Chapter 3

Load Estimation

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1 Introduction
The Load Estimation is a critical process in designing HVAC (Heating, Ventilation,
and Air Conditioning) and refrigeration systems. According to the ASHRAE
Handbook, the thermal load represents the total amount of heat energy that must
be added or removed from a space to maintain specific indoor environmental
conditions, such as temperature, humidity, and air quality.

2 Purpose of Load Estimation

The primary goal is to determine the size and capacity of HVAC systems required
to meet the heating and cooling demands of a building. Accurate Load Estimation
ensure:
 Efficient operation of HVAC systems.
 Energy savings and reduced operational costs.
 Consistent indoor comfort and air quality.

3 HEAT FLOW RATES

The heat flow rates are classification as
3.1 Space Heat Gain
This instantaneous rate of heat gain is the rate at which heat enters into and/or is
generated within a space at a given instant. Heat gain is classified by
3.1.1The manner in which it enters the space
 Solar radiation through transparent surfaces such as windows
 Heat conduction through exterior walls and roofs
 Heat conduction through interior partitions, ceilings and floors
 Heat generated within the space by occupants, lights, appliances,
equipment and processes
 Loads as a result of ventilation and infiltration of outdoor air
 Other miscellaneous heat gains

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3.1.2 Whether it is a sensible or latent gain
1. Sensible heat - Heat which a substance absorbs, and while its temperature
goes up, the substance does not change state. Sensible heat gain is directly
added to the conditioned space by conduction, convection, and/or radiation.
Note that the sensible heat gain entering the conditioned space does not equal
the sensible cooling load during the same time interval because of the stored
heat in the building envelope. Only the convective heat becomes cooling load
instantaneously. Sensible heat load is total of
 Heat transmitted thru floors, ceilings, walls
 Occupant’s body heat
 Appliance & Light heat
 Solar Heat gain thru glass
 Infiltration of outside air
 Air introduced by Ventilation

2. Latent Heat Loads - Latent heat gain occurs when moisture is added to the
space either from internal sources (e.g. vapor emitted by occupants and
equipment) or from outdoor air as a result of infiltration or ventilation to
maintain proper indoor air quality. Latent heat load is total of
 Moisture-laden outside air form Infiltration & Ventilation
 Occupant Respiration & Activities
 Moisture from Equipment & Appliances
To maintain a constant humidity ratio, water vapor must condense on cooling
apparatus at a rate equal to its rate of addition into the space. This process is
called dehumidification and is very energy intensive, for instance, removing 1
kg of humidity requires approximately 0.7 kWh of energy.

3.2 Space Heat Gain V/s Cooling Load (Heat Storage Effect)
Space Heat Gain is ≠ to Space Cooling Load
The heat received from the heat sources (conduction, convection, solar radiation,
lightning, people, equipment, etc...) does not go immediately to heating the room
air. Only some portion of it is absorbed by the air in the conditioned space

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instantaneously leading to a minute change in its temperature. Most of the
radiation heat especially from sun, lighting, people is first absorbed by the
internal surfaces, which include ceiling, floor, internal walls, furniture etc. Due to
the large but finite thermal capacity of the roof, floor, walls etc., their
temperature increases slowly due to absorption of radiant heat. The radiant
portion introduces a time lag and also a decrement factor depending upon the
dynamic characteristics of the surfaces. Due to the time lag, the effect of radiation
will be felt even when the source of radiation, in this case the sun is removed. as
the shown in fig 1

fig 1 Differences between Space Heat Gain and Space Cooling Load
Differences between instantaneous heat gain and cooling load is due to heat
storage affect. The relation between heat gain and cooling load and the effect of
the mass of the structure (light, medium & heavy) is shown below. From the
figure it is evident that, there is a delay in the peak heat, especially for heavy
construction. as the shown in fig 2

fig 2 actual cooling load and solar heat gain for light, medium and heavy construction

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 3.3 Space Cooling V/s Cooling Load (Coil)
Space cooling is the rate at which heat must be removed from the spaces to
maintain air temperature at a constant value. Cooling load, on the other hand, is
the rate at which energy is removed at the cooling coil that serves one or more
conditioned spaces in any central air conditioning system. It is equal to the
instantaneous sum of the space cooling loads for all spaces served by the system
plus any additional load imposed on the system external to the conditioned
spaces items such as fan energy, fan location, duct heat gain, duct leakage, heat
extraction lighting systems and type of return air systems all affect component
sizing.

