MODULE FOR EXIT EXAM TUTORIAL

DEPARTMENT OF VOCATIONAL PEDAGOGY

THEMATIC AREA: Fundamentals of Vocational Pedagogy Department

 Curriculum and TTLM Development
 Methodology of Teaching
 Educational Psychology
 Assessment and Evaluation

APRIL 2024.
TABLE OF CONTENTS

Introduction................................................................................................................... 1
I. Background.............................................................................................................. 1
II. Module Descriptor:..................................................................................................1
III. Blueprint descriptor of the thematic area..............................................................1
Sub theme 1: Curriculum and TTLM Development-------------------------------------------2
Unit 1: Curriculum Conceptions and Definitions.................................................................2
1. Learning objectives of the unit...................................................................................2
1.1 What is Curriculum?---------------------------------------------------------------------------6
1.2 Levels of curriculum----------------------------------------------------------------------------7
1.3. Foundations of Curriculum ------------------------------------------------------------------8
1.4. Domains of Curriculum -----------------------------------------------------------------------9
Unit 2: Theories of Curriculum...........................................................................................11
Learning objectives of the unit.........................................................................................11
2.1 Curriculum Theory: Meanings, Definitions, and Characteristics-------------------11
2.2 Types and Views of Curriculum Theory--------------------------------------------------12
2.3 Classification of Curriculum theorizing---------------------------------------------------14
2.4 Types & Views of Curriculum Theory-----------------------------------------------------14
2.5 Functions of a theory-------------------------------------------------------------------------17
Unit 3: Stages of Curriculum Development........................................................................18
Learning objectives of the unit.........................................................................................18
3.1 The Cycle of Curriculum Development---------------------------------------------------19
3.2 Curriculum Change----------------------------------------------------------------------------20
3.3 Curriculum Alignment ------------------------------------------------------------------------20
UNIT 4: Curriculum Design----------------------------------------------------------------------- 22
4.1 Overview of Curriculum Design----------------------------------------------------------- 22
4.2 Models of Curriculum Design-------------------------------------------------------------- 23
4.3 Dimensions of Curriculum Design-------------------------------------------------------- 24
UNIT 5: Curriculum Development for TVET----------------------------------------------25
5.1 TVET Curriculum Development---------------------------------------------------------------25

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 5.1.1 Basic Principles of Competency- based Curriculum Development--------26
5.2 Practical Steps in the Development of Outcome Based Curriculum-------------26
5.2.1 Linking Occupational Standards with Training Standards-------------------26
5.3 Translating Occupational Standards into Training Standards----------------------27
UNIT 6: Preparation of Teaching, Training, and Learning Materials (TTLMs)
Learning Objectives of the Unit:-------------------------------------------------------------------28
6.1 The Essence of TTLMs---------------------------------------------------------------------28
6.2 Significance of TTLMs ----------------------------------------------------------------------29
6.3 Role of TTLMs---------------------------------------------------------------------------------30
6.4 Preparation of TTLMs------------------------------------------------------------------------31
6.5 Writing and evaluating the teaching material-------------------------------------------32
Exercises............................................................................................................................ 33
Self-check questions.........................................................................................................34
REFERENCES:................................................................................................................. 35
Sub theme 2: methodology of teaching...................................................................36
Unit : Introduction to Teaching and Learning--------------------------------------------------36
1.1 The Concept of Teaching in General---------------------------------------------------------36
1.2 Some Basic Principles of Effective Teaching........................................................37
1.3 Teaching Profession------------------------------------------------------------------------------40
1.4 Effective Learning Methods in Vocational Education-------------------------------------41
Unit 2: Perspectives on Instructional Decision Making.........................................42
Learning objectives of the unit.........................................................................................43
2.1 Humanistic perspective..............................................................................................43
2.2 Cognitive Perspective-------------------------------------------------------------------------44
2.3 Affective Issues.........................................................................................................44
Unit 3: Types of Training Methods and Techniques...............................................45
Learning objectives of the unit.........................................................................................45
3.1. Training Methods...................................................................................................46
3.2. Necessity of Variety of Training Methods...........................................................46
3.3. Appropriate Method Selecting Criteria................................................................47
3.4. Nature of Training Methods..................................................................................47
3.5. Method of Training for TVET System: Their Effectiveness---------------------------48

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 Unit 4: Classroom Management....................................................................................50
Learning Objectives of the Unit:---------------------------------------------------------------------51
4. Classroom Management------------------------------------------------------------------------52
4.1 Definition of Classroom Management---------------------------------------------------54
4.2 Goals of Classroom Management--------------------------------------------------------55
4.3 Classroom Management Models----------------------------------------------------------56
4.4 General Principles for Using Classroom Management Strategies----------------56
4.5 Effective Classroom Management--------------------------------------------------------57
UNIT 5: Formulate a Planning for Training Session--------------------------------------57
Learning objectives of the unit.........................................................................................58
5. Session Plan ----------------------------------------------------------------------------------59
5.1 Fundamental Questions of Instructional (session) Planning ----------------------59
5.2 Types of Instructional plan ----------------------------------------------------------------60
5.3 Guidelines for Writing Instructional Objectives ---------------------------------------61
Unit 6: Introduction to Bloom’s Taxonomy.......................................................................62
Learning objectives of the unit.........................................................................................62
6.1 Cognitive Domain -----------------------------------------------------------------------------63
6.2 The Affective Domain ------------------------------------------------------------------------64
6.3 Psychomotor Domain ------------------------------------------------------------------------65
6.4 Using Taxonomies as Planning Tools -------------------------------------------------------66
6.5 Functions of a theory-------------------------------------------------------------------------67
Exercises............................................................................................................................ 67
Self-check questions.........................................................................................................68
REFERENCES:................................................................................................................. 68

Sub theme 3: Introduction to Educational Psychology----------------------------------------69

Chapter One:
Learning Objectives -------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 69
After the end of this chapter, the trainees are expected to:
1.1. Concept of Educational Psychology---------------------------------------------------------
70

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1.2. Human Development --------------------------------------------------------------------------
71
1.3. Theories of Human Development-----------------------------------------------------------71
1.4. Theories of Learning and its Educational Implication---------------------------------72
1.5. Motivation Theories and its Classroom Implications ---------------------------------72
1.6. Individual Differences ------------------------------------------------------------------------73
Sub theme 4: Assessment and Evaluation of Learning---------------------------------------73
Chapter Two:
Learning Objectives---------------------------------------------------------------------------------73
2.1. Meaning of Terms--------------------------------------------------------------------------74
2.2. Types of Evaluation -----------------------------------------------------------------------74
2.3. Principles of Assessment and Evaluation ---------------------------------------------75
2.4. Purposes/Functions of Assessment and Evaluation---------------------------------75
2.5. Educational Objectives-------------------------------------------------------------------76
2.6. Classroom Tests and Assessments---------------------------------------------------- 76

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 INTRUDACTION

I. Background

This module is meticulously designed to cater to the specific needs of Technical and
Vocational Education and Training (TVET) teacher graduates in Ethiopia. The TVET
sector plays a pivotal role in fostering economic development, reducing
unemployment, and enhancing the quality of life. As part of the ongoing reforms in the
TVET sector, there is a critical need to ensure that TVET teacher graduates possess
the requisite competencies and skills to deliver effective vocational education. Hence,
this module is prepared to equip TVET teacher graduates with the necessary
knowledge, pedagogical skills, and attitudes essential for successful vocational
teaching.

II. Module Descriptor

The module "Vocational Pedagogy for TVET Teacher Graduates" encompasses a

comprehensive overview of key areas essential for effective vocational teaching. It is
structured to provide a coherent and progressive learning experience for the target
audience. The content is organized into thematic units to facilitate a systematic
understanding of vocational pedagogy principles, teaching methodologies,
educational psychology, curriculum development, and assessment strategies. The
module aims to enhance the professional competence and readiness of TVET
teacher graduates to excel in their teaching roles within the TVET sector.

This detailed explanation emphasizes the rationale behind developing the module,
which is to address the specific needs of TVET teacher graduates and to ensure they
acquire the competencies required for successful vocational teaching. The module's
structure and content organization are highlighted to provide a clear understanding of
its scope and objectives.

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  Expected Profiles of Graduates
This section outlines the desirable qualities and competencies expected of TVET
teacher graduates, including theoretical understanding, practical skills, critical
thinking, resource allocation, and effective classroom management.

 Competences and Learning Outcomes

A. Competences
The module emphasizes the measurement of students' competencies through a
national exit examination, evaluating their knowledge, skills, and attitudes related to
vocational pedagogy.

B. Learning Outcomes
Graduates completing the module will demonstrate vocational-related skills, employ
effective instructional strategies, develop diverse learning materials, utilize technology
for teaching and assessment, foster inclusive learning environments, and engage in
continuous professional development, among other outcomes.

III. Blueprint descriptor of the thematic area

Categorizing Courses of the Program into Themes
Vocational pedagogy program for TVET teacher graduates may be categorized into
four major themes:
The module categorizes courses into four themes:

1. Curriculum and TTLM Development: This theme encompasses courses that

delve into curriculum design, development, implementation and evaluation, as
well as the creation of effective teaching, training, and learning materials.
( Planning Training 25% )
2. Methodology of Teaching: This theme covers courses related to teaching
techniques, session planning, instructional strategies, professional ethics and
classroom management in vocational education settings. (The way how to
delivery the contents 22%)
3. Educational Psychology: Courses in this theme focus on principles of
educational psychology, theories of learning, motivation, emotion and

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 understanding learner characteristics and needs. (Delivery of Training in
conducive Environment 20%)
4. Assessment and Evaluation: Courses in this theme focus on various
assessment and evaluation tools, methods for measuring student learning
outcomes, and using assessment data to inform instructional decisions.
(Assessment and Evaluation of Training 33%)

Sub theme 1: Curriculum and TTLM Development

UNIT 1: Curriculum Conceptions and Definitions

Learning objectives of the unit

At the end of this unit trainees are expected to:
• Critically analyze the various definitions and conceptions of curriculum
• Identify the various foundations up on which curriculum needs to be anchored.
• Classify the field‘s internal and external boundaries or curriculum domains
• Appreciate the different curriculum definitions, conceptions, approaches,
foundations and domains of curriculum.
• Define curriculum in the TVET context

1.1 What is Curriculum?

Some of the definitions are
 There is no universally accepted single definition for curriculum so far
 The word curriculum is derived from the Latin term Currere which stands for a
racing chariot or running.
 All planned learning activities (in a sequence of linear steps)intended to achieve
certain goals for which the institution is responsible (Tyler & Taba).
 a system, be it linear or non-linear, for dealing with people (managerial and
systems curricularists)
Curriculum encompasses planned educational experiences to achieve learning
outcomes.It includes content, structure, pedagogy, and assessment.

1.2 Levels of Curriculum

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Curriculum can be derived from different levels starting from broader societal level to
narrower experiential level
1. Societal level of curriculum- the farthest(large) from the learners since this is
where the public stakeholders (politicians, special interest groups,
administrators, professional specialist) participate in identifying the goals, the
topics to be studied, time to be spent in teaching/learning, and materials to aid
instruction.
2. Institutional level of curriculum- refers to the curriculum derived from the
societal level, with modification by local educators or lay people; often
organized according to subjects and includes topics and themes to be studied;
may also include standards, philosophies, lesson plans and teaching guides.
3. Instructional level of curriculum- refers how teachers use the curriculum
developed in societal level and modified in the instructional level or what
authorities have determined; involves the teacher‘s instructional strategies
styles and materials used.
4. Experiential level of curriculum- the curriculum perceived and experienced
by each student and many, therefore, vary among lessons because of
individual differences.
Curriculum approach
• Is reflects one’s perceptions, values and knowledge about curriculum and
curriculum work.
• Reflects a holistic position or a meta-orientation encompassing curriculum’s
foundations, curriculum domains, and curriculum theory and practice.
• Expresses a viewpoint about curriculum development and design; the role of
the learner, teacher, and curriculum specialist in planning curriculum; the
curriculum’s goals; and the important issues that need to be examined.
• Curriculum textbook writers sometimes adhere to more than one curriculum
approach
Curriculum approaches can be categorized in to two broad areas as
technical/scientific or non-technical/non-scientific perspective.
A. Technical-Scientific Approach
• It reflects the traditional view on education and formal methods of
schooling.

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 • It views curriculum development as something similar to engineering and
architecture which used instruments and empirical methods in preparing
blueprints
It has three sub-approaches:
 Behavioral-Rational Approach
 System- Managerial Approach
 Intellectual- Academic Approach

B. Non-Technical/Non-Scientific Approach
It also has three sub-approaches:
1. Humanistic- Aesthetic Approach:- Promotes the liberation of learners from
authoritarian teachers - Encourages group learning activities
2. Reconstructionism:- Considers the school as an agent of change, an
institution of social reform - internationalism and pluralism which are beyond
individual concerns
3. Reconceptualist Approach:- Purpose of education is to anticipate society
from traditional,
1.3 Foundations of Curriculum
1.3.1 Philosophical Foundations
Philosophy is the way we perceive the world around us and how we define what is
important to us, it helps us to understand what we are, why we are and where we are
going
Philosophical foundations refer to the philosophies, values, ideals and ideologies
because they represent points of view which guide the development of the curriculum
at a particular time.
1.3.2 Sociological Foundations
It is about the social setting, especially the relationship between schools and society
and how that relationship influences curriculum decisions.
Social wisdom is essential for curriculum planners and developers. Curriculum
decisions take place in complex social settings, through demands that society
imposes and that filter down to schools.
1.3.3 Psychological Foundations

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In the development of psychological foundations, the more significant exploration has
revolved around theories of learning. This is because psychology provides a basis for
understanding the teaching and learning process.
1.3.4 Historical Foundations
The history of society in general is interwoven with attempts to meet societal needs
for skilled man power.
While the need for trained personnel has been recognized throughout history, the
problem of providing such personnel has become increasingly difficult, as the rate of
change in needs for workers has accelerated.
1.4 Domains of Curriculum
• Curriculum’s domain defines the field’s internal boundaries-the accepted
knowledge presented in published articles and books.
• Although curricularists generally agree on the foundation areas (the field’s
external boundaries), they often disagree on curriculum’s knowledge domains.
• Many efforts have been made to determine these domains. However, still
opinions regarding what curriculum knowledge base essentially vary among
scholars.
• The US curriculum professors validated 49 curriculum practices which are
grouped into nine curriculum domains:
1) Curriculum philosophy;
2) Curriculum theory;
3) Curriculum research;
4) Curriculum history; etc…

2. UNIT 2: Theories of Curriculum

Learning Objectives of the Unit:
At the end of this unit, trainees are expected to:
 Critically analyze the meaning, definitions, and characteristics of curriculum
theory.
 Identify the similarity and difference between curriculum theories and models.
 Classify the different curriculum theorizations.
 Scrutinize the different types and views of Curriculum Theory.
 Appreciate the professional value of curriculum theory.

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 2.1 Curriculum Theory: Meanings, Definitions, and Characteristics
Curriculum theory refers to the scholarly inquiry into the nature, purpose, and
principles of curriculum design and implementation. It includes:
Meanings: Various interpretations and perspectives on curriculum theory.
Definitions: Formal definitions and conceptualizations of curriculum theory.
Characteristics: Key features and attributes of curriculum theories.

2.2 Types and Views of Curriculum Theory

Traditionalist Theory: Emphasizes subject matter, discipline-based learning, and
transmission of knowledge.
Progressive Theory: Focuses on student-centered approaches, active learning, and
critical thinking.
Reconstructionist Theory: Advocates for social justice, equity, and transformative
education.

2.2.1 Models and theories differentiated

• Models are sub-theories.
• Curriculum models represent curriculum theory.
• Models are detailed perspectives on some particulars of the curriculum in
action, but not the total picture.
• But models fail to account for the complexities of the planned curriculum, the
enacted curriculum, and the experienced curriculum, they are not entirely
satisfactory solutions to the problem of creating curriculum theories.
• However, various models in curriculum have been empirically tested and are
widely used in curriculum research process.
The most popular curriculum development models are the
Product models of Ralph Tyler (1949) and Hilda Taba (1962) and
Process model of Laurence Stenhouse (1975)
The product model is results-oriented. Grades are the prime objective, with the focus
lying more on the finished product rather than on the learning process.
The process model, however, is more open-ended, and focuses on how learning
develops over a period of time.
A) Ralph Tyler’s Objectives (Product) Model
Four Basic Principles known as Tyler’s Rationale
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 1. Determine the program’s purposes (objectives)
2. Identify educational experiences related to purpose
3. Organize the experiences
4. Evaluate the purposes
5. Tyler’s model is linear; it involves a certain order or sequence of steps
from beginning to end.
• Also named as Means-End model
B) Hilda Taba’s Objectives Model
She developed Tyler’s conceptual scheme into an orderly planning procedure of
seven steps:
1. Diagnose needs
2. Formulate objectives
3. Select content
4. Organize content
5. Select learning experiences
6. Organize learning experiences
7. Determine what to evaluate and ways & means of doing it
A grass-roots approach to curriculum development (Where teachers are responsible)

C) Laurence Stenhouse’s Process Model

He rejected the idea that objectives could be the basis of a complete model applicable
to all aspects of education.
• In this model the following issues have got due attention
 Selection of contents- the content shows important procedures, key
concepts and criteria inherent in the field of knowledge.
 Devising teaching methods and materials.
 Selection of principles of procedures (learning strategies)
 Evaluation by criteria inherent in the field of knowledge
Strong sides of the process model:
• It considers learning as a process, but not as an end.
• It gives high attention to both intended and unintended learning.
Weaknesses of the process model
• It is vulnerable to subjectivity
• It assumes/gives autonomy for individual teachers.
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The product/Objective model
 Strengths of the objective model
 It can be applied to any subject and to any level of teaching
 It provides a set of procedures which are necessary and very easy to
follow and which appear to be most logical and rational.
 Weaknesses of the objective model
 It gives more emphasis for the intended curriculum by not valuing the
unintended one.
 There are no explicit guidelines about why certain objectives are chosen over
the others.
2.3 Classification of Curriculum theorizing
Curriculum theorists can be placed in various categories
1. Traditionalists
2. Conceptual empiricists
3. Re-conceptualists/ Critical theorists
4. Post modernists
2.3.1 Traditionalists
• Mainly concerned with the bases for selecting, organizing and sequencing
curriculum content.
• For traditionalists, schools are academic institutions with a more purely
academic purpose, which is to develop the mental ability of students in
particular.
• Focus on schools and are less interested in basic research and in theory
development (Pinar, 2009).
2.3.2 Conceptual empiricists
• Concerned with research for theory development. They develop hypothesis
and test them (Pinar, 2009).
• Actively explore the application of cognitive science to curriculum and
instructional research.
• Conceptual empiricists emphasize on content-based theories.
– E.g. Benjamin Bloom, Jerome Bruner, George Posner and Robert Stake
2.3.3 Re-conceptualists/ Critical theorists
• Shifted their attention from curriculum development to curriculum
understanding. They critique the field of curriculum.
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 • Focus on liberation of schools and society from the political and economic
establishments.
• They have a value laden perspective and a politically emancipatory intent
(Pinar, 2009).
• Reflect and hypothesize on the imbalances and inequalities experienced in the
society and the world in general.
2.3.4 Post modernists
• This is an emerging paradigm in curriculum theory that draws heavily on
dynamism of knowledge.
• Post modernists posit that there is no one way to interpret or theorize about
curriculum.
• Postmodernism and critical theory commonly criticize universalist ideas of
objective reality, morality, truth, human nature, reason, language, and social
progress.
• Post modernists engage in deconstructing the world, curriculum theory
included. This includes redefining curriculum.
2.4 Types & Views of Curriculum Theory
There are two major categories of curriculum theories – design theories and
engineering theories
1. Design theories: address the basic organization of the curriculum plan. For this,
curricularists draw on philosophy as well as on sociological and psychological
theories.
2. Engineering theories: explain, describe, predict, or even guide curriculum-
development activities. They involve specific plans, principles, and/or methods or
procedures. Engineering theories of curriculum are also partially based on
principles of measurement and statistics.
Other forms of classification
A. Structure-oriented theories: concerned primarily with analyzing the components
of the curriculum and their interrelationships. Structure-oriented theories tend to be
descriptive and explanatory in intent. Descriptive theories describe events that took
place in the past.
They examine questions such as the following: What principles seem to govern
issues of content selection, organization, and sequencing? For example, how can
curricular elements are articulated?
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B. Content-oriented theories: Concerned primarily with determining the content of
the curriculum; with specifying the major sources that should influence the selection
and organization of the curriculum content.
• Content-oriented theories tend to be prescriptive in nature.
• Prescriptive theories serve to guide future actions.
C. Value-oriented theories (critical & re-conceptualist theorists)
• Concerned primarily with analyzing the values and assumptions of curriculum
makers and their products. Value-oriented theories tend to be critical in nature.
Major Proponents: James McDonald, Michael Apple,
D. Value-oriented theorists examine issues such as the following:
In what ways do the schools replicate the power differentials in the larger society?
What is the nature of a truly liberated individual, and how does schooling inhibit
such liberation?
As curriculum leaders determine what constitutes legitimate knowledge, how do
such decisions reflect their class biases and serve to inhibit the full
development of children and youth?
5. Process-oriented theories
• Concerned primarily with describing how curricula are developed or recommending
how they should be developed.
• Some process-oriented theories are descriptive in nature; others are more
prescriptive.

