classes as shown below. Diverging (concave) Lenses: these are lenses which are curved inwards and cause parallel light rays to move apart or diverge. Diverging lenses always form a virtual image and also further divided into three classes as shown below. Technical Terms in Lenses Real image: these are images which can be projected onto a screen permanently. Real images are formed when the object is further than the focal length.
Virtual image: these are images which can be projected onto a screen only temporarily. Virtual images are formed when the object is closer than the focal length (f). Principal focus (F): In a converging lens: the point at which the light rays which are parallel to the principal axis (shown on diagram, perpendicular to the lens axis) are focused. In a diverging lens: the point from which the light rays appear to come from. Focal length (f): the distance from the centre of the lens to the principal focus. Principal axis: it is an imaginary line joining the centres of curvature of the surfaces. Optical centre: this is the point on the lens through which rays of light pass. Centre of Curvature: This is the centre of the sphere of which the surface of a lens forms a part. Radius of Curvature (r): It is the distance between the centre of curvature and the surface of the lens. The radius of curvature is twice the focal length of any known lens. Pole (p): This is the point on the lens where the principal axis meets the surface of the lens. Construction of Ray Diagrams Three particular classes of rays are used in geometrical constructions to locate the image formed by a lens: (1) Rays parallel to the principal axis which pass through the principal focus after refraction through the lens (2) Rays through the principal focus which emerge parallel to the principal axis after refraction through the lens. (3) Rays through the optical centre which are undeviated. Two of these rays only are sufficient to locate an image, and which particular pair is chosen is merely a matter of convenience. Nature of Images formed by Convex Lenses for Various Object Position MAGNIFICATION So far we have seen that the of image formed by a lens varies according to the position of the object.
Hence, the linear magnification is the ratio of the length of the image to the height of the object. It is usually expressed as;
ℎ𝑖 𝑚= ℎ𝑜 In other words, it is the ratio of the image distance, v to the object distance, u. Thus, we can also express magnification as;
𝑖𝑚𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑚𝑎𝑔𝑛𝑖𝑓𝑖𝑐𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛(𝑚) = 𝑜𝑏𝑗𝑒𝑐𝑡 𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑣 𝑚= 𝑢 Equating the former and latter equations, we have;
ℎ𝑖 𝑣 = ℎ𝑜 𝑢 LENS FORMULA
Suppose a lens is set up in front of an illuminated object so that real
image is produced on a white screen placed on the opposite side.
By adjusting the lens such that the image is sharply formed, the object distance, u and the image distance, v from the lens are measured as shown in the figure. From the figure above, it can be proved that the focal length, f is related to u and v by the expression below;
1 1 1 = − for the new Cartesian 𝑓 𝑣 𝑢 convention
1 1 1 = + for real-is-positive 𝑓 𝑣 𝑢 convention Either of the expressions above can be referred to as the lens formula. However, one must note the following for the new Cartesian sign convention, all distances are measured from the optical centre, being positive if in the same direction as the incident light and negative if on the opposite direction. for the Real-is-positive sign convention; distances of real objects and real images are positive and distances of virtual objects and virtual images are negative. Example 1 The length of a concave lens is 15 cm. Determine the distance of the object to be placed, so that the image formed is 10 cm away from the lens. Hence, find its magnification Solution Given, Focal length (f) = -15 cm; image distance (v) = 10 cm; object distance(u)= ? Using the new Cartesian sign convention, we have;
𝑣 −10 𝑚= = = 0.3 𝑢 −30 Therefore, the object is placed at a distance of 30 cm. The negative sign shows that the object is placed in front of the lens. Example 2 A magnified, inverted image is located a distance of 32 cm from a converging lens with a focal length of 12 cm. Determine how far the object is and tell whether the image is real or virtual. Solution Given; image distance(v) = 32 cm; focal length(f) = 12 cm; object distance(u) = ?
1 1 1 1 1 1 = + ⟹ = + 𝑓 𝑣 𝑢 12 32 𝑢 ⟹ 20𝑢 = 384 ∴ 𝑢 = 19.2 𝑐𝑚 It can hence be concluded that the image is real. This is because it is inverted and converging lenses produce virtual images that are upright. Example 3 A 4.00 cm tall light bulb is placed a distance of 35.5 cm from a diverging lens having a focal length of -12.2 cm. Determine the image distance and the image size. Solution Given; object height(ℎ𝑜 ) = 4.0 cm; object distance(u) = 35.5 cm; focal length(f) = -12.2 cm; image distance(v) = ?; image size(ℎ𝑖 ) = ?
9.08 ℎ𝑖 = 4 × = 1.02 cm 35.5 THE EYE Light passes through the cornea of the human eye and is focused by the lens on the retina. The ciliary muscles change the shape of the lens, so it can focus at different distances. The vitreous and aqueous humors are transparent. Rods and cones on the retina convert the light into electrical impulses, which travel down the optic nerve to the brain.