4 COMPONENTS OF COOLING LOAD

The total building cooling load consists of heat transferred through the building
envelope (walls, roof, floor, windows, doors etc.) and heat generated by occupants,
equipment, and lights. The load due to heat transfer through the envelope is called
as external load, while all other loads are called as internal loads. The percentage
of external versus internal load varies with building type, site climate, and building
design. The total cooling load on any building consists of both sensible as well as
latent load components. The sensible load affects the dry bulb temperature, while
the latent load affects the moisture content of the conditioned space. Buildings
may be classified as externally loaded and internally loaded. In externally loaded
buildings the cooling load on the building is mainly due to heat transfer between
the surroundings and the internal conditioned space. Since the surrounding
conditions are highly variable in any given day, the cooling load of an externally
loaded building varies widely. In internally loaded buildings the cooling load is
mainly due to internal heat generating sources such as occupants, lights or
appliances. In general the heat generation due to internal heat sources may remain
fairly constant, and since the heat transfer from the variable surroundings is much
less compared to the internal heat sources, the cooling load of an internally loaded
building remains fairly constant. Obviously from energy efficiency and economics
points of view, the system design strategy for an externally loaded building should
be different from an internally loaded building. Hence, prior knowledge of whether
the building is externally loaded or internally loaded is essential for effective system
design. as the shown in fig 3

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 fig 3 sources of cooling load of the building

4.1 COOLING LOAD CALCULATION METHOD

For a thorough calculation of the zones and whole-building loads, one of the
following three methods should be employed:
1. Transfer Function Method (TFM): This is the most complex of the methods
proposed by ASHRAE and requires the use of a computer program or
advanced spreadsheet.
2. Cooling Load Temperature Differential/Cooling Load Factors (CLTD/CLF):
This method is derived from the TFM method and uses tabulated data to
simplify the calculation process. The method can be fairly easily transferred
into simple spreadsheet programs but has some limitations due to the use
of tabulated data.
3. Total Equivalent Temperature Differential/Time-Averaging (TETD/TA):
This was the preferred method for hand or simple spreadsheet calculation
before the introduction of the CLTD/CLF method.

5 CLTD/SCL/CLF METHOD OF LOAD CALCULATION

As mentioned before, the heat gain to the building is not converted to cooling
load instantaneously. CLTD (cooling load temperature difference), SCL (solar
cooling load factor), and CLF (cooling load factor): all include the effect of (1)
time-lag in conductive heat gain through opaque exterior surfaces and (2) time
delay by thermal storage in converting radiant heat gain to cooling load.

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This approach allows cooling load to be calculated manually by use of simple
multiplication factors.
a. CLTD is a theoretical temperature difference that accounts for the
combined effects of inside and outside air temp difference, daily temp
range, solar radiation and heat storage in the construction
assembly/building mass. It is affected by orientation, tilt, month, day, hour,
latitude, etc. CLTD factors are used for adjustment to conductive heat gains
from walls, roof, floor and glass.
b. CLF accounts for the fact that all the radiant energy that enters the
conditioned space at a particular time does not become a part of the
cooling load instantly. The CLF values for various surfaces have been
calculated as functions of solar time and orientation and are available in the
form of tables in ASHRAE Handbooks. CLF factors are used for adjustment
to heat gains from internal loads such as lights, occupancy, power
appliances.
c. SCL factors are used for adjustment to transmission heat gains from glass.