2.4 Functions of a theory

A. Description function
B. Prediction function
C. Explanation function
D. Guidance function
A) Description function
• Curriculum theories serve to describe curriculum phenomena such as the
elements of curriculum (objectives, content, learning experiences and
evaluation) and curriculum processes (planning, development, and
implementation).
B) Prediction function

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 • Some theories have predictive powers and can tell us what will very likely
happen if we do this or that, the decision to choose one alternative over
another is ours.
C) Explanation function
• Theories address the why? question.
• A theory points out the relationship between phenomena and suggests the
reasons for the relationships.
D) Guidance function
• A theory helps researchers to collect and analyze relevant data about a
phenomenon. Theories serve a directive function especially in research.
• But, theories may not always produce correct answers and they never tell us
what we should do (Henson, 2001).
• Thus, the role of the theory is not to guide our behavior, rather it is to help
guide our thinking.

3. UNIT 3: Stages of Curriculum Development

Learning Objectives of the Unit:

At the end of this unit, trainees are expected to:
 Critically analyze the different components of the cycle of curriculum
development.
 Identify the processes in each stage of curriculum development.
 Scrutinize the different processes involved in the curriculum development
process.
 Appreciate the different stages of curriculum development.

3.1 The Cycle of Curriculum Development

1) Identification of Needs:
- Assessing stakeholders' needs, goals, and expectations.
- Conducting needs assessments, gap analysis, and stakeholder consultations.

2) Formulating Aims, Goals & Objectives

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- Philosophy (Pragmatism), Aim (Social development), Goal (Becoming responsible
member), Objective (Developing healthy social attitude).
- Sources: Society, Learner, Subject.
- Criteria: Matching, Worth, Wording, Appropriateness, Logical grouping, Periodic
revision.
- Taxonomy: Cognitive (6 levels), Affective (5 levels), Psychomotor (5 levels).

3) Selection & Organization of Contents

• Contents-are the facts, principles, ideas, information and concepts rules, skills,
attitudes … etc to be learned by the learners.
• They fundamentally constitute a given field of study or discipline and are
selected from various field of knowledge (farming, manufacturing, voting, social
values etc).
• Contents are the subject matters that learners need to acquire or know so that
they can achieve the desired learning outcomes;
• They serve the successful achievement of the various objectives, realized at
various levels of the educational system
• All curricula have content regardless of their design or developmental model.
• All curriculum contents (facts, concepts, generalizations etc) should enable
students to gain understanding and to apply that understanding to daily life
(present and future) of students

- - Criteria: Validity, Variety, Continuity, Interest, Utility, Feasibility, Learnability,

Suitability, Relevance, Comprehensive, Balance.

4) Selection & Organization of Learning Experiences

Learning experiences: are the interactions of the learners with environment in their
effort to acquire the contents are mental operations and exercises of the learners that
would enable them develop the desired learning outcomes; learning experiences are
the activities that the learners exercise and develop in order to meet the expected
changes of behaviors by way of acquiring the contents include different techniques,
strategies and methods that are used for the purposes of teaching and learning.-
Vertical (chronological) and horizontal (thematic) organization.

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5) Pilot Testing the Curriculum & Curriculum Diffusion
- Spread of curriculum renewal information.
- Pilot testing for meaningful implementation.
It refers to the spread of information about curriculum renewal, namely about
innovative instruction or instruction-related practices aimed at preparing and informing
all those involved with the curriculum change;
It is a prerequisite for a meaningful and successful implementation of curriculum
renewal or curriculum change. It consists in the distribution or publication of
information, reflections and decisions.
Curriculum diffusion/dissemination
• It consists in the distribution or publication of information, reflections and
decisions.
• It refers to the spread of information about curriculum renewal, namely about
innovative instruction or instruction-related practices aimed at preparing and
informing all those involved with the curriculum change.
• It turns out to be a prerequisite for a meaningful and successful implementation
of curriculum renewal or curriculum change.

6) Curriculum Implementation
- Fidelity approach, Mutual adaptation, Curriculum enactment.
- Factors: Program, People, Organization.
Teacher Training: Providing professional development for educators.
Resource Allocation: Allocating resources, materials, and technology for
implementation.
Scheduling: Planning and organizing instructional time and activities.
Classroom Management: Creating a conducive learning environment for
implementation.
Monitoring and Support: Monitoring progress, providing support, and addressing
challenges during implementation.

Curriculum improvement is a process of enriching, modifying certain aspects without

changing fundamental conceptions/ elements/ structure of an existing curriculum.

Levels of operation for curriculum Improvement are:

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 • Substitution- substituting a new book for the current series

• Alternation- adding to instructional time

• Variations- transferring a successful programme

• Restructing- organizing teams for teacher and specialist

• Value orientation change- shifting from routine instruction to computer

assisted instruction

7) Curriculum Evaluation
- Describing, obtaining, and providing useful information.
- Functions: Identify strengths/weaknesses, Check effectiveness, Provide feedback.
 Types of Evaluation:
Formative Evaluation: Ongoing assessment and feedback during curriculum
implementation.
Summative Evaluation: Assessing overall outcomes and effectiveness at the end of
the curriculum cycle.
Stakeholder Feedback: Gathering input from students, teachers, parents, and
administrators.
Data Analysis: Analyzing data and evidence to evaluate curriculum impact and
outcomes.
Continuous Improvement: Using evaluation findings to make revisions and
improvements to the curriculum.

3.2 Curriculum Change

Curriculum change refers to the basic alteration in the structure and design of learning
experiences based on conceptions which may be at the school, district or national
level.
It also denotes to the process of making the curriculum different by shifting to new
goals and means.
Principles that guide curriculum change process are:

• People improve when they detect the desire of the stimulator to improve
himself
• Direction of improvement should be determine cooperatively

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 • People must identify and examine each other’s centrally held values
• People improve through experience
• Divide time between contact individual and with go group.
• People’s resistance to efforts of others constitutes major individual differences
• Create a climate of freedom
• Keep channels of communication offer
• Use power with great care
• Operate on a limited number of fronts at a given time.

3.3 Curriculum Alignment

- Alignment between curriculum and standards, tests, assignments, lesson plans,
textbooks, and instruction.
Two kinds of alignment:
• Vertical Alignment - planning curriculum across the grade levels from
kindergarten through higher education, building upon instruction based upon
standards.
• Horizontal Alignment - alignment of the curriculum being taught by teachers
in common grade level.
• There has to be an alignment between the written, the taught and the tested
curriculum.
• The Written Curriculum specifies what is to be taught and is produced by the
state, the school system, the school and the classroom teacher.
• The Taught Curriculum refers to what the teacher actually teaches in the
classroom.
• The Tested Curriculum- provides value feedback about each trainee’s
understanding of the essential content, concept and skills.

UNIT 4: Curriculum Design

Learning Objectives of the Unit:

At the end of this unit, trainees are expected to:
 Critically analyze the different kinds of curriculum design along with their merits
and demerits.
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  Identify the different sub-designs under each broad curriculum design.
 Examine which kinds of curriculum designs suit the different conditions in the
teaching-learning process.
 Synthesize the different dimensions and principles of curriculum design.
 Appreciate the strong sides of the different models of curriculum design.

5.1 Overview of Curriculum Design

Curriculum design involves the process of conceptualizing, planning, and creating
educational programs and materials to achieve specific learning outcomes. It
encompasses various models, dimensions, and considerations tailored to different
educational contexts.

Curriculum design involves a form into which curriculum is cast or organized.

 Curriculum is generally organized through designs such as:
– Disciplines (e.g., mathematics, engineering, humanities, sciences);
– Fields (e.g., art, civics, design, home economics, industrial arts, social
studies);
– Units (e.g.,bicycling; child labor; feminism, jazz; mass media; queer fiction;
verbs; water colors);
– Organizing Centers (e.g., activities, modules, mini courses, problems,
processes, projects, tasks and competencies); or
– Personal Pursuits (e.g., aerobics, autobiography, cooking, bird watching,
guitar playing).

5.2 Models of Curriculum Design

4.2.1 Subject-Centered Design
Focuses on organizing curriculum around subject areas or disciplines which
Emphasizes content coverage and subject-specific skills and knowledge.
Types of subject-centered designs are:
a. Separate Subject Design: Subjects taught independently.
b. Correlated Design: Subjects connected for interdisciplinary learning.
c. Broad field Design/Integration: Combines related subjects into broader areas.
d. Process Design: Focuses on methods of learning rather than specific subjects.
Advantages of Subject-Centered Curriculum Design:
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 - Sets standards and familiar structure.
- Better understood by teachers.
- Advocates intellectual development through specialization.
- Simplifies curriculum planning.
Disadvantages of Subject-Centered Curriculum Design:
- Fragmentation of knowledge.
- Lack of integration and neglect of student needs.
- Assumption that subject knowledge transfers to real life.

4.2.2 Learner -Centered Design

- Centers on learners' interests, needs, and developmental stages.
- Promotes active learning, student engagement, and individualized instruction.

Types of learner-centered designs are:

a. Child-Centered Design: Emphasizes children's interests and activities.
b. Experience-Centered Design: Learning based on personal experiences.
Advantages of Learner-Centered Design:
- Relevance to students' world and active learning.
- Consideration of student needs and interests.
- Acquisition of skills applicable outside the classroom.
Disadvantages of Learner-Centered Design:
- Short-lived student interests.
- May not cover essential societal knowledge.
- Resource-intensive and accused of shallowness.

4.2.3 Problem-Centered Design

- Emphasizes real-world problem-solving and application of knowledge.
- Encourages critical thinking, collaboration, and inquiry-based learning.
Types of learner-centered designs are:
a. Life Situation Design: Curriculum based on real-life situations.
b. Core Design: Focuses on essential core knowledge and skills.
Advantages of Problem-Centered Design:
- Promotes critical thinking and problem-solving.
- Enhances interdisciplinary approaches.
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 - Encourages creativity and collaboration.
Disadvantages of Problem-Centered Design:
- May overlook individual student needs.
- Resource-intensive in planning and execution.
- Potential for shallow coverage of subject content.

4.3 Dimensions of Curriculum Design

The curriculum design has six important dimensions and some important principles
that guide some of the dimensions of curriculum design. These are:

Scope: The breadth and depth of content covered in the curriculum.

Sequence: The order and progression of learning experiences.
- Simple to Complex Learning: Progression from basic to advanced concepts.
- Prerequisites Learning: Building on foundational knowledge.
- Whole to Part Learning: Understanding the whole before its components.
- Chronological Learning: Learning in a logical time sequence.
Continuity: Ensuring coherence and progression across educational levels.
- Reinforces learning and skill development.
- Strengthens the permanency of acquired knowledge.
- Helps in effective vertical organization of curriculum.
Integration: Connecting different subject areas or disciplines.
- Enhances understanding by connecting knowledge domains.
- Provides a unified view of learning.
- Encourages application of knowledge across disciplines.
Articulation: Aligning curriculum components within and across educational levels.
- Vertical Articulation: Sequencing content across grade levels.
- Horizontal Articulation: Association among simultaneous elements
Balance: Achieving a balance between breadth of coverage and depth of
understanding.
- Ensures appropriate weightage to curriculum elements.
- Prevents distortions and biases in content delivery.
- Promotes fairness in educational experiences.

UNIT 5: Curriculum Development for TVET

23
Learning Objectives of the Unit:
At the end of this unit, trainees are expected to:

o Critically analyze Competency-based curriculum development.

o Identify practical steps in the development of Competency-based curriculum for
TVET.
o Demonstrate the skill of linking Occupational Standards (OS) with training
Standards and then developing curriculum.
o Appreciate the unique nature of the curriculum development process in TVET.
5.1 TVET Curriculum Development
In the TVET sector competency-based curriculum development is applied.
Competency-based curriculum focuses both on employment and self-employment
opportunities. Proper competency-based TVET curriculum development should be
preceded by a profound labor market needs analysis.
There are four different approaches for assessing labor market, namely, employer
surveys, extrapolations, labour market signalling and job vacancy. The popular
competency based curriculum development model for TVET is the Systematic
Curriculum and Instructional Development (SCID).
• SCID has five phases. They are:
– Phase 1, need analysis
– Phase 2, design
– Phase 3, development
– Phase 4, implementation
– Phase 5, evaluation

24
Figure 5.1: Simplified approach to competency based curriculum development
Adapted from: (Laird and Stevenson, 1993)

5.2 Basic Principles of Competency- based Curriculum Development

Competency based Curriculum Development has its own basic principles. They are:
goal setting is based on preparing the student for a particular professional/vocational
activity in accordance with the requirements of the economy/labor market or a
particular customer-employer;
Social partnership or the involvement in the designing curriculum and teaching
activities representatives of the economic sphere - direct customers, consumers and
beneficiaries of the results;

 primacy of practical tasks in the learning process, which is focused on the

development of learning outcomes;
 training is based on interdisciplinarity or the integration/synchronization of
practice and theory;
 modular approach is used to structure the curriculum;
 Feedback analysis and evaluation; learning/training providers self-evaluation
and every year correction of the curriculum.

25
 5.3 Practical Steps in the Development of Outcome Based Curriculum

The general steps followed in outcome-based curriculum development are:

Step 1) Analyze the occupational standard and its units of competence
Step 2) Determine the program learning outcomes
Step 3) Determine and identify the different module titles
Step 4) Accomplish the template for Learning Module
Step 5) Define the qualification level and certification
Step 6) Describe the target group and their entry requirements
Step 7) Decide on the mode of delivery
Step 8) Design the program structure
Step 9) Describe the context for the institutional assessment
Step 10) Define the trainer’s / facilitator’s profile
Step 11) List, as an annex, the resource requirements of the program
Step 12) Consolidate the learning modules and package the program

5.4 Linking Occupational Standards with Training Standards

Occupational standards, or employment specifications, must be defined by employers

following procedures agreed upon by all stakeholders. Developing countries should
obtain occupational standards from others for benchmarking purposes. A country may
want to adapt selected standards for internal uses, particularly those which are
international in scope, to save resources, facilitate labor mobility, and promote inward
investment.

Training standards, or learning specifications, are used to define curricula in training

institutions. Training standards need to be linked to OSs if training is to be relevant to
the real world of work. This linkage is sometimes absent, particularly in developing
countries.

5.5 Translating Occupational Standards into Training Standards

• The needs of employment (occupational standards) must be translated into a
language that can be understood in education and training.
26
 • The goal is to translate the language of action and inputs in employment to the
language of inputs in education, which enable education professionals to plan
and deliver learning programs.
• One immediate step that can be taken is to develop learning standards and
outcomes that describe what people will be able to do at the end of a learning
program. Then learning outcomes can be linked to employment outcomes
defined in occupational standards.

5.6 Methodologies for setting occupational standards

There are three major kinds of methodologies for defining occupational standards.
These are job/task analysis, DACUM, and Functional Analysis.

27
UNIT 6: Preparation of Teaching, Training, and Learning Materials (TTLMs)

Learning Objectives of the Unit:

At the end of this unit, trainees are expected to:

o Critically analyze the essence, role, and significance of Teaching,

Training, and Learning Materials (TTLMs).
o Identify the major types of Teaching, Training, and Learning Materials
(TTLMs).
o Demonstrate the skill of preparing and evaluating Teaching, Training,
and Learning Materials (TTLMs) using practical steps.
o Appreciate the variety of Teaching, Training, and Learning Materials
(TTLMs).

6.6 The Essence of TTLMs

TTLMs are

28
  tools that are used by teachers and instructors within schools to facilitate
learning and understanding of concepts among students
 educational materials that are used within the classroom setting to support the
learning objectives, as set-out within the lesson plans
 the instruments of presentations and transmission of the prescribed
educational material (Busljeta, 2013)
The major role that has been rendered by the TTLMs is to make learning real,
practical and pleasurable for the students. The teachers also make use of TTLMs to
illustrate or reinforce a skill, viewpoint, perspective or an idea.They also render a
significant contribution in bringing novelty and freshness within the classroom
environment
Trainers should be skilled and well-aware of what TTLMs are required to be made
use of the major aspects those needs to be taken into account regarding the use of
TTLMs are:
• Grade levels of students,
• Subjects,
• Learning abilities and
• Academic goals.

6.7 Significance of TTLMs

 TTLMs
– provide support and assistance to trainers with the presentation and
transmission of educational content and the achievement of educational
objectives
– Increase communication of the learner with the material being leant
Specifically, TTLMs have the following significance
1. Increase student motivation,
2. Develop creativity,
3. Evoke prior knowledge,
4. Encourage the processes of interpreting, understanding, organizing and
amalgamating the educational content, logical thinking, reasoning, and
communication and

29
5. Contribute to the development of different skills, values and attitudes among
students, and enabling them to acquire an efficient understanding of the academic
concepts.