The cornea focuses by bending (refracting) the light rays. The amount of bending depends on the curvatures of its surfaces and the speed of light in the lens compared with that in the surrounding material. Basic structure of the eye The Human Eye The eye is surrounded by a tough protective layer known as the sclera; this is lined with the choroid, which is a tissue that supplies the eye with food and oxygen and contains dark pigment which reduces reflection and therefore blurring of images.
At the edges of the cornea (this is the transparent part of the sclera) you will find ciliary muscles, which control the shape of the lens. When the ciliary muscles are relaxed, the eye can focus clearly on objects at a distance of 5m to infinity, however when an object closer than this must be viewed clearly the ciliary muscles contract, causing the lens to become more curved and so its focal length decreases, and the object can be seen clearly. The eye produces a real, inverted image on the retina. The reason we don’t see things upside down is because the brain adjusts the image to appear properly. The ciliary muscles adjust the shape of the lens to accommodate near and far vision. The near point is the closest point to the eye that the lens is able to focus. For those with normal vision, it is about 25 cm from the eye, but increases with age as the lens becomes less flexible.
The far point is the farthest point at which the eye can focus; it is infinitely far away, if vision is normal. If the cornea is curved too much the eye is near sighted (myopia).
Not enough curvature results in far sight ness (Hyperemia).
Uneven curvature produces astigmatism.
As people get older, their lenses lose some accommodation, presbyopia (old sight) results when the lens has lost nearly all of its accommodation. The index of refraction is nearly constant for all corneas, but the curvature varies considerably from one person to another and is responsible for most our defective vision. The Retina – The light detector of the eye
At the back of the eye (inside the choroid) is the retina, this is where images are brought to focus by the lens. The retina is formed of two types of photo-detectors (light-sensitive cells), which produce electrical signals when light is shone on them (like a photoelectric cell), these signals are then transferred to the brain allowing you to see.
The two types of photo-detectors are rods and cones.
Rods: These are activated by low light levels, but because many rods may be connected to one nerve fibre, the image they produce is not very clear and as they do not differentiate between wavelengths of light, the image is also gray-scale. They contain a substance called rhodopsin, which is destroyed by light, however this process can be reversed by enzymes, though this process takes some time. In very low-light levels, the enzymes will reform the rhodopsin fully allowing the eye to reach its maximum sensitivity (this is known as dark adaptation). Cones: These are activated by much higher light levels, however they are each connected to an individual nerve fibre, allowing for greater detail in the image they produce. Cones also contain three types of light-sensitive material, each of which can detect one of the primary colours, the intensity of all of the three colours detected will produce an image of the light observed. Detective vision and its corrections
There is a relation between the focal length f ,the object distance u , and the image distance v of a thin lens, i.e. 1/f = 1/u + 1/v
If f is measured in meters, then 1/f is the strength in Diopters (D), Thus,
a positive (converging ) lens with a focal length of 0.1m has a strength of 10D . If the focal length f of a negative (diverging) lens is considered to be negative . A negative lens with a focal length of -0.5m has a strength of - 2D.
The focal length f of a combination of two lenses with focal length
1 1 1 𝑓1 and 𝑓2 is given by = + 𝑓 𝑓1 𝑓2 Example 4
Assume lens A with focal length 𝑓𝐴 = 0.33𝑚 is combined with a lens B with focal length 𝑓𝐵 = 0.25𝑚. What is the focal length of the combination? What is the dioptric strength of the combinations?
1 1 1 1 1 = + = + 𝑓 𝑓𝐴 𝑓𝐵 0.33 0.25
note that lens A is 3D and lens B is 4D. The combination is the sum ,or 7D. Myopia Myopia (short-sightedness) - This is where the eye is unable to focus on objects which are far away because the image of distant objects is focused before the retina. This occurs when the eyeball is too long, or the combined power of lenses is too high, and the far point is less than infinity. To correct this, a diverging lens is used. Its focal length is such that a distant object forms an image at the far point: Hypermetropia Hypermetropia (long-sightedness) - This is where the eye is unable to focus on objects which are close to it because their image is focused behind the retina. This occurs when the combined power of the lenses is too small, or when the flexibility of the lens is reduced and so accommodation is limited and the near point is further away than 25 cm. To correct farsightedness, a converging lens is used to augment the converging power of the eye. The final image is past the near point Example 5 Let us determine the strength of a lens needed to correct a myopic eye with a far point of 1m. We consider the image distance(lens to retina) to be 2cm(0.02m).