5.1 External Cooling Load

As discussed before, the total cooling load on a building consists of external as
well as internal loads. The external loads consist of heat transfer by conduction
through the building walls, roof, floor, doors etc, heat transfer by radiation
through fenestration such as windows and skylights. All these are sensible heat
transfers.
5.1.1 ROOF and WALLS

Q = U * A * CLTD Corrected (3-1)

CLTD Corrected= [CLTD Wall+ (78 – TR) +(TM – 85)] (3-2)
 Q = Load through the roof and walls in Btu/hr
 U = Thermal Transmittance for walls in Btu/ (h ft2 F)
 A = area of walls in ft2
 CLTD = Cooling Load Temperature Difference for roof and walls in °F
 U=1/∑R
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5.1.2 GLASS

Q=A*U*ΔT (3-3)
U = Thermal Transmittance for glass in Btu/ (h ft2 F)
A = area of glass in ft2
ΔT=temperature difference F
5.1.3 Solar glass

Q=A* SHGF* SC* CLF (3-4)

A=Area (ft) 2
SHGF=solar heat gain factor
SC=shadow coefficient
CLF=cooling load factor
To find SHGF need
1. Country
2. Latitude
3. Direction
5.2 Internal Cooling Loads
The various internal loads consist of sensible and latent heat transfers due to
occupants, products, processes appliances and lighting. The lighting load is only
sensible. The conversion of sensible heat gain (from lighting, people, appliances,
etc.) to space cooling load is affected by the thermal storage characteristics of that
space and is thus subject to appropriate cooling load factors (CLF) to account for
the time lag of the cooling load caused by the building mass. The weighting factors
equation determines the CLF factors.
CLF = Q cooling load / Q internal gains
Note that the latent heat gains are considered instantaneous.

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5.2.1 People

Qs= (qs) for person *N.person*CLF (3-5)

QL=(ql)for person *N.person (3-6)
Qs= for sensible
QL= for latent
N.Person= number of people in area
CLF=cooling load factor for people
5.2.2 lighting

Q=3.41 * q* Fa * Fs *A* CLF (3-7)

q= we know it from electrical engineer Or from table
Fa= .75→ 1
Fs=1→ 1.25
A=Area
5.2.3 Miscellaneous
Qs=sensible * CLF
QL=latent
When we have hood No QL
CLF= cooling load factor
5.2.4 Power equipment
A
Qs= B *FL * CLF (3-8)
C

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5.2.5 Partition

Q=A *U * ΔT (3-9)
A= Area (ft)
U= overall heat coefficient Btu/ (h ft2 F)
ΔT
1-if 1 and 2 are conditioning Temperature different equal zero
2- if 1 are conditioning and 2 no Temperature different equal (33-Tc)
3- if 1 are conditioning and 2 No And have equipment Temperature different
equal (43-Tc)
5.2.6 Ventilation

Qs = 1.08 * ΔT * CFM (3-10)

QL = 4840 * Δw * CFM (3-11)
CFM = (CFM /Person) N. Person + (CFM /A) * Area (3-12)
5.2.7 Infiltration

Qs = 1.08 * ΔT * CFM (3-13)

QL = 4840 * Δw * CFM (3-14)
CFM = Na * (volume/60) (3-15)
Room heat sensible factor (RHSF) = RSH/( RSH+ RLH) (3-16)
Total effective cooling capacity (TECC) = (TLL+TSL)*(1+SF) (3-17)
SF = 5 : 10 %

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6 Building
6.1 Building overview
This building is a population unit consisting of three floors, each floor consists of
12 apartments. Before estimating cooling load of any building, there is some basic
necessary information to design a proper HVAC system, like building orientation,
weather conditions, building spaces, and building materials etc. As the more exact
the information the more accurate will be the load estimated.

6.2 Building location

This building is located in Cairo. It is located at 30 latitude and 31 longitude.

6.3 Climate conditions

The hottest month: July
Tdb = 46°C & Twb = 24°C & Relative Humidity (RH) : 50%
The climate conditions are shown in fig 4

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 fig 4 The climate conditions tables

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