6.8 Role of TTLMs

1. Motivate Learners
2. Increase retention of Information
3. Ensure concept formation (efficient understanding)
4. Facilitate Holistic Learning (CAP)
5. Increase Practical Application (theory to practice)
6. Makes Learning Pleasurable
7. Facilitating Change in Attitudes
8. Help in Organizing Classroom Teaching
9. Develop teachers knowledge and Skills
10. Promoting Effective Communication

Types of TTLMs
 Audio and Video TTLMs
 Textbooks/Modules
 Maps
 Charts
 Posters
 Models
 Overhead Projector
 Power Point Slides
 Computers
 Other Reading Materials

6.9 Preparation of TTLMs

 Facts to stress while preparing TTLMs

Professional quality of learning material stands or fails together with its author
Writing quality learning material is extremely hard work.
 Principles which guide the preparation TTLMs are
30
Outcomes need to be set clear; Contents and learning experiences need to be
divided into closed chapters or learning units, Learning units need to follow the
contents and didactical approach

• The cycle of TTLM development comprises the following 3 stages.

I. Planning
II. Write up
III. Evaluation/Testing and Improving

Planning Phase-1st phase of TTLM Developments

1. Sub-stages of planning
2. Define the learning outcomes (main outcome & sub-outcomes)
3. Structuring the subject into learning units using several ways
 Subject-centered approach
 Student-centered approach
4. Brainstorming
5. Prepare a draft contents outline
6. The selecting appropriate media and technology
7. Reflection about the use of existing learning material
8. Using graphic elements, when designing the learning material

Phase-II write up
• This phase takes only 50% of the time; the other half of the time is used for
preparation and planning
• The following basic structure is applicable to all kinds of TTLMs
• Start,
• Kernel/Core &
• Conclusion

Phase-III: Evaluation/Testing and Improving Stage

• It is the last stage where we give answer to the following questions
– Is it written well?
– Does it require any change?

31
 – Are the students going to be satisfied with such a formation of the
learning material?
• Answers to these questions can be obtained from_
– Administering questionnaire for users
– Critical commentary from professionals/colleagues
– Analyzing feedback from pilot testing

6.10 Writing and evaluating the teaching material

• The writing and evaluating the teaching material passes through the following
steps:
 Step 1: Deciding on the objectives
 Step 2: Including all necessary information
 Step 3: Leaving out unnecessary information
 Step 4: Giving information in the right order
 Step 5: Describe all situations in decision-making
 Step 6: Avoid vague instructions
 Step 7: Structuring the material
 Step 8: Writing simply (word use & sentence construction)
 Step 9: Writing
 Step 10: Evaluating Teaching materials

Exercises
1. What does a curriculum mean?
2. Which of the foundations of vocational education is basic? Why?
3. Which model suits the TVET system well? Why?
4. Which curriculum theorization is suitable for the TVET context? Why?
5. Which perspective to curriculum implementation is suitable for the TVET
landscape? Why?
6. How do you explain the process of linking Occupational Standard with Training
Standard in the Ethiopian TVET system?

32
Self-check questions
[Please put work order for the self-check here]

1. Which level of curriculum involves public stakeholders like politicians and

administrators?
A. Instructional level
B. Experiential level
C. Societal level
D. Institutional level

2. What are the major philosophies influencing curriculum goals and

organization?
A. Sociological Foundations
B. Psychological Foundations
C. Philosophical Foundations
D. Historical Foundations

3. What is the main focus of Curriculum Design?

- A) Classroom management
- B) Structuring educational content and experiences
- C) Student assessment
- D) Teacher training

4. Which of the following is NOT a type of Subject-Centered Curriculum Design?

- A) Separate Subject Design
- B) Correlated Design
- C) Experience-Centered Design
- D) Process Design
5. Which dimension of curriculum design refers to the breadth and depth of its
content?
- A) Scope
- B) Sequence
- C) Continuity
- D) Integration
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6. What does vertical articulation in curriculum design primarily refer to?
- A) Sequencing content from one grade level to another
- B) Association among simultaneous elements
- C) Horizontal relationship of curriculum experiences
- D) Linking all types of knowledge and experiences
7. Which of the following is a characteristic of curriculum models as described in
the text?
a) They account for the complexities of planned and enacted curricula
b) They focus solely on the finished product of learning
c) They are not widely used in curriculum research processes
d) They provide explicit guidelines for content selection
8. Which category of curriculum theorists is primarily focused on research for
theory development?
a) Traditionalists
b) Conceptual empiricists
c) Re-conceptualists/Critical theorists
d) Postmodernists
9. . Which step is NOT part of the curriculum development cycle?
a) Needs assessment b) Curriculum implementation
c) Assessment development d) Student enrolment
10. What is the primary goal of curriculum evaluation?
a) Identifying strengths and weaknesses
b) Selecting learning experiences
c) Conducting staff development
d) Writing curriculum objectives

34
REFERENCE
1. Beauchamp, G. (1975). Curriculum theory. Illinois: The Kagg Press.
2. Derebssa Dufera, (2008). Theoretical and Practical Issues in the
Implementation of the Current Ethiopian School Curriculum. Addis Ababa:
Addis Ababa University.
3. Jackson, P.W. (Ed.). (1992). Handbook of research on curriculum. New York:
Macmillan.
4. Kelly, A. V. (2004) The Curriculum – Theory and Practice (fifth Edition),
London: Sage Publications
5. Laird, D. & Stevenson, J. A (1993). Curriculum development framework for
vocational education. Australian and New Zealand. Journal of Vocational
Education Research, 3, 71-92.
6. Stenhouse, L., (1975), An Introduction to Curriculum Research and
Development. London: Heinemann Educational Books Ltd
7. Tyler, R.W. (1949). Basic principles of curriculum and instruction. Chicago: The
University of Chicago Press.

Sub Themes 2 methodology of teaching

Unit 1 Introduction to Teaching and Learning
Learning Objectives of the Unit:
At the end of this unit, trainees are expected to:
• Conceptualize teaching learning and teaching profession.
• Discuss the role of teachers in the classroom
• Explain the knowledge and skill needs of the teachers.
• Describe the teacher collaboration and principles of effective instruction.
• Identify the foundation of teaching

1.1 The Concept of Teaching in General

Teaching is a multifaceted process that involves the deliberate and systematic

imparting of knowledge, skills, and values from a teacher to learners.
Teaching: Imparting knowledge, skill and information: Giving of instruction
35
Instruction: systematic method furnishing others with knowledge and information
 Design and selection of teaching methods must take into account:
1/ the nature of the subject matter and
2/ how students learn
In recent years the central debate about teaching and learning focused on:
1/ Constructed knowledge
2/ Instructed knowledge
Constructivists believe that:
 An individual can create his / her understanding of the world from firsthand
experience, action and reflection.
 Not from having pre-digested information and skills presented by a teacher and
a textbook
Instructivest believe:
 Direct explicit teaching, particularly for achieving certain goals in education.
 Learners should follow an orderly and sequential manner, practiced and
assessed and review regularly.
Constructivist and instructivist perspectives are represented in two contrasting
approach:
1. Student– focused: deeper conceptual understanding and change in students.
► Minimally guided instruction/progressive method/ learner-centered
2. Teacher – focused: transmission of information and skills from teacher to learner.
 Explicit instruction/ traditional didactics teaching/ teacher centred approach
Constructivism
Constructivism is a theory about human learning. Since the 1990s, constructivism has
been very influential who introduces new learner–centered approaches to teaching.
The underlying principles of constructivism can be traced back to the learning theories
These pioneers stressed the essential role of activity and first-hand experience in
shaping human learning and understanding essential role of activity.

Learning: involves children in hands- on discovery, problem solving, inductive thinking

and reasoning. Learning: occurs to the extent that new information links with the
learner’s prior knowledge and experience.

Direct Teaching
36
In view of learning instructivist believe that direct teaching can be extremely effective.
Direct teaching descriptors/names are:
 Explicit instruction
 Systematic instruction
 Direct instruction (DI)
 Active teaching and
 Teacher- directed approach

1.2 Role of Teachers in the Classroom

A. Role Model for the Students
 Inspire students
 Mold student’s futures
 Influence the lives of students.
 Show students learning are ongoing; life enriching process does not end with
diploma and graduations.
 Teacher can never teach unless he is still learning “A lamp can never light
another lamp unless it continues to burn it’s own flame.”
Knowledge and Skills Teachers Need
 Self-Knowledge
 Knowledge of the Students
 Knowledge of Subject/Course
 Knowledge of How To Use Educational Theory and Research
 Knowledge of How to Integrate Technology Into Teaching
As a teacher you are expected to know how to integrate technology into your teaching
and throughout your teaching to enhance student learning. Teacher Participates in
Teacher Collaboration

The Effective Teacher

What is an effective Teacher?

This question has been asked by every teacher. It is deceptive simple question, for it
has many different answers. Teaching is complex and difficult task that for it has
many different answers. Teaching is complex and difficult task that demands

37
extraordinary abilities after years and years of experience and research. One of the
most important questions in education today still is. What is effective teacher?
The Role Model Definition
A good teacher is a good person, a role model who means the community ideal for
good citizens, good parent, and a good employee. Teachers are expected to be
honest, hardworking, generous, friendly, and considerate, and to demonstrate these
qualities in their class room by being organized, discipline, insightful and committed.
Practically speaking, this means that to be effective, a new teacher must have King
Solomon Wisdom, Sigmund Freud’s insight, Albert Einstein’s knowledge, and
Florence Nightingale’s dedication.
Foundations of Teaching

B. Importance of Philosophy to Teachers

Understanding the philosophical idea that has shaped education is an important part
of education as professional. To understand will enable the teacher to think clearly
what you are doing, and to see what you are doing in the larger context of individual
and social development.
Nature of Philosophy
Philosophy is concerned with identifying the basic truths about being, knowledge and
conduct. Philosophy may be literally translated from original

What determines your Educational Philosophy?

In simplest term your educational philosophy consists on what you believe about
education - the set of principles that guide your professional action.
i. Beliefs about teaching and learning
Answers the questions what will be the teacher’s primary role, will it be to transmit
knowledge to the students, or to guide their practice as they develop skills in using
their knowledge
ii. Beliefs about the students
Teacher’s belief about students will have a great influence on how to teach. Every
teacher formulates an image in his/ her mind about the students are like – their
disposition, skills, motivation level, and expectations.
38
 iii. Beliefs about knowledge
How teachers view knowledge is directly related to how they go about teaching.
iv. Beliefs about what is worth knowing
Teachers have different ideas about what to should be taught. One teacher, who
tends to prefer transmission view of teaching, believes it is most important that
students learn the basic skills of reading, writing, computation, and oral
communication. These are the skills they will need to be successful in their chosen
occupation. It is the school responsibility to prepare the students to the world of work.

At its core, teaching encompasses the following key elements:

- Instructional Design: Teachers plan and organize learning experiences to achieve

specific educational objectives. This includes selecting appropriate content, designing
learning activities, and assessing student progress.

-Facilitation of Learning: Teachers play a crucial role in guiding and supporting

students as they engage with the learning materials and activities. This involves
providing explanations, clarifications, and feedback to promote understanding and
mastery.

-Assessment and Feedback: Teachers assess student learning through various

methods such as tests, quizzes, projects, and observations. They provide timely and
constructive feedback to help students identify areas for improvement and reinforce
their strengths.

-Creating a Positive Learning Environment: Effective teaching involves creating a

supportive and inclusive learning environment where students feel motivated, valued,
and encouraged to participate actively in their learning journey.

1.3 Some Basic Principles of Effective Teaching

Effective teaching is guided by several principles that contribute to meaningful and

impactful learning experiences for students:

39
-Clarity: Clear communication of learning objectives, expectations, and instructions
helps students understand what is expected of them and how they can succeed.

-Engagement: Interactive and participatory learning activities enhance student

engagement and promote active learning. Encouraging discussions, group work, and
hands-on experiences can foster deeper understanding and retention of knowledge.

-Relevance: Connecting learning materials to real-life situations or students' interests

can increase motivation and relevance, making learning more meaningful and
memorable.

-Assessment for Learning: Regular assessment and feedback mechanisms allow

teachers to monitor student progress, identify areas of improvement, and adjust
instruction accordingly to meet individual learning needs.

1.4 Effective Learning Methods in Vocational Education

In vocational education, where the focus is on developing practical skills and

preparing students for specific careers or industries, effective learning methods
include:

Hands-on Training: Providing opportunities for students to practice and apply skills
in real or simulated work environments. This can include apprenticeships, internships,
lab sessions, or workshops.
Simulation: Creating realistic scenarios or simulations that mimic workplace
challenges and tasks. This allows students to develop problem-solving skills,
decision-making abilities, and confidence in their abilities.
Project-Based Learning: Engaging students in projects or tasks that require them to
apply their knowledge and skills to solve real-world problems or create tangible
outcomes. This promotes collaboration, critical thinking, and creativity.
Technology Integration: Leveraging technology tools and resources such as virtual
reality, online simulations, and interactive software to enhance learning experiences
and provide access to industry-relevant tools and practices.

40
1.5 Teaching Profession
The teaching profession is characterized by a set of responsibilities, skills, and ethical
considerations that contribute to effective teaching and positive student outcomes:
Professional Knowledge: Teachers are expected to possess subject matter
expertise, pedagogical knowledge, and an understanding of diverse learning needs
and styles.
Instructional Planning: Teachers plan and prepare lessons, activities, and
assessments that align with curriculum standards and learning objectives. They adapt
instructional strategies to meet the needs of individual students and diverse learner
groups.
Classroom Management: Creating a conducive learning environment involves
managing classroom dynamics, fostering positive relationships, promoting discipline
and respect, and addressing behavior issues effectively.
Continuous Professional Development: Teachers engage in ongoing learning,
reflection, and professional growth to stay updated with best practices, innovations in
education, and advancements in their field of expertise.
Ethical Practices: Teachers uphold ethical standards, integrity, and professionalism
in their interactions with students, colleagues, parents, and the broader community.
They prioritize student well-being, safety, and inclusivity in their teaching practices.

Unit 2: Perspectives on Instructional Decision Making

Learning Objectives of the Unit:
At the end of this unit, trainees are expected to:
• Discuss the Humanistic approach to learning and teaching.
• Explain the Constructivist approach learning and teaching.
• Illustrate the behavioral approach to learning and teaching
• Understand developmental Perspective
• Identify Cognitive and Affective Perspective

2.1. HUMANISTIC APPROACH / PERSPECTIVE

Humanistic perspective is taken from the theory of Gestalt, Abraham Maslow’s theory
and Carl Rogers’ theory. While the Gestalt theory assumes that learning can be
explained in terms of the wholeness of the problem, the environment is changing and
41
the learner is continuously reorganizing his or her perceptions, Abraham Maslow’s
theory considers the importance of taking in to account human needs for self-
actualizing in teaching learners. Carl Rogers’ theory focuses on non-directive lives of
a person so that learners should be considered given chance to learn freely in line
with their wishes to arrive at solution for life problem instead of directing them in pre-
designed lesson to come to solution of problems.

This group of psychologists is concerned with the development of human potential. In

this perspective, education is taken as the process, not the product; focuses on
personal needs, not on the subject matter; and clarifying psychological meanings and
environmental situations. In short, the education views founded on humanistic
perspective assumes that learners are human beings who are affected by their
biology, culture, and environment. They are neither machines nor animals and their
motivation, needs, other inner states should considered in the process of teaching
and learning.

Therefore, the theorists in this perspective believe that a more advanced and
comprehensive education must be crafted along this line to promote human potential.
Teachers don’t only educate the minds, but the hearts as well- use of value-laden
lessons, or after discussing the lesson, the teacher must introduce some values
(virtues) that can be deduced from the topic.
Thus, the humanistic perspective is the view that is concerned with how learners can
develop their human potential. As a result, in the humanistic perspective context, the
‘affective’ issues are give emphasis.

2.2 Developmental Perspective

The developmental perspective in instructional decision-making focuses on

understanding how learners' cognitive, emotional, and social development stages
influence their learning processes. Key considerations include:

- Age-Appropriate Instruction: Tailoring teaching methods, materials, and activities

to align with students' developmental stages and abilities.

42
For example:- using concrete manipulatives for young learners and abstract
concepts for older students.

Cognitive Development: Recognizing the cognitive milestones and abilities of

learners at different ages and stages. This informs instructional strategies that support
cognitive growth, critical thinking, and problem-solving skills.

Social and Emotional Development: Addressing students' social and emotional

needs by creating a supportive and inclusive classroom environment. This involves
promoting positive relationships, empathy, self-regulation, and resilience.

2.3 Cognitive Perspective

The cognitive perspective in instructional decision-making focuses on cognitive

processes such as attention, memory, comprehension, and problem-solving.
Key considerations include:

Cognitive Load Theory: Understanding how the amount and complexity of

information presented to learners affect their learning outcomes balancing cognitive
load by providing scaffolded instruction and breaking down complex concepts into
manageable chunks.

Metacognition: Promoting metacognitive awareness and strategies that help

students monitor, regulate, and evaluate their learning. This includes teaching self-
assessment techniques, reflection, goal-setting, and study skills.

Learning Styles: Recognizing individual differences in learning styles and

preferences (e.g., visual, auditory, kinesthetic) and incorporating varied instructional
methods to accommodate diverse learners.

2.4 Behavioral Perspective

43
The behavioral perspective in instructional decision-making focuses on observable
behaviors, reinforcement, and conditioning processes that influence learning
outcomes.
Key considerations include:
Operant Conditioning: Using reinforcement, rewards, and consequences to shape
desired behaviors and learning outcomes. This includes positive reinforcement for
desired behaviors and corrective feedback for errors.

Behavior Modification: Applying behaviorist principles to modify behaviors, habits,

and attitudes through systematic interventions, feedback, and practice. This may
involve behavior contracts, token economies, or behavior charts.
Behavior Management: Implementing strategies to promote positive behaviors,
reduce disruptive behaviors, and create a conducive learning environment. This
includes establishing clear expectations, routines, and consequences.

2.5 Affective Issues

Affective issues in instructional decision-making encompass emotions, attitudes,

motivation, and socio-emotional aspects of learning.
Key considerations include:

-Emotional Climate: Creating a positive, supportive, and inclusive classroom climate

that fosters emotional well-being, trust, and belongingness. This involves
acknowledging and validating students' feelings, experiences, and perspectives.

-Motivation: Understanding intrinsic and extrinsic factors that influence students'

motivation to learn using motivational strategies such as goal-setting, relevance,
autonomy, mastery, and recognition to enhance engagement and persistence.

-Social and Cultural Factors: Considering the impact of social, cultural, and
environmental factors on students' attitudes, beliefs, and values. Promoting diversity,
equity, inclusion, and cultural responsiveness in teaching practices and curriculum
design.

44
These perspectives on instructional decision-making provide educators with valuable
frameworks and strategies to design, implement, and evaluate effective teaching and
learning experiences that meet the diverse needs of learners

Unit 3: Types of Training Methods and Techniques

Learning Objectives of the Unit:
At the end of this unit, trainees are expected to:
• Identify the methods appropriate for training situations.
• Identify the advantages and disadvantages of each training methods.
• Explain the application of each training method.

3. Types of Training Methods and Techniques

3.1 Training Methods
One of the aspects which must be considered when designing a training course is the
way it is intended to convey the information to the group of learners. There are a
variety of different training methods available to choose from and selecting the most
appropriate one can make a substantial difference to the reception of your training
message and the length of time it is retained after the course is completed.

3.2 Necessity of Variety of Training Methods

The diversity of training methods is essential for several reasons:

-Catering to Learning Styles: Different learners have varied preferences and learning
styles (visual, auditory, kinesthetic), requiring a mix of methods to accommodate
diverse needs.
-Enhancing Engagement: Variety keeps training sessions interesting and engaging,
preventing monotony and promoting active participation.
-Addressing Content Complexity: Some topics may be better suited for certain
methods (e.g., hands-on training for technical skills, case studies for complex
problem-solving).
-Maximizing Learning Outcomes: Using a combination of methods enhances
understanding, retention, and application of knowledge and skills.