Myopia: A person who is focusing an object at 1m has a lens strength of 1/F
=(1/1.0)+(1/0.02) =51D
An eye able to focus at infinity has a strength of 1/F=(1/∞ )+ (1/0.02) = 50D
51D – 50D =1D Thus a myopic person with a far point 1m has 1D, and a negative lens of -1.0D will correct his vision. Example 6
Hypermetropia: Let us consider afar sighted eye with a near point of 2.0 m. what power lens will let this person read comfortably at 0.25m? The strength of a good eye focused at 0.25 m is given by 1/F=(1/0.25)+ ( 1/ 0.02) = 4+ 50 =54D. An eye focused at 2m has a strength of 1/F= (1/2.0) + (1/ 0.02) =0.5 + 50 =50.5D A corrective lens of 54-50.5= +3.5 D would prescribed for his eye. Presbyopia (old sight) As people get older the cilliary muscles weaken and lens losses some of its elasticity. The power of accommodation diminishes with age. This defect is corrected by two parts of lenses upper half of each lens is diverging and corrects the myopia when the wears is looking ahead at distance objects, the lower half corrects the presbyopia with a suitable converging lens, and the wearer looks through this part when reading. Astigmatism This occurs when the cornea is not spherical and so different planes of the cornea have different curvatures (and so different refracting powers) and will diffract light in different directions, therefore the image is unevenly focused on the retina. This can be corrected through the use of cylindrical lenses. The prescription given to treat astigmatism will include both the power of the lens (required to correct myopia/hypermetropia) and the axis angle of the lens, which is how curved the lens needs to be for correction. Colour blindness This is the defect where the eye cannot recognise any colour at all and everything appears as black and white.
To people who have defect, their world is monochromatic as objects
appear black and white like the black and white television pictures.
However, in the case of partial colour blindness, the eye cannot
differentiate between two colours especially between red, green and blue. This defect is caused by deficiency to some of the cone cells Detached Retina This is a defect where the retina becomes detached from the choroid. Modern science makes use of laser beam to weld the retina back to the choroid.
However, the operation leaves small blind spots at places where the welding was done. Cataract A cataract is a clouding of the lens, which prevents a clear, sharp image being produced. A cataract forms because the lens is sealed in a capsule and as old cells die they get trapped in the capsule, with time this causes a clouding over the of the lens. This clouding results in blurred images. Glaucoma The eye produces a clear fluid (aqueous humour) that fills the space between the cornea and the iris. This fluid filters out via a complex drainage system. It is the balance between the production and drainage of this fluid that determines the eyes intraocular pressure(IOP).
Glaucoma is a defect caused by increased IOP usually resulting from a
malfunction in the eye’s drainage system.
Increased IOP can caused irreversible damage to the optic nerve and retinal fibres and if left untreated can result to permanent loss of vision. Basic Functions of the Human Eye
The eyes are the two most complicated and complex organs in the body. The main function of the eyes is to work with the brain to provide vision.
The eyes are connected to the brain. It is the brain that interprets what we see or perceive. The transfer of light plays an important role in the sense of sight. To see we must have light and our eyes must be connected to the brain. Parts and Specific Functions The Human Eye consists of the following parts and their specific functions.
Cornea: The cornea is the clear window at the front of the eye which transmits and focuses light into the eye. Some patients have laser surgery to reshape the cornea and changes the focus of the eye which produces better vision. Pupil: The pupil is a dark opening in the center of the eye through which light passes.
Retina: The retina is a layer of nerves that lines the back of the eye. The retina senses the light, it creates electrical pulses and sends them to the optic nerves which take the visual messages to the brain. Lens: The lens is a transparent biconvex body located immediately behind the iris. It focuses light in to the retina. With aging the lens could get cloudy resulting in cataracts and the need for removal of the lens and replacement with intraocular lens. The lens sometimes deteriorate which brings on the need for reading glasses.
Sclera: The sclera is commonly called the white of the eye. It
surrounds the iris. Optic Nerve: The optic nerve connects the retina to the brain. Its like a cable. It is a bundle of nerves with over a million nerve fibers that takes the visual image to the brain. The brain is the interpreter of what we see.
Glaucoma is the commonest condition related to the Optic nerve. World-
wide, glaucoma is the second leading cause of blindness. Macula: The macula contains special light sensitive cells which allow us to see fine details clearly in the center of the visual field. Fovea is the center of the macular which provides the sharpest vision. Age Related Macular Degeneration (ARMD) an age related eye disease can affect the macular.
Vitreous Humor: This is a clear gelatinous substance that fills the
central cavity of the eye. Iris: The iris is the colored part of the eye. It gives the eye its color. The eye color varies based on the amount of pigment present, resulting in brown eyes, dark eyes, blue eyes or green eyes. The iris also regulates the amount of light entering the eye. Choroid: This is a layer of blood vessels located between the retina and the sclera.