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3.2 Appropriate Method Selecting Criteria

Some of the factors that will influence the choice of training method selected might
include(Leigh,2006):
1/ Course objectives 2/ Equipment needed
3/ Time available 4/ Degree of participation expected
5/ Participant’s level of understanding 6/ Facilities available
7/ Any previous experience 8/ Size of group
9/ Financial resources available
It is also worth emphasizing that there is no rule that states that the trainer should use
only one training method for the duration of the course. Using a variety of techniques
not only increases the group’s attention span but it will frequently reflect the working
reality where a combination of different approaches might be needed.

3.3 Nature of Training Methods

Training methods vary in their nature and effectiveness based on factors such as:

- Interactivity: Some methods are more interactive and participatory, promoting

engagement and active learning.
- Flexibility: Methods can range from structured and formal (e.g., lectures) to
informal and flexible (e.g., group discussions).
- Application: Methods differ in their focus on theoretical understanding versus
practical application of skills.
- Technology Integration: Modern training methods often incorporate technology
tools such as e-learning platforms, simulations, and virtual reality.

3.3 1 application of different training method

Based on this fact, we shall examine the description, the advantages, disadvantage
and application of each training method as follows:

I. Presentation (or lecture)

Description
46
A presentation or lecture is a structured talk given by a trainer or speaker to an
audience. Traditionally this might have been referred to as a ‘lecture’, but today the
term is changed to be called ‘verbal input’ or ‘presentation’
Types of lecture methods
a. Formal (Unmodified): This is characterized by the lack of discussion or
interaction in between the teacher and the students. The teacher lectures
continuously for a long time being uninterrupted.
b. Informal (Modified): Takes into account the participation of students like
asking giving suggestions and answering to questions. Here, there is an
interruption. It is possible to use such an approach in the lower grades together
with other methods.
Approach
When preparing a talk or presentation, it is better to consider your audience as well as
an expert in your subject. The skills required to do this are mainly those needed to
become known speaker in any area:
1. Discover the needs of your audience
Find out in advance exactly what it is that the group needs to know. This is not as
easy to achieve in practice as it might first seem
2. Highlight the benefits
Merely ascertaining what the group needs to know will not ensure that on completing
the course the group will have grasped these factors.
3. Check the level of understanding
No matter how great the need and desire to learn, people cannot learn what they
can’t understand. To check understanding means that the trainer must take account
of two elements.
Advantages of the presentation method
1. Ideal for large groups
2. Economical
The ability to present to a large group of people also makes this a very economical
method of instruction.
3. Material is covered in a structured manner
4. Control of material
5. Greater control of time
Disadvantages of the presentation method
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1. Passive approach
2. No feedback
3. Demanding

II. Role plays

Description
Role play is a means of extending participants’ experience by presenting them with a
commonly encountered situation and asking them to place themselves in the position
of the people involved (the role) and then act out the way in which the circumstances
might reach an appropriate conclusion (the play).
Advantages of role play
1. Memorable
‘Learning by doing’ is one of the most effective means of learning and experiences
gained first-hand are remembered clearly and for longer.
2. Enjoyable
3. Creates understanding
4. Low-risk environment
Disadvantages of role play
1. Can be artificial
2. Taken playfully
3. Element of risk
III. Case study
Description
The use of case studies as a means of training has become increasingly popular in
recent years. In most case studies the trainees will be presented with a record of a set
of circumstances which might be based on an actual event situation.
Approach:
There are three main categories of case study:
1. Those asking the participants to diagnose a particular problem.
2. Those which identify the problem or problems but require the learner to
recommend methods of resolving these difficulties.
Advantages of case study
1. Make real
2. Minimizes pressure
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3. Encourages communication
Disadvantages of case study
1. Could mislead
2. Inconclusive
3. Credibility

V. Discussion
Description:- A free verbal exchange of knowledge, ideas or opinions between
trainer and learners.
Approach
A discussion for instructional purposes can be differentiated from a social
conversation by the fact that a conversation usually covers a range of topics and has
no boundaries or structure. Discussions on the other hand, tend to be limited to one
aspect or topic and have a degree of order about them. As it is important that
everyone should air their views and consider those of others, interruptions become
less acceptable.
Advantages of discussion
1. Monitors understanding
2. Gains commitment
3. Interactive
Disadvantages of discussion
1. Deviating from the topic
2. Dependent on the group
3. Show firm position

VI. Demonstration method

A demonstration is an illustrated lecture or presentation that requires you to carry out
a process step-by-step or series of actions so that trainees can observe and
understand the procedure, principle or phenomenon.
Advantages of demonstration
 You can appeal to trainees' verbal and visual modes of learning.
 You can stimulate trainees' interest
 You can give trainees an expert model to follow
 You can give the trainees a chance to try the process under your supervision.
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  You can use the real object or model of the real object.
Disadvantages of demonstration
 A demonstration should be accurate, and therefore you must prepare and
organize it very carefully.
 It can be difficult for all trainees to see your demonstration well. You must limit
a demonstration to small groups.
VIII. Exercise method
Exercises provide trainees with an opportunity to practice new skills that have been
taught by another training method or to reinforce knowledge and skills that have been
gained. Printed materials in the form of worksheets are commonly used.
Advantages of exercises
 Exercise help trainees remember what they have learned
 Exercises allow trainees to practice new skills in a controlled environment
 Trainees are actively involved in the learning process
 Trainees may also learn other skills in the process of doing exercises
Disadvantages of exercise method
 You may have to spend extensive preparation time developing good exercises
 It may be difficult for you to tailor exercises to meet all trainees' needs
 Completing worksheets can take a lot of your training time
 Trainees complete the exercises at different paces
IX. Field visit/study tours
One of the most practical and efficient methods of teaching is to encourage students
to learn by doing. And while it is certainly not impossible to use this method in a
classroom setting, field trips can provide an unparalleled opportunity for students in
almost any discipline to engage in some form of active learning. In the field, students
are challenged to apply abstract concepts discussed in class to examples in real life.
Advantages of field visit method
 Field visits provide trainees with an opportunity to see and experience things
that cannot be duplicated in the classrooms. Trainees get to use all their
senses (seeing, hearing, smelling, touching, and tasting) as they learn
 Field visits/study tours provide variety and a change of pace for trainees. They
get both you and the trainees out of the routine of the class and the laboratory.
 Field visits/study tours provide the trainees with a common frame of reference.
All trainees know exactly what is meant when the topic or location is discussed
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  Field visits/study tours can provide trainees with an opportunity to see how
what they are learning can be used in real life
Disadvantages of field visits/study tours
 Effective field visits/study tours require care and time consuming planning
 If you don't control the field visits/study tours, it can be viewed as a waste of
time and not a learning activity
 All trainees might not get the same learning experience
 You can lose direct control over the learning experience if it is not properly
organized
X . ICT Method
This is simply allowing the students to use computers to either complete an activity or
to find information. You may give them an internet search as an activity. Or you may
design resource materials for you class, with an assignment and put it on the
university network so they can complete it.

3.4 Method of Training for TVET System: Their Effectiveness

In the Technical and Vocational Education and Training (TVET) system, effective
training methods include:

o Practical Workshops: Hands-on training in workshops or labs to develop

technical skills.
o Apprenticeships: On-the-job training under experienced professionals to gain
practical experience.
o Simulations: Virtual simulations to replicate real-world scenarios and practice
skills in a safe environment.
o E-Learning: Online platforms and courses that offer flexibility and accessibility for
self-paced learning.
o Industry Partnerships: Collaborating with industry partners for real-world
projects, internships, and job placements.

Evaluate the effectiveness of these methods based on factors such as learner

engagement, skill acquisition, job readiness, and industry relevance.

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 Unit 4: Classroom Management
Learning Objectives of the Unit:
At the end of this unit, trainees are expected to:
• Identify the technique how to manage classroom so that the learning
environment is fair to all trainees
• Analyze a classroom management technique to determine its impact on
trainees' learning
• Establish a classroom environment that rewards appropriate behavior and
deters inappropriate behavior
• Distinguish how classroom arrangement and trainer observation affect
trainee learning and behavior

4. Classroom Management
4.1 Definition of Classroom Management

Classroom management is the art of carefully preparing, presenting, disciplining and

controlling class activities.
Students are composed of diversified attitude, values, maturity, age, family
background, etc. Thus the teacher is highly expected to manage such varieties of
behaviors.
Classroom management is also defined as the methods and strategies an educator
uses to maintain a classroom environment that is conducive to student success and
learning. Although there are many pedagogical strategies involved in managing a
classroom, a common denominator is making sure that students feel they are in an
environment that allows them to achieve.

4.2 Goals of Classroom Management

Classroom management aims to create a positive, productive, and conducive learning

environment by:

 Establishing a sense of order, structure, and predictability in the classroom.

52
  Fostering a positive and respectful classroom climate that promotes student
engagement and participation.
 Managing behavior effectively to minimize disruptions and maximize learning
opportunities.
 Promoting collaboration, communication, and mutual respect among students
and between students and teachers.

4.3 Classroom Management Models

4.3.1 Approaches to Classroom Management

The teacher’s personality, philosophy, and teaching style will directly affect his/her
managerial and disciplinary approach. There are different approaches to class
management, all based on a mixture of psychology, classroom experience and
common sense.
. Some of them are listed below.
1. The Assertive Approach: This approach expects teachers to specify rules of
behavior and consequences of misbehaving or disobeying and communicate them to
the students clearly. Teachers hold students accountable for their actions.
2. The Behavior Modification Approach: Such an approach involves a variety of
techniques and methods, ranging from simple rewards to elaborate reinforcement
training
The basic principles are:
 Behavior is shaped by its sequences not by the causes of the problems;
 Behavior is strengthened by immediate reinforces;
 Students respond better to positive reinforces than to punishment.
3. The Group Managerial Approach: This emphasizes on the importance of
responding immediately to group behavior among students that may be inappropriate
or undesirable in order to prevent problems rather than having to deal with problems
after they emerge.
4. Responsive Classroom: Emphasizing social-emotional learning, community-
building, and cooperation.
5. Montessori Method: Student-centered approach with self-directed learning and
individualized instruction.

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 4.4 General Principles for Using Classroom Management Strategies

Effective classroom management strategies are guided by principles such as:

- Consistency: Enforcing rules and expectations consistently to establish a
predictable learning environment.
- Clear Communication: Communicating expectations, instructions, and
feedback clearly and effectively.
- Positive Reinforcement: Recognizing and reinforcing desired behaviors and
achievements to motivate students.
- Fairness: Treating all students fairly and respectfully, addressing conflicts and
disciplinary issues impartially.
- Flexibility: Adapting strategies and approaches to meet individual student
needs and classroom dynamics.

4.5 Effective Classroom Management

Effective class managers make use of one or a combination of the approaches
mentioned above. They have a well-planned and relevant lesson which they
encourage students to take seriously, who make it clear what the class rules are and
teach disciplinary skills with as much care as they teach academic skills, who realize
what kind of things stimulate student attention, and who know and enjoy each one of
their students. Being an effective class manager is not a talent, which some people
just have, and others do not – it is a set of skills and an attitude learned though
patience and practice. There are a number of things we know about effective class
managers. For instance, effective managers have a workable system of rules and
procedures which the students follow and do not ‘turn them loose’ without careful
directions. They do not appear to treat inappropriate behavior differently from the less
effective managers, but they stop it sooner.

4.5.1 Managing the Classroom Environment

Managing the physical and social-emotional aspects of the classroom environment

involves:
 Seating Arrangement: Arranging seating to facilitate interaction, focus, and
classroom dynamics.
54
 Resource Organization: Organizing materials, resources, and technology for easy
access and use.
 Classroom Culture: Cultivating a positive and inclusive classroom culture that
values diversity, collaboration, and respect.
 Classroom Routines: Establishing routines and procedures for transitions,
activities, and behavioral expectations.
 Conflict Resolution: Addressing conflicts, disagreements, and disciplinary issues
promptly and constructively.

Examples of effective classroom management practices include establishing clear

rules, implementing routines, using positive reinforcement, fostering a sense of
community, and addressing behavioral issues proactively and respectfully.

4.5.2 Principles of Class Discipline

Here are some principles that may help the teacher under the concept discipline
clearly.
Principle 1: the aims of education and class discipline are the same: to help students
become self-directing people.
Principle 2: Discipline should be dynamic, helping students to channel their energies
towards learning goals.
Principle 3: Discipline is inseparable from teaching.
Principle 4: Discipline should change with the learners’ stage of development and
help them move to the next stage.
Principle 5: Behavior is determined by rational demands of the specific situations.
Principle 6: teaching effectiveness, as perceived by learners, gives the teacher
classroom authority.
Principle 7: Discipline is the ability to attend to a task.
Principle 8: No matter what the classroom design or how learners are organized for
instruction, the principle for effective teaching and discipline apply.
Principle 9: By identifying and dealing effectively with the factors under their control
and influence, teachers can, in most cases, tip the balance in favour of discipline.
Principle 10: principle of redirection: Socialization requires the redirection of
destructive behavior into socially useful behavior.
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Principle 11: Principle of agreement: ways of dealing with misbehavior should be in
agreement with developmental goals.
Principle 12: Basic disciple can be achieved only when basic needs, such as food
and safety, are met. Schools should recognize that all students need to be valued and
respected as people which they need to have some measure of control over their
lives and activities, in school and out.

4.5.3 Leadership Styles

Teaching style is viewed as a broad dimension or personality type that encompasses

teacher stances, pattern of behavior, mode of performance, and attitude toward
oneself and others. It also refers to the choice of instructional activities and materials
and methods of involving the students in the process of instruction. A teacher and
his/her students communicate under three types of teaching styles. There are:
o Visual: charts, demonstrations and other things that can affect the sight of the
learners assist learners;
o Auditory: learners are assonated by explanations of what is to come
next.Brainstorming, questioning, and debriefing allow students to make links
between what they have acquired; and
o Kinesthetic: the learners do their best when they touch and move. They show
fewer tendencies to learn if there is little or no external stimulation or
movement.
6.5 Major Causes for Classroom Misbehavior
There are two major causes for classroom misbehavior:

4.5.4 Teacher-Related Problems

Teachers can be sources for classroom misbehavior in the following aspects:
 Poor preparation;
 Ineffective style of presentation;
 Poor handling of questions;
 Nagging;
 Hasty judgment;
 Overreacting;

56
  Lowering academic marks;
 Corporal punishment, etc.

4.5.5 Students-Related problems

Some of the aspects at which students can be cause for classroom misbehavior are
mentioned below:
 Cheating;
 Lack of clear rules;
 Unclear instruction;
 Not doing assignments, home works, etc;
 Coming late;
 Quarrelling each other;
 Breaking rules and regulations;
 Changing Seats without permission, etc.

UNIT 5: Formulate a Planning for Training Session

Learning Objectives of the Unit:
At the end of this unit, trainees are expected to:
• Discuss what is session plan and its uses.
• Discuss the modality of training.
• Explain the development process of curriculum.
• Prepare a module of instruction.

5. Instructional Planning

5.1 Session Plan

It is a set of notes in logical order for the trainer to follow and ensure that the
objectives set for the session are met.
It is a tool for trainers to ensure that they head towards the objective(s) of the session.
It is also a checklist of the resources required for the lesson.
It is a blueprint that identifies the basic 5Ws (who, what, where, when and why).

5.1.1 Uses of Session Plan to Trainers/Teachers

57
 • Gives the trainers and learners clear idea of where they are, where they are
going and what they are doing; Trainee/learner
• Records the training sessions that the trainers have completed;
• Gives the trainers a starting point if they have to do the training again with
another learner or group of learners;
• Give the trainers a firm base to review their performance

5.1.2 Merits of an instructional plan

 Helps ensure subject mastery;
 Enables to select appropriate instructional methods;
 Develops more confidence;
 Enables to use different instructional media;
 Realizes wise usage of time;
 Fixes the direction of teaching-learning process;
 Helps avoid needles repetition;
 Gives outline to follow as one teaches a lesson;
 Enables to anticipate the implementation of activities;
 Assures the attainability of instructional objectives, etc.

Major criteria that a quality lesson plan should fit

• Objectivity: denotes that a session plan
• Logical Sequence: plan should be arranged in logical order. proceed from
simple to difficult, etc.
• Flexibility: plan should be open to make necessary amendments
• Comprehensiveness: a session plan should include the major elements such
as objectives, contents, methods, media, time, activities, evaluation
mechanisms, etc.
• Clarity and Simplicity: an instructional plan should be written in clear and
simple languages.

5.2 Fundamental Questions of Instructional (session) Planning

Why to teach? Understanding the objectives to be achieved
What to teach? Knowing and mastering the contents
58
How to teach? Selection of appropriate methods
Whom to teach? Refers to the identification of the learnersand background of the
learners
When to teach? Knowing the solid number of working days and total allotted periods
for the subject
How much to teach? Which refers is to making decision on the amount of contents
and activities within the given time
Where to teach? Understanding the environment such as climate, location of the
school and out of the school

A training session plan includes:

-Objectives: Clearly defined learning objectives aligned with desired outcomes.
-Agenda: Structured outline of topics, activities, and timings.
-Materials: Resources, tools, and materials needed for the session.
-Activities Engaging learning activities, exercises, and discussions.
-Assessment: Methods for assessing learner progress and understanding.
-Feedback: Opportunities for feedback, reflection, and evaluation.

5.3 Types of Instructional plan

• Annual lesson Plan;
• Semester plan;
• Unit plan;
• Course plan;
• Periodic (daily) plan

5.3.1 Daily instructional plan

 The daily instructional plan is on the basis of the syllabus he/she has set. It
instructor does within classroom instruction for a single or double period(s). In
a daily instructional planning, the teacher:
 fixes the instructional objectives:
 The objectives are to be written by using action verbs of specific nature. They
need to be SMART; i.e. Specific, Measurable, Achievable, Realistic and Time-
bound. All objectives need to combine at least the behavior and content with
or without a context.
59
  Fixes concrete contents by considering the time available and didactic
elements (introduction, presentation, stabilization and evaluation)
 Fixes the methodological – organizational arrangement; the roles of the
teacher can be easily observable.
 Fixes the teaching aids to make the lesson clear;
 Sets the evaluation mechanisms.
5.4 Guidelines for Writing Instructional Objectives
 Objectives should be stated in terms of students’ performance;
 Objectives should be written in term of the learning outcome not in terms of the
learning process;
 Statements of objectives should be an amalgamation of subject matter and
desired behavior;
 Avoid the use of the more than one objective in one statement

5.4.1 General Objectives: are used in preparing the annual plan.

We use some of the following action verbs:
• To know, understand, comprehend, devote, grasp, enjoy, appreciate, have
faith in, believe in, admire, develop, be familiar with, be aware of, acquire, etc.
Examples: at the end of this unit, the students will be able to know the different
software and hardware parts of the computers

5.4.2 Specific Objectives: are used in preparing periodic lesson plan.

Some of the action verbs used here are listed below:
• To compare, design, infer, identify, differentiate, construct, write, debate,
define, solve, select, evaluate, draft, change, list, arrange, practice, locate,
match, plan, separate, draw, measure, express, perform, calculate, explain, etc
• Examples: at the end of this lesson, the students will be able to explain one
method of teaching.

UNIT 6: Introduction to Bloom’s Taxonomy

Learning Objectives of the Unit:
At the end of this unit, trainees are expected to:
• Identify the levels of the cognitive,
• Identify the levels of affective domains and
60
• Identify the levels of psychomotor
• Apply taxonomies to prepare lesson plan
• Write performance objectives

6. Three type of domain

6.1 Cognitive Domain
The cognitive domain of Bloom's Taxonomy focuses on intellectual skills and
knowledge acquisition. It includes levels such as:
- Remembering: Recall facts, information, and concepts.
- Understanding: Comprehend and interpret information.
- Applying: Apply knowledge and skills in new situations.
- Analyzing: Break down information into parts and analyze relationships.
- Evaluating: Make judgments and assess the value or quality of ideas or materials.
- Creating: Generate new ideas, products, or solutions based on existing knowledge.

6.2.The Affective Domain

The affective domain of Bloom's Taxonomy deals with emotions, attitudes, values,
and beliefs. It includes levels such as:
- Receiving: Being open to new ideas, information, and experiences.
- Responding: Showing interest, participation, and engagement.
- Valuing: Internalizing values, beliefs, and attitudes.
- Organizing: Organizing values into a coherent system and prioritizing them.
- Characterizing: Demonstrating behaviors consistent with internalized values and
beliefs.

6.3.Psychomotor Domain
The psychomotor domain of Bloom's Taxonomy involves physical skills, coordination,
and motor abilities. It includes levels such as:
- Perception: Sensory awareness and interpretation of stimuli.
- Set: Mental, physical, and emotional readiness to perform.
- Guided Response: Following instructions and imitating actions.
- Mechanism: Performing skills with precision and control.
- Complex Overt Response: Coordination of multiple skills to achieve a goal.
- Adaptation: Adjusting skills based on changing conditions.
61
- Origination: Creating new movements or solutions independently.

6.4.Using Taxonomies as Planning Tools

Taxonomies such as Bloom's can be used as planning tools by:
-Setting Learning Objectives: Aligning objectives with specific levels of the taxonomy
to target desired outcomes.
-Designing Assessments: Creating assessments that measure learners' progress
across different cognitive, affective, or psychomotor levels.
-Developing Instructional Strategies: Selecting teaching methods and activities that
scaffold learning and promote skill development at various levels.
-Evaluating Learning: Assessing whether learners have achieved intended learning
outcomes based on taxonomy levels.

6.5.Using Objectives to Guide Learners

Clear objectives help guide learners by:
-Communicating Expectations: Informing learners about what they will achieve or
learn.
-Providing Focus: Directing attention to key concepts, skills, or behaviors.
-Facilitating Assessment: Serving as criteria for evaluating learning outcomes.
-Motivating Learners: Setting achievable goals that motivate learners to engage and
succeed.

6.6.Writing Performance Objectives

Writing performance objectives involves:
- Identifying Action Verbs: Using specific, observable verbs that describe what
learners will do (e.g., analyze, demonstrate, create).
- Stating Conditions: Describing the context or conditions under which the action
will occur (e.g., given a scenario, using provided resources).
- Specifying Criteria: Defining criteria for success or achievement (e.g., accuracy,
completeness, timeliness).

Exercises
1. What are some of the teaching practices used by effective teacher?
2. What is the purpose of using a variety of training methods and techniques?
62
 3. Discuss the advantages and disadvantages of using demonstration methods
as a training method?
4. Define teaching in your own words and explain the characteristics of effective
teaching.
5. Develop a session plan for a practical vocational training session, outlining the
objectives, activities, and assessment methods.
6. Compare and contrast the cognitive perspective with other instructional
approaches in terms of promoting deeper understanding and critical thinking
skills.
7. List three different training methods suitable for teaching practical skills in
vocational education.
8. Explain the concept and the importance of TTLM?
9. Explain the relationship between TVET programs and Occupations Standards?
10. Identify the methods appropriate for vocational training situations:
A. Case studies
B. Role-playing
C. Simulation exercises
D. On-the-job training
E. Group discussions

Self-check questions
[Please put work order for the self-check here]

1. Which training method is characterized by passive listening with minimal audience

involvement?
a. Presentation (or lecture)
b. Role plays
c. Case study
d. Brainstorming
2. What is the main advantage of using the reading method for training?
a. It encourages creativity.
63
 b. It saves time.
c. It promotes communication.
d. It provides memorable experiences.
3. What are the characteristics of effective teaching?
a) Creativity and innovation
b) Clear communication and engagement
c) Adaptability and flexibility
d) All of the above
4. Which perspective on instructional decision making focuses on observable
behaviors and reinforcement?
a) Developmental perspective
b) Behavioral perspective
c) Cognitive perspective
d) Affective perspective
5. How can a trainer establish a classroom environment that rewards appropriate
behavior?
a) By implementing strict disciplinary actions
b) By ignoring both positive and negative behaviors
c) By providing positive reinforcement for desired behaviors
d) By excluding disruptive students from the class
6. What is the importance of classroom arrangement in managing the learning
environment?
a) It has no impact on student behavior
b) It can enhance or hinder student engagement and participation
c) It is solely the responsibility of the students to arrange the classroom
d) It does not affect the trainer's ability to observe student learning
7. Which of the following training methods would be most suitable for teaching
practical skills in vocational education?
a) Hands-on training
b) Lecture-based instruction
c) Online modules
d) Role-playing activities
8. How does assessment contribute to the teaching and learning process?
a) Assessment hinders students' progress and motivation.
64
 b) Assessment provides feedback for improvement and informs
instruction.
c) Assessment is only beneficial for high-achieving students.
d) Assessment has no impact on student learning outcomes.
9 When designing an assessment task, what is a key consideration to ensure its
effectiveness?
a) Making the task overly complex to challenge students
b) Aligning the task with learning objectives and outcomes
c) Including irrelevant questions to test students' knowledge
d) Using a standardized template for all assessment tasks
10 When evaluating the impact of a classroom management technique, what is an
important factor to consider?
a) Trainer's personal preferences
b) Trainees' feedback and reactions
c) Length of the training session
d) Popularity of the technique among other trainer

References

Arends, R.(2012). Learning to Teach(9th Ed.) New York: McGraw Hill Companies, Inc.
Baofu,P.(2011) The Future of Post-Human Education A Preface to a New Theory of
Teaching and Learning. Cambridge: Cambridge International Science
Publishing.
Bernstein,D., Penner,L., Clarke-Stewart,A. & Roy, E.(2006). Psychology.7 th ed.
Boston: Houghton Mifflin Company.
Cohen,L., Manion,L., Morrison,K., and Wyse,D.(2010) Aguide to teaching practice(5th
Ed.).London; Routledge.

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Crawford,A., Saul,E., Mathews,S. & Makinster,J.(2005).Teaching and learning
strategies for the thinking classroom. New York: Open Society Institute.
Ellis,D.(2009). From Master trainee to master employee.2nded. Boston: Houghton
Mifflin Harcourt publishing company.
Hayes,D.(2011)Encyclopedia of primary education. London: Routledge
Killen,R.(2013). Effective Teaching Strategies: Lessons from Research and
practices(6th
Ed.). South Melbourne: CENGAGE Learning.
Monteiro,A.(2015). The Teaching Profession: Present and Future. New York:
Springer.
Ornstein, A., Levine, D., Gutek,G., & Vocke,D. (2014). Foundation of Education(12 th
Ed.). New York: WADSWORTH CENGAGE learning.
Wiggins, G., & J. McTighe. (2005). Understanding by Design, Expanded (2nd ed.).
Alexandria, VA: Association for Supervision and Curriculum
Development.
Woolfolk,A.(2010).Educational Psychology. (11th Ed.) New Jersey: Pearson
Education,Inc.
UNDP Ethiopia (No 1/2015), Development brief; Prospects of Public-Private
Partnership in Ethiopia.
MoSHE - Ministry of Science and Higher Education (2020), Ethiopian TVET and
Policy and Strategy, Addis Ababa.
Nathan Associates (2017), Economic and Private Sector Professional Evidence and
Applied Knowledge Services. Public-Private Partnerships a Basic
Introduction for Non-Specialists.

Chapter One: Introduction to Educational Psychology

Learning Objectives
After the end of this chapter, the trainees are expected to:
 LO1: Define educational psychology, growth, maturation, learning and development,
motivation, individual difference.
 LO2: Explain the scope (focus areas) of educational psychology.
 LO3: Discuss the importance of educational psychology in TVET in particular.
 LO4: Define the concepts of.
 LO5: Identify and explain the aspects of human development.
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  LO6: Analyze the different stages and theories of human development.
 LO7: Define learning and discuss each theories of learning.
 LO8: Explore the educational implications of different theories of learning and
motivation.
1.1. Concept of Educational Psychology
1.1.1. Definition of Educational Psychology

Educational psychology is the combination of two fields i.e. education and psychology. It is an
applied branch of psychology. As the name indicates, it is concerned with teaching-learning
situation, and the factors, principles and techniques related to the various aspects of human
growth and development. It draws knowledge from various branches of psychology, biology
sociology and anthropology, philosophy, and others. It also limits itself with the behavior of
the individuals in relation to formal educational environment. Hence, it is not concerned with
what and why of education. Rather it gives necessary knowledge and skill (technical guidance)
of provision of education to the individual satisfactorily.
1.1.2. Scope of Educational Psychology

There are five scopes of educational psychology. They are learner, learning process, learning
situation, teacher, and evaluation of student performance. Each of them is briefly discussed
hereunder.
1. The Learner: The learner is the center of every educational practice. Knowing the
learner in terms of ability, capacities, behavior, learning style, interest and motivation
is essential.
2. The Learning Process: It deals with the nature of learning and how it takes place.
Laws, principles and theories of learning are in conjunction with other cognitive
processes such as Remembering and forgetting, perceiving, concept formation,
thinking and reasoning, problem solving, transfer of learning, ways and means of
effective learning.
3. The Learning Situation: It deals with the environment factors like classroom climate,
group dynamics, evaluation and supportive such as guidance and counseling, etc
4. The Teacher: The need of knowing the self (individual) for a teacher to play her/ his
role properly in the process of education. The teacher to manage interests, aptitudes
and traits to handle the stress, conflict and anxiety in the process.
5. Evaluation of Student Performance: The main objective of education is all round
development of the learner. It includes cognitive, affective and psychomotor aspects of
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 personality. Hence, educational Psychology suggests various tool and techniques for
assessment and evaluation such as performance test, oral test and written test.

Activity 1: Discuss with the other classmates about the extent to which each area or scope of
educational psychology is implemented or applied in this institute.

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1.1.3. Importance of Educational Psychology in TVET

Educational psychology is important in TVET institutions for the following issues:

 It helps the trainer to know the learner: his/her interest, attitudes, aptitude, level of
aspiration, intelligence, interests, individual behavior in group.
 It helps in selection of teaching methods and aids.
 It supports developing curriculum: organizing the subject matter of learning
experience.
 It helps to address individual differences in the classroom.
 It helps to develop problem-solving skills amongst trainees.
 It helps technical teachers to know the emotions and feelings of trainees, how students
learn new skills.
 It helps the trainer to find causes of prejudices, the habit of sticking to old practices of
teaching.

1.2. Human Development

1.2.1. Definition of Human Development and Others Related Terms
1) Growth: is an increment of body parts. It is used to describe physical quantity. For
example, an increase in height.
2) Maturation: is a change in body or behavior that results from the aging process and
genetic master plan. For example, a child’s teeth erupt; a child develops the ability to
grasp objects and to walk; and the time at which a female first menstruate.

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 3) Learning: is a relatively permanent change in behavior resulting from experience or
practice.
4) Development: is a series of progressive characteristics change in physical, mental and
psychosocial those occur in people as they pass through the life-span. It results in
strength, degree of differentiation, organization of personality and function of behavior.

1.2.2. Aspects of Human Development

Human development is viewed from varied or many aspects. They include physical
development, mental or intellectual development, and socio-emotional (psychosocial)
development. Physical development includes roll over, crawl, walk, grasp objects. Mental
development comprises respond to cold, hunger, and pain by crying. Begin to recognize
surroundings and become aware of surroundings and people. Emotional development consists
or shows anger, distrust, happiness, excitement, etc. Social development indicates self-
centeredness concept of the newborn to recognition of others in their environment. These
aspects of human development bring an all-rounded development to an individual person.
Development must be holistic. Therefore, development includes growth, maturation, and
learning.
1.2.3. Principles of Development

There are basic principles of human development, which are discussed hereunder as follows:
1) Principle of Continuity vs Discontinuity

Continuity: Development is a continuous process from conception to old age. It is a gradual

and ongoing change. For example, as children grow up, they start crawling, then sitting, then
standing, and, finally, walking. It can be also described as follows: as a baby starts immobile,
then sits up, crawls, stands, and walks. Continuity theorists would emphasize the gradual
transition as a child learns to walk rather than qualifying each change as a distinct step. This is
why educators should consider continuity vs discontinuity in the classroom. Teachers aware of
when a child is at an optimal time for growth should be prepared to offer more scaffolds. This
will help the child gradually move to higher levels of thinking.
Discontinuity: Discontinuous development can be thought of as stages with distinct
qualitative changes. Development takes place in unique stages: It occurs at specific times or
ages. With this type of development, the change is more sudden. 'Discontinuity' in the
developmental process refers to new ways of understanding the world that emerge during the

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process of development. For example, children go from only being able to think in very literal
terms to being able to think abstractly. They have moved into the 'abstract thinking' phase of
their lives.
2) Sequentially: Development follows an orderly sequence in individuals and show high
degree of similarity in the order in which various developments appear. Sequentially is
thought of as locomotion, cephalocoudal, and proximodistal directions.
 Locomotion: It develops in a sequence in all infants of different culture of the
world. The sequence is creeping, crawling, standing and walking.
 Cephalocoudal: (from Latin, meaning “head to tail”), development starts from
head and proceeds towards heel. That is head develops in advance of the lower
parts of the body.
 Proximodistal: A Latin word, near to far Development starts from the center
and proceed to extremities. The lung and heart develop before the hand, legs
and fingers.
3) Generality to Specificity: Development proceeds from general to specific, mass to
specific. For example, in language, from genetic sounds emerge words and then
specific sentences with meaning. In addition, the fetus moves its whole body but in
capable of making specific responses.
4) Development proceeds from the simple to the more complex: Children use their
cognitive and language skills to reason and solve problems.
5) Differentially: The tempo of development is not even. Individuals differ in the rate of
growth and development. Examples, Boys and girls have different development rates.
Each parts of the body have its own particular rate of growth.
6) Interaction: According to this principle development is the result of hereditary forces
inherent in the genetic constitution of the individual and environmental forces.

Activity 3: Conduct an assessment about to what extent these principles of human

development applicable in the teaching learning process. Reflect your finding to the class with
the time scheduled so that others might get an opportunity learns and understand. Include your
suggestions to the other group. Put your finding summary here!

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Theories of Human Development
1.2.4. Piaget’s Theory of Cognitive Development

Cognitive development refers to change in the thought process of a person. Cognitive

development involves change mental structures called schemata. Schemas (or schemata) are
cognitive representations of things or activities. A Child is born with innate schema like reflex
responses such as grasping schema or sucking.

Cognitive development is a function of:

 Assimilation: A new object or idea is understood in terms of existing schema. For
example, if children have learned a schema for horses, then they may call the striped
animal they see at the zoo a horse rather than a zebra.
 Accommodation: Schemas are modified to fit new situation or information. For
example, when a mother says, “No, honey, that’s a zebra, not a horse,” the child may
adapt the schema to fit the new stimulus, learning that there are different types of four-
legged animals, only one of which is a horse.
 Equilibrium: A state of balance between individuals' mental schemata, or frameworks,
and their environment. Such balance occurs when their expectations, based on prior
knowledge, fit with new knowledge.

Piaget’s Stages of Cognitive Development

There are four stages of cognitive development Piaget’s according to Jean Piaget. They are
described hereunder as follows:
1) Sensorimotor Stage (Birth to 2 Years)

Understanding the environment via seeing, hearing, physical, and motoric actions is the main
characteristic feature at this stage. Sucking of objects, following moving objects with the eyes
and palmer grasp). Infants view that things that are out of sight are out of mind. After eight
months there is a development of object permanence. Object permanence is the understanding
that objects continue to exist even when they cannot be seen, heard, or touched.
2) Preoperational Stage (2 to 7 Years)

This stage is characterized by development of representational thought; represent objects by

images, words, and drawings; the child is able to formulate designs of objects that are not
present; development of language; and development of pretend (made up) play.

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 3) Concrete Operational Stage (7 to 11 Years)

This stage is characterized by concept formation on tangible or concrete objects; solve

problems that apply to actual (concrete) objects or events, and not abstract concepts or
hypothetical tasks; and characterized by the appropriate use of logic.
4) Formal Operational Stage (12 and Up)

This stage is characterized by the following characteristics such as thinking abstractly; testing
hypothesis; drawing conclusions from the information available; and develop advanced
mathematical skills such as doing percentages, ratios, and fractions.
Activity 2: What if the cognitive theory is applied in the teaching learning process? Discuss
what you think about its relevance for achieving success in instructional process.
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1.2.5. Eric Erikson Psychosocial Development Theory

Erik Erikson is the proponents of this theory. He viewed that human beings have different
psychosocial needs in the course of their life-span. Society has to help by meeting the specific
needs of the individual Erikson proposed eight stages of psychosocial development.
Each stage is characterized by a particular crisis the way in which each person resolves the
crisis will have a lasting effect on his/her personality. Healthy ego development involves
making adjustments to the demands of the particular crisis. If the conflict is not resolved , the
person will continue to struggle and experience a negative outcome. Success in each stage lays
the ground work for resolving the crisis of later stages and result in positive outcome.
Successful resolution of each of the eight crises requires balancing a positive trait and a
corresponding negative trait. Positive quality should predominate but some elements of the
negative are needed too.

Stage 1: Trust vs Mistrust

This stage covers the age from birth to 1 year. Infant's basic needs being met by the parents.
The infant depends on the parents, especially the mother, for food, sustenance, and comfort. If
parents, caregivers are consistent sources of food, warmth, comfort, and affection, an infant
develop trust- that others are dependable and reliable. The virtue at this stage is hope. For

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example, babies will begin to understand that objects and people exist even when they cannot
see them.
Stage 2: Autonomy vs Shame and Doubt
This stage covers from 2 to 3 years. Children focused on developing a greater sense of
personal control. Gaining more control over food choices, toy preferences, and clothing
selection, feed themselves, wash and dress themselves, and use the bathroom. Erikson believes
that learning to control one’s body functions leads a sense of independence. If caregivers
encourage self-sufficient behavior, toddlers develop a sense of autonomy and being confident.
But if caregivers refuse to let children perform tasks of which they are capable or ridicule early
attempts at self-sufficiency; children may develop shame and doubt about their ability and to
handle problems. The virtue at this stage is will. For example, Children begin to assume
important responsibilities for self-care like feeding, toileting & dressing.
Stage 3: Initiative vs Guilt
This stage covers from 3 to 5 years. Initiative leads to undertaking, planning and doing a task
for the sake of being active and on the move. The child wants to begin and complete his own
actions for a purpose. Children who are successful at this stage feel capable and able to lead
others, being self-starter, assertive. Unsuccessfulness left with a sense of guilt and lack of
initiative. They may feel guilt when their initiative does not produce desired results. The virtue
at this stage is purpose. For example, passing tools to a parent who is fixing a bicycle.
Stage 4: Industry vs Inferiority
This stage covers 5 to 11 years. Children are concerned with mastering (achieving) school
activities like drawing, calculating, reading, playing games. Through social interactions,
children begin to develop a sense of pride in their accomplishments and abilities. Children who
are encouraged and commended by parents and teachers develop a feeling of competence and
belief in their skills. Those who receive little or no encouragement from parents, teachers, or
peers will feel inferior. The virtue at this stage is competence. For example, children want to
do productive work on their own.
Stage 5: Identity vs Role Confusion
This stage covers 12- 20 years. Adolescent concerned with how they appear to others.
Settlement on a school or occupational identity, sexual identity and career identity are
pleasant. Adolescents ponder the roles they will play in the adult world. (e.g. tinkering with
cars, baby-sitting for neighbors, affiliating with certain political or religious groups).
Adolescents may experiment with a variety of behaviors and activities. Balancing of “What
have I got?” and “What am I going to do with it?” result in establishment of one’s identity.
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The virtue at this stage is fidelity. For example, adolescents attempt to establish their own
identities & see themselves as separate from their parents.
Stage 6: Intimacy vs Isolation
This stage covers 20 to 35 years. An early adulthood explores personal relationships. People
develop close, committed relationships with other people. Those who are successful at this
step will develop relationships that are committed and secure. Those with a poor sense of self
tend to have less committed relationships and are more likely to suffer emotional isolation,
loneliness, and depression. The virtue at this stage is love. For example, sharing oneself with
others on a moral, emotional, and sexual level; marriage.
Stage 7: Generativity vs Stagnation
This stage occurs from 40-65 years. At this stage adults become concerned with guiding and
contributing to the next generation. Procreation of children, production of work, creation of
new things and creation of ideas contribute to the building of a better world. Care for others is
an outstanding characteristic of the period and call sense of generetivity. An individual may
stagnate, and become concerned with personal needs and wellbeing-self-concern (develop
stagnation). The virtue at this stage is care. For example, generativity is expressed through
activities like teaching and mentorship; it also takes the form of productivity or creativity to
further develop personal identity.
Stage 8: Integrity vs Despair
This stage occurs from 65 – death. It is characterized by looking back on life to evaluate what
has been accomplished and the kind of person she/ he has been. Those who successfully
resolved the prior crisis and achieve their goals in their lives realize that their lives have made
meaning so develop the sense of integrity and are likely to accept death and retirement. Those
individuals who have not succeeded in their life develop the sense of despair (hopelessness).
They realize that they have not time to start another life and feel bitter about their lives. Such
individuals wish to get more time if possible to do away with their unfinished businesses. For
example, aged person may find it necessary to reflect what they had accumulated throughout
life.
1.3. Theories of Learning and its Educational Implication
1.3.1. Definition of Learning

Learning usually involves a change in behaviour (knowledge, skill, and attitude) which lasts
for some time and is the result of experience. Learning is seen as an outcome or the end
product of some process which can be recognized. When learning is seen as a process, the

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focus is on what happens when learning takes place. Summing up, learning is relatively
permanent behavioral change that occurs as a result of experience or practice. Learning is
defined differently by scholars and the definitions are indicated hereunder as follows:
B. F. Skinner: Learning is a function of change in overt behaviour. The probability of
learning occurring is enhanced when there is reinforcement.

Albert Bandura: Learning occurs when individuals observe and imitate other’s
behaviour.

Lev Vygotsky: Learning is determined by interaction with the surrounding culture and
people such as parents, peers and significant others.

Howard Gardner: People learn and understand the world through at least seven ways ă
verbal-linguistic, visual-spatial, logical mathematical, body kinaesthetic, musical-
rhythmic, interpersonal and intrapersonal.

Jean Piaget: Learning occurs through the process of assimilation and accommodation
with one’s schemas and constantly seeking equilibrium between these processes.

1.3.2. Theories of Learning

A learning theory is an attempt to describe how people and animals learn; thereby helping us
understands the inherently complex process of learning. Hence, few learning theories with
their educational implications are presented hereunder as follows:
1.3.2.1. Behavioral Theories of Learning

Behaviorism focuses on the idea that all behaviors are learned through interaction with the
environment. This learning theory states that behaviors are learned from the environment, and
says that innate or inherited factors have very little influence on behavior. The behaviourists
believe that the only behaviour worth describing is that which is measurable. If we are able to
measure it, we first must be able to observe it. The behavioral learning theories have the
following educational implications:
Teachers are able to apply classical conditioning in the class by creating a positive
classroom environment to help students overcome anxiety or fear. For example, pairing
an anxiety-provoking situation, such as performing in front of a group, with pleasant
surroundings helps the student learn new associations.

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Teach students to generalize and discriminate appropriately. For example, oor
performance on one assignment or test does not mean that the student is a week
student.
The good method and kind treatment a teacher can bring desirable impacts upon the
Learners. The Learners may like the boring subject because of teacher’s role. For
example, a Maths teacher with his or her defective method of teaching and improper
behavior in the classroom may be disliked by Learners. The Learners develop hatred
towards Maths due to teacher’s behavior. The teacher should try to start from known to
unknown, that is, establish an "association between what the learner already knows and
the new topic to be taught for meaningful learning to take place.
To maintain learned connection for longer period, review of learned material is
necessary.
In order to benefit from the mechanism of association in the learning process what is
being taught at one situation should be linked with the past experience of the learner.
The effects of rewards and punishment also affect the learning of the child. Thus,
teachers give emphasis on the use of reward and punishment in the class.
Teachers must observe the effects of his teaching methods on the students and should
not hesitate to make necessary changes in them.
To bring about successful learning outcomes the teacher must consider the psycho-
biological readiness of the learner. Curriculum of the students should be according to
the mental level of the learner and should not be beyond the intellectual level of the
learning.
Teacher should provide opportunity for sufficient practice in their field of
specialization. More and more opportunities should be given to the learners to use and
repeat the knowledge they get in the classroom for effectiveness and longer retention.
Practice leads a man towards maturity. Practice is the main feature of trial and error
method. Practice helps in reducing the errors committed by the learner in learning any
concept.
When students are dealing with factual material, do your best to give feedback
frequently, specifically and quickly.
Use several kinds of reinforcers so that each retains its effectiveness.
Use reinforcement to motivate students to learn material that is not intrinsically
interesting.
1.3.2.2. Cognitive Learning Theory
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Cognitive theory of learning is about understanding how the human mind works while people
learn. The theory focuses on how information is processed by the brain, and how learning
occurs through that internal processing of information. For example, to know that a triangle
has three sides, you need to understand and remember the attributes of a triangle. The
information processing theory one of the cognitive learning theory and is based on the idea
that humans actively process the information they receive from their senses, like a computer
does. Learning is what is happening when our brains receive information, record it, mould it
and store it. It has the following educational implications:
Gain the students' attention -- This might be done by using cues to signal that it is time
to begin or meaningfully varying voice and voice inflections.

Bring to mind relevant prior learning -- This might involve discussing something
students already know that is relevant to the topic they will be studying or relevant to
reviewing a previous day's lesson.

Point out what is important to recognize and know -- Using visual representations or
outlining the key concepts in a unit of study is examples of how this can be done.

Present information in an organized manner -- Making it easy for students to see the
structure of a unit and helping them to see relationships between different concepts
helps in implement this approach.

How students how to categorize information -- Showing students how to categorize

new information and having them develop their own categorizing systems helps them
process information.

Provide opportunities for students to elaborate on new information-- Having students

work with and apply new information and enabling them to make links to other
knowledge helps create the mental connections that are fundamental to learning.

1.3.3. Constructivism Theory of Learning

The theory states that people construct their own understanding and knowledge of the world,
through experiencing things and by reflecting on those experiences. For example, when we
encounter something new, we have to reconcile it with our previous ideas and experience,
perhaps by changing what we believe, or by discarding the new information as irrelevant. A
good teacher will design lessons that help students discover the relationship between bits of

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information. To do this a teacher must give students the information they need, but without
organizing it for them.

This theory of learning views learning as indicated in the following statements:

 Learning is an active process: learners receive information and construct meaning out
of the information received. The learner needs to do something because learning
requires learners to engage with the world.
 People learn to learn as they learn: we learn by constructing meaning which in turn,
influences further learning. For example, if we learn about the climate of different
countries, we are simultaneously learning the meaning of climate. Each meaning we
construct makes us better able to give meaning to other information which can fit a
similar pattern.
 Learning involves language: language that we use influences our learning. Language
and learning are inextricably intertwined. It is not surprising that many people talk to
themselves as they learn.
 Learning is a social activity: learning is closely related to our connection with other
human beings (our teachers, our peers, our family, etc).
 Learning is contextual: we do not learn facts and theories in isolation, but rather we
learn in relationship to what we know, what we believe, our prejudices and our fears.
 Learner needs knowledge to learn: it is not possible to absorb new knowledge
without having some structure developed from previous knowledge to build on.
Therefore, any effort to teach must be connected to the state of the learner. The learner
is brought to interact with the information, based on the learner's previous knowledge.

The constructivism theory of learning has the following educational implications that have to
be considered in the process of teaching and learning.
The instructor should try and encourage students to discover principles by themselves.
The instructor and student should engage in an active dialogue (i.e., Socratic learning).
Socratic learning is a pedagogical technique in which a teacher does not give
information directly but instead asks a series of questions, with the result that the
student comes either to the desired knowledge by answering the questions or to a
deeper awareness of the limits of knowledge.

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 The task of the instructor is to translate information to be learned into a format
appropriate to the learner's current state of understanding.
Curriculum should be organized in a spiral manner so that the student continually
builds upon what they have already learned.

1.3.4. Gestalt Theory of Learning

To the Gestalt psychologists, learning is concerned with the whole individual and arises from
the interaction of an individual with his situations or environment. Through this interaction
emerge new forms of perception, imagination and ideas which altogether constitute insight.
For example, when you're trying to remember where you put down your keys, you may think
back over the last few minutes and recall where you left them. But if you try to do this while
looking at a picture of those same keys, you'll find yourself unable to identify them. It has the
following educational implications:
Purpose or goals of learning should be made clear to the students before the teacher
starts teaching.(goal oriented).

Teachers should encourage their students to discover the relationship of the elements
that make up a problem (continuity). For example, to learn or memorize a poem,
present as a whole. After being read & understood as a whole, break into parts or
stanzas as for effective memorized.

Related topics or lessons should be taught aligned or closely to each other (proximity).

To help learners acquire understanding more rapidly and effectively, similar lessons or
materials should be grouped together. This is why lessons are broken down into units
(similarity).

Lessons should be presented in a way that allows students to see them as linked and
continuous. Students will recognize that their new lesson has continuity and is
connected to what they already know from the previous lesson in this way (continuity).

A figure must stand out from the background in order to be noticed. Important
components of the lesson should be highlighted. Teachers should, for example, change
their voice tone, write boldly, and underline the lesson’s most critical key terms (figure
ground). For example, the most important words in the paragraph are written in the
bolder fonts.

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 1.3.5. Social Learning Theory

Social learning theory emphasizes on the importance of observing and modeling the
behaviours, attitudes and emotional reactions of others. Social learning theory focuses on the
learning that occurs within a social context. Learning results from directly experiencing the
consequences of using a skill, observing others, and seeing the consequences of their behavior.
It has the following educational implications:
 The teacher should model positive behaviors on himself/herself.
 Teachers should expose students to a variety of other models. This technique is
especially important to break down traditional stereotypes. For example,
incorporate technology by putting the students’ challenges and accomplishments
online on the class website so they can show their friends and family.
 Vicarious reinforcement, modeling can be used by teachers to increase and focus
learners attention.
 Teachers must model appropriate behaviors and take care that they do not model
inappropriate behaviors.
 Teachers should help students set realistic expectations for their academic
accomplishments.
 To promote effective modeling a teacher must take sure that the four essential
conditions exist; attention, retention, motor reproduction and motivation.
1.3.6. Situational Learning Theory

Situated learning is a matter of creating meaning from the real activities of daily living where
learning occurs in a pro-social but informal setting. This notion suggests that learning takes
place through social relationships, within a cultural milieu, and by connecting prior knowledge
to new contexts. It suggests the means for relating subject matter to the needs and concerns of
learners. By embedding subject matter in the ongoing experiences of the learners and by
creating opportunities for learners to live subject matter in the context of real-world
challenges, knowledge is acquired and learning transfers from the classroom to the realm of
practice. To situate learning means to place thought and action in a specific place and time. It
has the following educational implications:
 Learners learn and remember more when they talk about their experiences.
 Learners can think more effectively when they acquire the basic cognitive tools of
various activities and academic disciplines.

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  Learners should have opportunities to engage in activities that closely resemble
those they will encounter in the adult world.
 Learners often acquire better strategies when they collaborate with adults on
complex tasks.
 Challenging tasks, especially when sufficiently scaffold, are likely to foster
maximum cognitive development.
 Group learning activities can help learners internalize cognitive strategies.
 Access to expert performances and the modeling of process lead to better learning.

1.3.7. Multiple Intelligence Theory of Learning

Intelligence is “the capacity to solve problems or to fashion products that are valued in one or
more cultural setting”. Multiple intelligences theory states that everyone has all eight
intelligences at varying degrees of proficiency and an individual's learning style is unrelated to
the areas in which they are the most intelligent.
1. Linguistic Intelligence: “word smart”, refers to an individual’s ability to analyze
information and produce work that involves oral and written language. This person
learns best by saying, hearing, and seeing words; writing, talking, and reading.
2. Logical-Mathematical Intelligence: “Maths smart”, describes the ability to detect
patterns, reason deductively and think logically, make calculations, and solve abstract
problems. This person learns best by using visual materials and hands-on projects.
3. Spatial Intelligence: “picture smart”, describes the ability manipulate and create
mental images in order to solve problems and reason, to visualize concepts and space.
This person learns best by drawing, molding, and diagrams.
4. Bodily-Kinesthetic Intelligence: It is expertise in using one’s whole body to express
ideas and feelings. For examples, acting, dancing, sports, and using body language.
This person learns best by doing, exploring, and discovering; planning and attending a
field trip; role plays, miming, dancing; and building models and grammar games.
5. Musical Intelligence: “music smart”, involves skill in the performance, composition,
and appreciation of musical patterns. It encompasses the capacity to recognize and
compose musical pitches, tones, and rhythms. This person learns best by taught using
spoken instruction and auditory media.
6. Interpersonal Intelligence: “people smart”, reflects an ability to recognize and
understand other people’s moods, desires, motivations, and intentions. This person

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 learns best by through communication with others, discussion, debating, and
teamwork.
7. Intrapersonal Intelligence: “Self smart”, refers to people’s ability to recognize and
assess those same characteristics within themselves. This person learns best by
journaling, reflecting, and blogging.
8. Naturalistic Intelligence: “Nature smart”, refers to the ability to identify and
distinguish among different types of plants, animals, and weather formations found in
the natural world. This person learns best by attending class outside; keeping a nature
journal to record changes or discoveries in nature; illustrating discoveries in nature;
and read books and articles about nature and the environment.

Multiple intelligence theory of learning has the following educational implications, which are
listed hereunder as follows:
 Individuals should be encouraged to use their preferred intelligences in learning.
 Instructional activities should appeal to different forms of intelligence.
 Collaborating with other teachers: as a writing teacher, you might collaborate with a
colleague who is also interested in multiple intelligences.
 Prepare assignments in different styles and ask students to do in different form:
providing students with various presentation options. In addition to writing essays, you
can encourage students to demonstrate what they know by giving oral presentations
accompanied by visual aids they create to organize the information.

Activity 4: Which theory of learning do you think is the most appropriate for the effectiveness
of learning and gives students an opportunity for the exploitation of their potential or talents?
Please share your discussion result to your classmates by discussing the class facilitator or
organizer of the instruction process. Please put here the summary of your final point or
consensus by the group members.
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1.4. Motivation Theories and its Classroom Implications
1.4.1. Definition of Motivation
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Motivation is an internal state or condition (sometimes described as a need, desire, or want)
that serves to activate or energize behavior and give it direction. It can also be defined as a
pushing and pulling force or energizer to accomplish goals.
1.4.2. Theories of Motivation

There are different theories of motivation. The theories are briefly discussed with their
educational implications hereunder as follows:
1.4.2.1. Attribution Theory of Motivation

Attribution theory of motivation refers to an individual’s beliefs regarding causes of successful

or failing performance. Attributions to success or failure of a performance include ability,
effort, task ease or difficulty, luck, mood and help or hindrance from others. Thus, the types of
attributions a person holds determine his or her level of motivation. As an educational
implication, when dealing with students who complain about not progressing because the
subject, skill or task is too hard for them, show them where applicable that the reasons why
they are not improving is not intrinsic in the nature of that subject, skill or task , but has more
to do with other factors under his/her control.

1.4.2.2. Valence- Instrumentality- Expectancy (VIE) Theory of Motivation

According to this theory, motivation is a function of Expectancy (E), Instrumentality (I), and
Valence (V). The following are some of the implications of this theory of motivation which
are indicated hereunder as follows:
 Make clear to students why a specific outcome is desirable (e.g. getting and A/A* in
exams). Make sure you list as many benefits as possible, especially those that most
relevant to their personal preferences, interests and life goals;
 Provide them with a clear path to get there. A clear path gives a struggling student a
sense of empowerment, especially if they feel that they are being provided with
effective tips and support to overcome the obstacles in the way
 Support their self-belief that outcome can be achieved (e.g. by mentioning to them
examples of students from previous cohorts of similar ability who did it) and by
reminding them of similar/comparable challenges they successfully undertook in the
past.
1.4.2.3. Goal-Setting Theory of Motivation

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In order to direct ourselves in our personal, educational and professional life we set ourselves
goals. These can be clear (so we know what to do and what not to do); challenging (so we get
some stimulation); achievable (so we do not fail); and if we set goals ourselves, rather than
having them imposed on us, we are more likely to work harder in order to achieve them. As an
Implication for the classroom, instead of setting goals for your students in a top-down fashion,
involve them actively in the process of learning. Moreover, help the students narrow down the
goals set as much as possible and gauge them as accurately as possible to their existing level of
competence.
1.4.2.4. Humanistic Theory of Motivation

Humanistic theory of motivation is primarily based on a sense that humans have strong
cognitive reasons to carry out various actions. Once the lower end of basic needs have been
met, the main motivator turns into having a strong need for self-actualization, or the desire to
fulfill our purpose in life. According to Abraham Maslow, there are five hierarchies or levels
of human needs such as basic or physiological needs, safety and security needs, love and
belonging needs, self-esteem needs, and self-actualization needs. The following are the
educational implications of humanistic theory of motivation:
 Teachers should first understand the needs, interests, abilities, age level, attitudes,
aptitude of students then try to organize teaching learning process according to these.
 Every individual has his own individuality. Teacher should respect and develop this
individuality through education.
 Students need valued and respected in the classroom, and the teacher should create a
supportive environment. Students with a low self-esteem will not progress
academically at an optimum rate until their self-esteem is strengthened.
 Allow the student to have a choice in the selection of tasks and activities whenever
possible.

 Be a role model for the attitudes, beliefs and habits you wish to foster. Constantly work
on becoming a better person and then share yourself with your students.

1.4.2.5. Self-Determination Theory of Motivation

Self-determination theory suggests that all humans have three basic psychological needs
autonomy, competence, and relatedness that underlie growth and development. They are
described as follows:

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 1. Autonomy: The necessity of experiencing a sense of choice, willingness, and volition
as one behaves. For example, practicing an instrument because you take pleasure in it.
2. Competence: The desire to interact effectively with one’s environment.
3. Relatedness: The necessity for close and secure emotional bonds with significant
others and to feeling part of collectives. For example, deliberately arrange projects that
require a variety of talents; some educators call such activities “rich group work”.

Educational implications of self-determination theory of motivation are the following:

 Teachers should provide prompt feedback and stretch and challenge students to
promote a sense of competence.
 Selecting activities that are challenging but nonetheless achievable with reasonable
effort and assistance.

 Teachers spend time with her/his students before and after school helping them with
difficult activities.

1.4.2.6. Incentive Theory of Motivation

Behavior can be motivated by the variety of incentives like grade, money, status, college
degree. This is also called pull theory b/c external stimuli attract behavior. Teachers will use
incentives for effective learning of the student in the classroom and the implications are the
following important points:
 Set class goals. Set class behavior goals that are achievable and measurable.
 Define how you will use the reward system.
 Explain why you gave a reward.
 Reward early.
 Lessen/ reduce/ the rewards over time.
 Give random rewards.
1.4.2.7. Drive Reduction Theory of Motivation

Drive reduction theory of motivation focuses on how motivation originates from biological
needs or drives. People behave a certain way to reduce the internal tension created in the body
as a result of unfulfilled biological needs. For example, the need to satisfy curiosity can
produce a motivating force. Hence, drive is something which is needed by the learner in order
to behave or respond. The educational implications of drive theory of motivation are:

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  Foster the desire to learn by building on students' intrinsic curiosity. Scaffold
teaching by presenting new information at a level slightly higher than students' current
level of knowledge. Puzzling questions and the element of surprise are other ways to
spike curiosity and encourage learning.

 Reinforce learning gradually and continually. Drive Reduction Theory points out
that giving more reinforcement results in more learning. Teachers should meet
students' achievements with constant challenges that are increasingly difficult.

 Motivate students to learn with rewards. The need for achievement is a fundamental
human need. Reducing this drive by implementing task-specific rewards or by
recognizing and praising top achievers promotes learning in the classroom.

 Capture the students' attention. Learning only occurs when students are engaged and
focused. Use novelty and creativity in teaching methods. For example, educators can
implement Internet research periods or use videoconferencing and educational
software.

 Involve students in the learning process. Drive Reduction Theory depends on active
learning, so encourage, allow and value student responses to learning materials. Also
provide hands-on opportunities. Practical learning maximizes attention by allowing
students to experiment and problem solve on their own.

 Satisfy students' curiosity. Foster an open attitude, answer questions and make sure
that each student is on the same page before moving on to a new theme.

Activity 5: Evaluate the motivation of your classmate student to learn. Consider their level of
readiness to learn. Put your discussion result here please!
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Individual Differences

1.4.3. Definition of Individual Differences

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Individual differences are the more-or-less enduring psychological characteristics that
distinguish one person from another and thus help to define each person's individuality.
Among the most important kinds of individual differences are intelligence, personality traits,
and values. The differences among the learners are considered individual differences.
Individuals follow different paths as they progress toward expert understanding because they
learn differently based on their gender, ethnicity, learning styles, previous knowledge and
experience with content, strategies, and technology.
It is often said that no two individuals are exact duplicates; they differ from each other in some
way or the other. Hence the job of the psychologist is to identify and understand this
uniqueness in individuals. Such a similarity or difference between persons reveals individual
differences. Dissimilarity is principle of nature. No two persons are alike. All the individuals
differ from each other in many aspects. Children born of the same parents and even the-twins
are not alike.
1.4.4. Major Areas of Individual Difference

This material throws light upon the eleven major areas of individual difference.
The areas are:
1) Physical difference
2) Mental differences
3) Difference in intelligence
4) Difference in interests
5) Difference in attitudes
6) Difference in aptitude
7) Difference in achievement
8) Personality difference
9) Emotional differences
10) Social differences
11) Racial and cultural differences

These areas of differences are briefly discussed and described hereunder as follows:
1. Physical Differences: Man differs in his physical developments structurally and
functionally. These differences are seen in height, weight, size of the body, structure of
different parts of the body, color of hair, skin, physical strength and precision.
2. Mental Differences: Mental differences are noticed in the form of perception, concept
formation, and imagination, formation of imaging, memory, and attention.
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3. Difference in Intelligence: people are having characteristics such as genius, gifted,
superior, bright, averages, imbeciles and idiots on the basis of their intelligence level.
4. Difference in Interests: Interest differs from individual, to individual, man to woman,
adolescent to adult, society to society and culture to culture. Every man has his own
interest. Boys and girls greatly differ in their interests in choosing courses, books,
pictures, games and dresses.
5. Difference in Attitudes: As far as attitudes are concerned man differs from other. A
person has different attitude towards people, institution, customers and traditions,
religions, and social phenomena. A man tells/ thinks the laws of society as good and
bad depending on his attitude. Attitude forms in environment. Different persons have
different attitudes towards casteism, religion, regionalism, linguist, political parties and
administration.
6. Difference in Aptitude: An aptitude is any special ability that is possessed by an
individual. Men differs their aptitude related to musical, poetic, mechanical, artistic,
games and sports etc.
7. Difference in Achievement: Individual differs from others due to his achievement in
various fields of life related to academic, social, mental, emotional, moral, spiritual and
intellectual. This depends on previous experiences. Sometimes it is seen that one can
achieve much more than what is expected from them on the basis of their intelligence
level.
8. Personality Difference: Person differs from other person due to his personality traits,
temperaments, qualities and behavior. It is exhibited that some persons are extroverts
and some are introverts which are manifested by their activities.
9. Emotional Differences: In case of emotions one differs from other. Some persons lose
their emotions and some persons do not lose their emotions. It is observed that
someone controls his emotions and others get irritate very quickly. On the other hand
one has the ability to control the emotions with patience and tolerance. In some cases
listening to the serious facts one may start shading tears.
10. Social Differences: Some social factors like co-operation, sacrifices, leadership,
marriage ceremony, any social function one individual differs from others in
performing the social functions. Someone feel hesitate to mix with others where as
some are shy and fail to mix with strangers.
11. Racial and cultural Differences: It is seen that race and culture also bring about
differences among the individuals. It depends in geo-physical and geo-hydrological
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 influences. So German people are brave and Russian people are tall. Besides this one
differs from others in case of food habits, dress habits, speech and in other social
traditions.
1.4.5. Causes of Individual Differences

Majority of the psychologists or educational scholars agree that even though there are many
causes of individual differences, there are few widely and commonly known causes of
individual differences in the issue of personality. They include heredity, environment, race,
nationality, sex, age, education, and etc.
1.4.6. Educational Implications of Individual Differences

The following are some of the educational implications of individual differences.

 Aims of education, curriculum, and method of teaching should be linked with
individual differences considering the different abilities and traits individual.
 Curriculum should be designed as per the interest, abilities and needs of different
students.
 The teacher has to adopt different types of methods of teaching considering individual
difference related to interest, need, etc.
 Some co-curricular activities such as Drama, music, literary activities (Essay & Debate
Competition) should be assigned to children according to their interest.
 Teacher uses certain specific teaching aids which will attract the children towards
teaching considering their interest and need.
 Various methods such as playing method, project method, Montessori method,
storytelling methods are to be used considering/discovering how different children
respond to a task or a problem.
 The division of pupils into classes should not be based only on the mental age or
chronological age of children but the physical, social and emotional maturity should be
given due consideration.
 In case of vocational guidance the counselor is to plan the guidance technique keeping
in view the needs and requirements of the students.

Activity 6: Discuss in group about the areas of your difference and share it to the class briefly.
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Self-checking Exercises
Try and attempt the following self-checking exercises and evaluate your extent of
understanding and level of performance of the concepts and questions properly. This is
because it can help you to know your current status of understanding the concepts in
educational psychology.
1) Which scope of educational psychology is considered as the center of any educational
practice?
A. Teacher C. Learner
B. Evaluation of performance D. Learning situation
2) Which one of the following comprises all in human development?
A. Learning C. Maturation
B. Development D. Growth
3) Which aspect of human development focuses on developing the interaction of people
with each other in the process of teaching and learning?
A. Cognitive aspect C. Physical aspect
B. Social aspect D. Emotional aspect
4) Which of the following is the importance of educational psychology in TVET?
A. It aims at changing the knowledge, skills and attitude (behavior) of trainees.
B. It is useful to understand the factors affecting the training process.
C. It helps the TVET trainer to know the learner, interest and attitudes.
D. All of the above
5) Which theory of learning states that people construct their own understanding and
knowledge of the world, through experiencing things and by reflecting on those
experiences?
A. Cognitive learning theory C. Behavioral learning theory
B. Observational learning theory D. Constructive learning theory
6) Which type of intelligence reflects an ability to recognize and understand other
people’s moods, desires, motivations, and intentions?
A. Interpersonal intelligence C. Spatial intelligence
B. Intrapersonal intelligence D. Linguistic intelligence

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 7) Which one of the following is an internal state or energy of a person to accomplish
certain goals?
A. Development C. Motivation
B. Learning D. Individual difference
8) Which one of the following is not an example of growth?
A. The height of Girum is 1.80cm. C. Etabez organ is matured for
sex.
B. Selam Weighs 67 kg. D. None of the above
9) Which one of the following is incorrect about characteristics of learning?
A. It is a continuous process C. It is a passive process
B. It is growth D. It is adjustment
10) Which theory of motivation states that human needs are represented using hierarchies
or levels?
A. Goal-setting theory C. Attribution theory
B. Humanistic theory D. Incentive theory
11) Practicing an instrument because you take pleasure in it is known as:
A. Relatedness C. Competence
B. Autonomy D. All of the above
12) Which of the following is false about educational psychology?
A. It assesses the learners' aptitudes and progress.
B. It focuses on understanding the processes of teaching and learning.
C. It helps in developing instructional methods and materials.
D. It is a theoretical branch of fundamental Psychology.

Sub theme 3: Assessment and Evaluation of Learning

Learning Objectives
After completing this chapter, the students are expected to:
 LO1: Define basic terminologies such as test, measurement, assessment, evaluation.
 LO2: Mention the principles of assessment and evaluation.
 LO3: List the purposes of assessment and evaluation.
 LO4: Explain the types of evaluation in learning.
 LO5: Elaborate educational objectives or taxonomies.
 LO6: Identify classroom tests and assessments and preparation principles.

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  LO7: Discuss the methods of scoring both objective and essay tests.
2.1. Meaning of Terms
The following terms commonly used are defined.
 Test: It is a task or series of tasks used to obtain systematic observation presumed to be
representative of traits or attributes. It is presentation of a standard set of questions to
be answered by the students. It is an instrument or systematic procedure for measuring
sample of behaviors.
 Measurement: Obtaining a numerical description of the degree to which an individual
possess a particular characteristics. It answers the question “how much”. It assigns
numbers to attributes or characteristics.
 Assessment: Process of collecting, summarizing, and interpreting information
regarding student performance. It is a much more comprehensive and inclusive
concept than testing and measurement. It includes the full range of procedures
(observations, rating of performances, paper and pencil tests, etc) used to gain
information about students’ learning.
 Evaluation: Systematic process of collecting, analyzing and interpreting information
to determine the extent it which students are achieving instructional objectives. It is the
process of making judgment, assigning values or decided on the work of something
performed.

2.2. Types of Evaluation

There are four types of evaluation. They are:
1. Placement evaluation
2. Formative evaluation
3. Diagnostic evaluation
4. Summative evaluation
1. Placement Evaluation

It is carried out in order to fix the students in the appropriate group or class. Students are
assigned to classes according to their subject combinations, such as Science, Technical, Arts,
Commercial etc. before this is done an examination will be carried out. This is in form of
pretest or aptitude test. It can help to find out the entry behavior of students before teaching.
This may help the teacher to adjust his lesson plan. e.g., tests like readiness tests, ability tests,
aptitude tests and achievement tests can be used.

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 2. Formative Evaluation

It helps both the student and teacher to pinpoint areas where the student has failed to learn so
that this failure may be corrected. It provides a feedback to the teacher and the student and
thus estimating teaching success e.g. weekly tests, terminal examinations etc.

3. Diagnostic Evaluation

It is carried out most as a follow up evaluation to formative evaluation. It is applied to find out
the underlying cause of students persistent learning difficulties. These diagnostic tests can be
in the form of achievement tests, performance test, self-rating, interviews observations, etc.

4. Summative Evaluation

It is carried out at the end of the course of instruction. It determines the extent to which the
objectives have been achieved. It is also called a summarizing evaluation. It looks at the entire
course of instruction or program. It passes judgment on the teacher and students, the
curriculum and the entire system. It is used for certification.

Activity 7: Which type of evaluation do you think is commonly used in organizations?

Discuss briefly.

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2.3. Principles of Assessment and Evaluation

Evaluation should be seen as an integrated process of determining the nature and extent of
students learning and development. It is not simply a collection of techniques. This process
will be most effective when the following principles of assessment and evaluation of learning
are taken into consideration. They are:
1) What is to be evaluated has priority in the evaluation process.
2) An evaluation technique should be selected in terms of its relevance to the
characteristics or performance to be assessed.
3) Comprehensive evaluation requires a variety of evaluation techniques.

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 4) Proper use of evaluation techniques requires an awareness of their limitation, as all
tools are subjected to various types of measurement errors (sampling error and chance
factor).
5) Evaluation is a means to an end, not an end in itself.

2.4. Purposes/Functions of Assessment and Evaluation

The functions can be classified under three interrelated categories.

(1) Instructional purpose (improvement of teaching and learning).
(2) Administrative purpose (provision of effective educational management).
(3) Guidance and counselling purpose (provision of psychological support).

2.5. Educational Objectives

Educational objective is defined as an intended outcome of an instruction that has been stated
in general enough terms to encompass a set of specific learning outcomes. They are sets of
more detailed statements that specify the means by which the various goals of the course,
course units, and educational package will be met.

2.5.1. The Importance of Stating Instructional Objectives

Well stating instructional objectives serve as a guide for teaching and testing/evaluation and
assessment. So, they are specifically useful to:
 Help a teacher guide and monitor students learning.
 Provide criteria for evaluating students’ outcomes.
 Help in selecting or constructing assessment techniques.
 Help in communicating parents, students, administrators or others on what is expected
of students.
 Help in selecting appropriate instructional- Methods, materials, activities, contents and
the like.
 Uses as a feedback on how many of the educational goals have been achieved.

2.5.2. Domains of Educational Objectives

Benjamin Bloom and a group of people involved in education came up with a list of levels.
Different levels of describing how you approach a problem are called taxonomy/classification

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in which each domain is classified into hierarchical levels. Therefore, the domains of
educational objectives include the following:
1. Cognitive domain
2. Affective domain
3. Psychomotor domain

Cognitive Domain: is concerned with knowledge outcomes and intellectual abilities.

Cognitive domain is commonly assessed in the classroom. It is classified into six hierarchical
levels such as knowledge, comprehension, application, analysis, synthesis, and evaluation.

Affective Domain: is concerned with attitudes, interests, feelings, emotion, preferences,

appreciation, beliefs, value and modes of adjustment. It has five levels of classification such as
receiving, responding, values, organizing, and internalizing levels.

Psychomotor domain: is concerned with motor skills, bodily movement, and physical
performance. This level deals with the skill of the students. It focuses on muscular activity like
driving a car, maintaining a machine, typing, speaking, jumping, ridding bicycle, drawing,
designing, dancing, etc. It has five levels such as imitation, manipulation, precision,
articulation, and naturalization.

Activity 8: Explain the role of each domain of educational objective to the improvement of
student knowledge and understanding as well as improvement of the education or instructional
curriculum.

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2.5.3. Guidelines to Stating General Instructional Objectives

The following are the guidelines for stating educational or instructional objectives:

1. State each general objective as an intended learning outcome; in terms of students’

terminal performance.
2. Begin each general objective with a verb; like knows, applies, interprets,
appreciate, understands etc.

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 3. State each general objective to include only one general learning outcome.
4. State each general objective at the proper level of generality; it should encompass
a readily definable domain of response.

2.6. Classroom Tests and Assessments

2.6.1. Definition of Classroom Tests and Assessments

Classroom tests are also known as teacher-made tests. They are prepared by the teacher for
measuring and evaluating students understanding and performance of the subject matter or
learning experiences.

2.6.2. Types of Classroom Tests and Assessments

There are different types of test forms used in the classroom. Based on scoring they can be
classified as:

1) Essay test/subjective
2) Objectives test
3) Norm-referenced
4) Criterion referenced test

But we are going to concentrate on the essay test and objectives test types. They are presented
hereunder as follows:

1) Objective Tests

The objective test item has the following characteristics:

1. Has only one best/correct answer.

2. Examinees write down or to supply a word or phrase as an answer.
3. Examinees select from a given set of possible answers or options.
4. Relatively easy for scoring.

Objective test has the following types. They are in indicated using a diagram as follows:

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 True/ False

Matching

Selection Multiple
type choice

Arrangement
Objective
test Interpretive

Short
Answer
Supply type
Completion

Hence, they all are discussed hereunder as follows:

1.1. Supply Type Objective Test Items

In the supply test items, the examinees asked to give very brief answers to the questions. The
answers may be a word, a phrase, a number, a symbol or symbols etc. They include short
answer and completion. The supply type objective test item is used to measures simple
learning outcomes. It measures the ability to interpret diagrams, charts, graphs and pictorial
data. It uses to computational learning outcomes in mathematics, physics and sciences.

Short Answer: In this type of test item, the examinees are asked to give a brief answer to the
question asked such as words, phrases, numbers, symbol or symbols. Short answer questions
require a concise and focused response that may be factual, interpretive or a combination of
the two.

For example:

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Who is the first women president of Ethiopia?

Completion: In this type of test item, the examinees are asked to give a brief answer to an
incomplete statement or sentence or ccompletion item is a question in which students are
asked to answer a short question or finish an incomplete statement by filling in a blank with
the correct word, number, symbol, or short phrase.

For example:

The name of the first women president of Ethiopia is ___________.

1.2. Selection Type Objective Test Items

In the selection type objective test items, the examinees are required to select or choose a
correct answer from the given alternatives or options. The selection type objective test items
include True/False, Matching, and Multiple Choice items. Each of the items is explained
hereunder as follows:

True/False Item (The Alternative Response Test Item): The alternative response test item
commonly called is the true-false test item. It is a declarative statement. It measures the
correctness of statements. It measures examinee ability to distinguish fact from opinion;
superstition from scientific belief. It measures the ability to recognize cause – and – effect
relationships. It is best used in situations in which there are only two possible alternatives such
as right or wrong, more or less, and so on. There are two options in T/F item:

 True or false
 Right or wrong
 Correct or incorrect
 Yes or no
 Fact or opinion
 Agree or disagree and so on.

For example:

Sigmund Freud stated that human behavior is governed by unconscious part of the mind. (T/F)

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Matching Item: Matching items require students to match a series of stems or premises to a
response or principle. They consist of a set of directions, a column of statements and a column
of responses. Matching questions are really a variation of the multiple choice format. They are
presented in groups as a series of stems or prompts that must be matched by the student to one
of a group of possible answer options. The format is particularly useful when the objective to
be measured involves association skills or the ability to recognize, categorize, and organize
information. Hence, matching has two columns:

1) Stimuli/Premises (Column A)
2) Answers/ Responses (Column B)

For example:

Match each type of defense mechanism listed under column "B" with the corresponding
description of defense mechanism under column "A".

Column A Column B

1. A husband regularly blames his wife for his own sexual problems A. Displacement

2. A 45-year-old woman dresses like a teenager B. Regression

3. “May I remind you not to discuss such an issue with me” C. Rationalization

4. A hostile and aggressive young man becomes a butcher D. Reaction formation

5. A woman whose father was cruel to her when she was little E. Projection
insists over and over that she loves him

6. The father, who wanted to be a doctor but failed, enjoys his son's F. Denial
success
G. Sublimation

H. Repression

I. Identification

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Multiple Choice Items: A multiple choice item consists of a problem, known as the stem, and
a list of suggested solutions, known as alternatives. The alternatives consist of one correct or
best alternative, which is the answer, and incorrect or inferior alternatives, known as
distractors. It is widely used and versatile. It measures simple and complex learning outcomes.
It has two major parts. It works for all subjects/courses and levels. It measures variety of
learning outcomes. For clarity of our understanding about multiple choice items, it is good to
see the following diagram presented:

Multiple Choice
Item

Stem Options/Choices

Distracters( Foil
Direct Answer , decoys,
mislead)

Incomplete Best

Correct

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For example:

1. Which one of the following is the capital city of Ethiopia?

A. Adama C. Addis Ababa
B. Mekele D. Bahir Dar
2. Why Addis Ababa became the capital city of Ethiopia?
A. The availability of infrastructure
B. Large number of population
C. Presence of international embassies
D. Hub of economic, social and political issues

2) Subjective/Essay Type Test/Item:

In subjective test items, students can give answer freely and they can write and show steps
freely. That is why they are also called a free answer type items. Subjective assessments like
short- and long-answer questions can test whether or not students have a deep conceptual
understanding of subjects by asking students to explain their approach or thinking. An essay
test is a type of written examination that requires students to construct an essay response to
one or more questions. It assesses the student's ability to analyze, synthesize, and present their
understanding of a subject matter through written communication.

Subjective type of test is known with the following characteristics which are indicated
hereunder as follows:

 Students can give answer freely.

 Free answer type.
 Students can write and show steps freely
 Has few questions 5-6
 Take 2-3 hours exam time
 May not cover all the topics
 Scripts are written by the students
 Give organized idea

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  Encourage creativity
 Improve study habit
 Discourage guessing

It can also be classified in to two types as:

1. Essay type test item

2. Application type test item

Hence, based on the degree of freedom, essay type test item can be divided into two types such
as extended response (non-restricted) type and non-extended response (restricted) type test
items.

Extended Response (Non-Restricted) Type Test Item: In this type of essay test item, the
students freely organize the answer, and follow their own method of answering. However,
scoring is unreliable even if there is freedom writing. This type of test is used to measure
higher cognitive levels such as:

1) Analysis
2) Synthesis
3) Evaluation

For example:

Explain the importance of value chain analysis?

Non-Extended Response (Restricted) Type Test Item: In this type of essay test item, the
nature, length and organization of the responses are limited, and the questions are directional.
Relatively this test item limits the freedom of examinees. Relatively scoring is reliable and
manageable in this test item. It is used to measure lower cognitive levels such as:

1) Knowledge
2) Comprehension
3) Application

For example:

1) Describe the purpose of hundred percent technology copy within two paragraph?

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 2) Explain five major reasons why workshop accident occurs?
3) Describe the three major sources of stress in the industry?

Constructing Test Items (Item Writing/Preparation)

The following are few general guideline or tips to be considered in item writing or preparation.
When constructing items, teachers or item developers need to take into account the following
valuable considerations:

1. Keep the test blueprint in mind and in view as you are writing the test items. The
blueprint represents the master plan and should readily guide you in item writing and
review.
2. Generate more items than specified in the table of specification.
3. Use unambiguous language so that the demands of the item would be clearly
understood.
4. Endeavor to generate the items at the appropriate levels of difficulty as specified in the
table of specification.
5. Give enough time to allow an average student to complete the task.
6. Build in a good scoring guide at the point of writing the test items.
7. Have the test exercises examined and critiqued by one or more colleagues.
8. Review the items and select the best according to the laid down table of
specification/test blue print.

Guidelines for Constructing Short Answer Items

1. Clear and concise questions: As an instructor, you should write your questions
clearly and concisely and in an easily understandable way. If the question’s wording is
convoluted, students will waste more time dissecting the problem than answering it.
2. Avoid misleading questions: Questions should be straightforward and avoid
misleading language. The goal of examinations is to gauge your students’ level of
understanding. Remember that “tricky” questions have no place in a proper exam.
3. Avoid new language: Avoid using any new terms or language when writing short
answer questions. All wording used in your examination should be familiar to your
students to avoid confusion.

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 4. Memory triggers: Short answer questions should include memory triggers or
recognizable language to help students jog their memory. This technique will be
beneficial to students who suffer from exam anxiety or tend to fail under pressure.
5. Useful prompts: When designing your short answer questions, include helpful writing
prompts. Using open-ended questions will allow students to provide more contexts
with their answers and aid in the evaluation process. Prompts should also be within the
question itself, including writing suggestions or language that the student will
recognize as writing prompt.
6. Reading comprehension: Reading comprehension questions are the bread and butter
of examinations. Be sure to include some reading comprehension short answer
questions in your exam to encourage students to absorb the course material. Being able
to read and relay information is an essential skill for both professional and personal
situations.
7. Room for explanation: Give students an opening to explain by writing “Please
explain” after the question. Like the useful prompts tip, leaving room for students to
demonstrate their understanding gives instructors a look at their student’s development.
Any student can make an educated guess and write down a few words, but asking them
to break down their answer will provide a better impression of what they’ve learned.
8. Proper page real estate: In addition to creating an opening for an explanation after
short answer questions, make sure you also provide enough physical space. There’s
nothing worse than answering a short answer question and running out of lines. Be sure
to give each short answer question an appropriate amount of page real estate.
Alternatively, you can indicate how long you’d like your students’ answers to be
within the short answer question.

Guidelines for Constructing Completion Items

1) Use direct question rather than incomplete statement.

2) The statement should pose the problem to the examinee.
3) Be sure to indicate the units in which to be expressed when the statement requires
numerical answer.
4) Be sure that the answer the student is required to produce is factually correct.
5) Avoid grammatical clues.

Guidelines for Constructing True/False Items

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 1) Do not give a (inadvertently) in the body of the question.
2) Avoid using the words “always”, “never”, “and often” and other that tends to be either
always true or always false.
3) Avoid sentences as these tend to be “true”. Keep sentences short.
4) Avoid trick statements with some minor word or spelling anomaly, misplaced phrases,
etc.
5) Avoid from reference materials or textbooks.
6) Avoid or give-away qualifiers.
7) Avoid a grossly of either true or false statements or even pattern in the occurrence of
true and false statements.

Guidelines for Constructing Matching Items

1) Two-part directions: Your clear directions at the start of each question need two parts:
(1) how to make the match and (2) the basis for matching the response with the
premise. You can also include whether items can be re-used, but often pre-built
templates don’t allow for this.
2) Parallel content: Within one matching test item, use a common approach, such as all
terms and definitions or all principles and the scenarios to which they apply.
3) Plausible answers: All responses in Column B should be plausible answers to the
premises in Column A. Otherwise; the test loses some of its reliability because some
answers will be “give-aways”.
4) Clueless: Ensure your premises don’t include hints through grammar (like implying the
answer must be plural) or hints from word choice (like using the term itself in a
definition).
5) Unequal responses: In an ideal world, you should present more responses than
premises, so the remaining responses don’t work as hints to the correct answer. This is
not often possible when using a template.
6) Limited premises: Due to the capacity limitations of working memory, avoid a long list
of premises in the first column. A number that I’ve come across is to keep the list down
to six items. Even less might be better, depending on the characteristics of your
audience.
7) One correct answer: Every premise should have only one correct response. Obvious,
but triple-check to make sure each response can only work for one premise.
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Guidelines for Constructing Multiple Choice Items

1) Use plausible distractors (wrong-response options)

2) Use a question format
3) Emphasize higher-level thinking
4) Emphasize higher-level thinking (continued)
5) Keep option lengths similar
6) Balance the placement of the correct answer
7) Be grammatically correct
8) Avoid clues to the correct answer
9) Avoid negative questions
9. Use only one correct option (or be sure the best option is clearly the best option)
10. Give clear instructions
11. Use only a single, clearly-defined problem and include the main idea in the question
12. Avoid the “all the above” option
13. Avoid the “none of the above” option
14. Don’t use mc questions when other item types are more appropriate

Guidelines for Constructing Essay Items

1) Only add a few essay questions per Test

2) Keep essay questions per Test specific to one or two topics
3) Ask the question in your own words
4) Leave opinions at home when grading
5) Inform users ahead of time of how grading will be completed
6) Provide customized feedback per student
7) Make the question clear
8) Use directives such as “Compare”, “Identify”, “Explain”, “Describe”, “Define”
9) Show the points an essay questions is worth.
10) Provide instructions on how in depth and detailed you want in an answer.

Activity 9: Conduct assessment about how teachers are preparing and administering both
objective and essay type test items. Use the practical experiences of teachers and also check or
refer the previous sample exams prepared and administered to the students.

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……………………………………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………………………………………
Authentic Assessment

Authentic assessment measures the ability of students to demonstrate practical skills and
concepts; assessing practical performance, process and product; evaluate students' abilities in
'real-world' contexts; it assesses students’ skills on authentic tasks and projects activities; and
it does not encourage rote learning and passive test-taking.

Authentic assessment focuses on students' analytical skills, ability to integrate, creativity, work
collaboratively, written and oral expression skills. It values the learning process as much as the
finished product and it assesses non-cognitive performances such as interests, skills, physical
activities, laboratory experiments, attitudes, project activities, and workshop products and the
like.

Authentic assessment also identified as:

 Performance assessment
 Outcome based assessment
 Product assessment
 Real life setting assessment

Tools of Authentic Assessment

Some of the major tools we can employ in authentic assessment are as follows:

1. Observation and observation devices

a. Checklist
b. Anecdotal records
c. Rating scales
d. Running records
2. Project Work Assessment
3. Portfolio
4. Self-Assessment
5. Reflection
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 6. Rubric

Activity 10: Do you think authentic assessment is mostly used in teaching and learning
process in schools, colleges and universities. Discuss with evidence.

……………………………………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………………………………………
Planning Classroom Test and Test Development

Planning classroom test comprises development of quality question demands to apply test
preparation principles. No one can be guaranteed to produce quality question in the absence of
test preparation principles and guidelines. Besides, planning for test development is the
process of applying test blue print to produce quality questions.

Hence, planning is helpful for validity, reliability and usability of question development; helps
to ensure pre-specified instructional objectives and subject matter (content); and leads to the
preparation of table of specification.

Therefore, planning classroom test and test development focuses on:

 Planning Stage
 Content Survey
 Scrutinize instructional objectives
 Develop table of specification
 Prepare questions/items

Teacher-made tests have the following pit-falls:

1. Do not appropriately consider all levels of learning outcomes. Example, items fall
within recalling and simple facts.
2. Not valid: They fail to measure what they are supposed to measure. Validity is an
instrument that measures what it is supposed to measure.
3. Unrepresentative of the topics. Do not cover comprehensively all the entire topics
taught and are not comprehensive.
4. Lack of clarity and wordiness. Example, ambiguous, not precise, not clear and
carelessly worded.
5. Fail to do item analysis.
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 6. Doing item discrimination, difficulty level, effectiveness of distracters and the like.

Therefore, while planning a classroom test, it is advisable to consider the following basic
guidelines or considerations in planning a classroom test. Hence, those considerations are
indicated as follows:

1. Purpose identification
2. State instructional objectives and content
3. Determine relative emphasis to be given to each learning outcome
4. Select appropriate item formats (objective or subjective type)
5. Develop test blue print or Table specification
6. Prepare test items/questions
7. Deciding scoring pattern and the way of interpretation
8. Deciding the length and duration of the test
9. Assembling test items and preparing direction
10. Administer the test

2.6.3. General Principles for Constructing Test Items

In order to construct or prepare test items, the following general principles should be properly
considered by the test developer. They are:

1) Make the instructions for each type of question simple and brief.
2) Use simple and clear language in the questions.
3) Write items that require specific understanding or ability developed in that subject.
4) Do not suggest the answer to one question in the body of another question. This makes
the test less useful, as the test-wise student will have an advantage.

2.6.4. Administering, and Scoring Classroom Tests

Administering the Test

Administering is the process of invigilating an exam under good or necessary conditions in test
administration such as physical conditions (comfortable as possible), and psychological
readiness (relaxed as possible). I test administration, do the following:

 Do not give tests immediately before or after long vacation or a holiday.

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  Try to establish a positive mental attitude in students who will be tested.
 Teachers should do their best to lessen tension and nervousness of students.
 Teachers should make sure that the students understand the directions and those sheets
are being used correctly.
 Writing the time left on the blackboard at 15-minute intervals.
 Careful proctoring discourages cheating.

Scoring Tests

Both essay and objective tests are scored by the teacher differently. Let us see them one by one
as follows:

Scoring Essay Tests

Scoring essay tests is difficult since they are susceptible to subjectivity. There are two
common methods of scoring essay questions. These are the point or analytic method of scoring
and the global/holistic rating method of scoring essay items or tests.

1) The Point or Analytic Method: In this method each answer is compared with already
prepared ideal marking scheme (scoring key) and marks are assigned according to the
adequacy of the answer. This method is generally used satisfactorily to score Restricted
Response Questions. It is desirable to rate each aspect of the item separately and this
provides greater objectivity.
2) The Global/Holistic Rating Method: In this method the examiner first sorts the
response into categories of varying quality based on his/her general or global
impression on reading the response. The standard of quality helps to establish a relative
scale, which forms the basis for ranking responses from those with the poorest quality
response to those that have the highest quality response. Usually between five and ten
categories are used with the rating method with each of the piles representing the
degree of quality and determines the credit to be assigned. For example, where five
categories are used, and the responses are awarded five letter grades: A, B, C, D & E.
The responses are sorted into five categories: A: quality, B: quality, C: quality D:
quality and E: quality. There is usually the need to re-read the responses and to re-
classify the misclassified ones. This method can be used for the extended response
questions where relative judgments are made. Using this method requires a lot of skill
and time in determining the standard response for each quality category. It is desirable

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 to rate each characteristic separately. This provides for greater objectivity and increases
the diagnostic value of the results.

Therefore, when scoring essay questions, the scorers need to consider the following
procedures for scoring essay questions:
 Prepare the marking scheme/ideal answer/outline- constructing the test items.
 Indicate how marks are to be awarded for each section of the expected response.
 Use the scoring method (analytic or global) that is most appropriate for the test item.
 Decide how to handle irrelevant factors: Include legibility of handwriting, spelling,
sentence structure, punctuation and neatness.
 Score only one item in all the scripts at a time, to control the “halo” effect in scoring.
 Evaluate the marking scheme (scoring key) before actual scoring by scoring a random
sample of examinees actual responses.
 Make comments during the scoring of each essay item. These comments act as
feedback to examinees and a source of remediation to both examinees and examiner.
 Evaluate the answers to responses anonymously without knowledge of the examinee
whose script you are scoring. This helps in controlling bias in scoring the essay
questions.

Scoring Objective Tests

Various techniques are used to speed up the scoring of objective tests. There are three methods
of scoring objective tests. They are:

1) Manual Scoring: Manual scoring is done by simply comparing the examinees answer
with the marking key. Use hand to score and commonly used method of scoring.

2) Stencil Scoring: When separate answer sheets are used by examinees for recording
their answers, prepared by pending holes on a blank answer sheet. Scoring is then done
by laying the stencil over each answer sheet and the number of answer checks
appearing through the holes is counted.

3) Machine Scoring: Usually for a large number of examinees. The answers are normally
shaded at the appropriate places assigned to the various items. These special answer
sheets are then machine scored with computers and other possible scoring devices.

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Self-checking Exercises
Try and attempt the following self-checking exercises and evaluate your extent of
understanding and level of performance of the concepts and questions properly. This is
because it can help you to know your current status of understanding the concepts in
assessment and evaluation of student learning.

1) Which one of the following is used to determine the extent it which students are
achieving instructional objectives?
A. Assessment C. Test
B. Evaluation D. Measurement
2) Which type of evaluation is used to fix students in a group?
A. Summative evaluation C. Placement evaluation
B. Formative evaluation D. Diagnostic evaluation
3) Which one of the following is the purpose of assessment and evaluation of student
learning?
A. Guidance and counseling C. Administrative
B. Instructional D. All of the above E. None
4) Which of the following is NOT the importance of stating instructional objectives?
A. Help in selecting or constructing assessment techniques.
B. Help a teacher guide and monitor students learning.
C. Help in selecting inappropriate instructional methods, materials, etc.
D. Provide criteria for evaluating students’ outcomes.
5) Which one of the following is known as knowledge based domain of instructional
objective?
A. Psychomotor domain C. Cognitive domain
B. Affective domain D. All of the above
6) Which one of the following is different from the others?
A. Completion item C. Matching item
B. Multiple choice item D. True/False item
7) Which one of the following is NOT included under the category of observation and
observation devices?
A. Running records C. Rubric
B. Rating scales D. Checklist
8) Which one of the following is NOT the pit-fall of teacher-made tests?

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 A. Unrepresentative of the topics C. Lack of clarity and wordiness
B. Measure what it is supposed to measure D. Fail to do item analysis
9) Which objective scoring method is used for a large number of testees?
A. Stencil Scoring C. Manual Scoring
B. Machine Scoring D. All of the above

References

Bhatia, H.R. Educational Psychology, Macmillan, India.

Dececeo, J.P. &Crawford, W.R. Psychology of Learning and Instruction, Prentice Hall.

Hilgard And Others E.R. Introduction to Psychology, Oxford & IBH.

Lahey RB. Graham JE & others: An Introduction to Educational Psychology, 6th edition, Tata
McGraw Hill Publ

Lindgren, H. Educational in the Classroom, Asia Publishing House.

Mangal SK: Educational Psychology, Prentice Hall of India, N. Delhi

Test Preparation and Administration. White Paper .WERA Professional Publications
Volume 1. www.wera-web.org
Washington Educational Research Association 1999. Ethical Standards in Testing:

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Wininger, S.R. & Norman, A. D. (2005). Teacher candidates' exposure to formative
assessment in educational psychology textbooks: A content analysis. Educational
Assessment 10(1). 19-37.

Conclusion

The Vocational Pedagogy module is designed to prepare TVET teacher graduates for
effective vocational teaching through comprehensive competency assessment and
learning outcome achievement. Implementation of the national exit examination will
ensure quality assurance and the production of skilled vocational teachers/trainers
aligned with industry demands.

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