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Phase Conjugate Laser Optics 1st Edition Arnaud
Brignon Digital Instant Download
Author(s): Arnaud Brignon, Jean-Pierre Huignard
ISBN(s): 9780471439578, 0471439576
Edition: 1
File Details: PDF, 5.71 MB
Year: 2004
Language: english
PHASE CONJUGATE LASER OPTICS
WILEY SERIES IN LASERS AND APPLICATIONS
D. R. VIJ, Editor
Kurukshetra University
OPTICS OF NANOSTRUCTURED MATERIALS † Vadim Markel
LASER REMOTE SENSING OF THE OCEAN: METHODS AND

APPLICATIONS † Alexey B. Bunkin
COHERENCE AND STATISTICS OF PHOTONICS AND ATOMS † Jan Perina

METHODS FOR COMPUTER DESIGN OF DIFFRACTIVE OPTICAL
ELEMENTS † Victor A. Soifer
PHASE CONJUGATE LASER OPTICS † Arnaud Brignon and Jean-Pierre

Huignard (eds.)
PHASE CONJUGATE
LASER OPTICS
Arnaud Brignon
Jean-Pierre Huignard
Editors
A WILEY-INTERSCIENCE PUBLICATION
JOHN WILEY & SONS, INC.

Copyright # 2004 by John Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights reserved.
Published by John Wiley & Sons, Inc., Hoboken, New Jersey.

Published simultaneously in Canada.
No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted in any form or
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Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data:
Brignon, Arnaud.
Phase conjugate laser optics / Arnaud Brignon, Jean-Pierre Huignard.
p. cm.
ISBN 0-471-43957-6 (Cloth)
1. Lasers. 2. Electrooptics. 3. Optical phase conjugation. I.
Huignard, J.-P. (Jean-Pierre), 1944– II. Title.
TA1675 .B75 2003
621.360 6–dc22
200321226
Printed in the United States of America
10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1
CONTENTS
Foreword xiii
Contributors xv
Preface xvii
Chapter 1. Overview of Phase Conjugation 1

Jean-Pierre Huignard and Arnaud Brignon
1.1 General Introduction 1
1.2 Phase Conjugation Through Four-Wave Mixing 5
1.2.1 Phase Conjugation and Holography 5
1.2.2 The Basic Formalism of Four-Wave Mixing 6
1.2.3 Self-Pumped Phase Conjugation 8
1.3 The Nonlinear Materials 10
1.3.1 Optical Kerr Effects 10
1.3.2 Stimulated Brillouin Scattering 10
1.3.3 Photorefraction 11
1.3.4 Free Carriers in Semiconductors 11
1.3.5 Saturable Amplification 12
1.3.6 Saturable Absorption 12
1.3.7 Molecular Reorientation in Liquid Crystals 13
1.3.8 Thermal Gratings 13
1.4 The Criteria for the Choice of Materials 14
1.5 Conclusion 15
References 15
Chapter 2. Principles of Phase Conjugating Brillouin Mirrors 19

Axel Heuer and Ralf Menzel
2.1 Introduction 19
2.2 Theoretical Description of the SBS Process 21
2.2.1 General Equations 22
2.2.2 Optical Phase Conjugation by SBS 25
v
vi CONTENTS
2.2.3 SBS Threshold 30

2.2.4 Numerical Calculations 2D Model (Focused Geometry) 31
2.2.5 Numerical Calculations 3D Model (Focused Geometry) 35
2.2.6 Numerical Calculations for Waveguides 38
2.3 Realization of SBS Mirrors 43
2.3.1 Bulk Media SBS Mirrors 45
2.3.2 Optical Fibers 49
2.3.3 Tapered Fibers 52
2.3.4 Liquid Waveguides (Capillaries) 54
2.4 Summary 56
References 57
Chapter 3. Laser Resonators with Brillouin Mirrors 63

Martin Ostermeyer and Ralf Menzel
3.1 Introduction 63
3.2 Survey of Different Resonator Concepts with Brillouin 64
Mirrors (SBS-PCRs)
3.3 Stability and Transverse Modes of Phase Conjugating Laser 70
Resonators with Brillouin Mirror
3.4 Q-Switch via Stimulated Brillouin Scattering 78
3.5 Resonance Effects by Interaction of Start Resonator Modes 82
with the SBS Sound Wave
3.6 Longitudinal Modes of the Linear SBS Laser 84
3.6.1 Transient Longitudinal Mode Spectrum 84
3.6.2 Mode Locking 90
3.6.3 Analytical Pulse Shape Description 93
3.6.4 Impact of Acoustic Decay Time on Longitudinal Modes 96
3.6.5 Summary 99
3.7 High Brightness Operation of the Linear-SBS Laser 99
References 105
Chapter 4. Multi-Kilohertz Pulsed Laser Systems with High Beam 109

Quality by Phase Conjugation in Liquids and Fibers
Thomas Riesbeck, Enrico Risse, Oliver Mehl, and Hans J. Eichler
4.1 Introduction 109
4.2 Amplifier Ssetups 110
4.3 Active Laser Media Nd:YAG and Nd:YALO 112
4.4 Design Rules for MOPA Systems 114
4.5 Beam Quality Measurement 116
CONTENTS vii
4.6 Characterization of Fiber Phase Conjugate Mirror 117

4.7 Flashlamp-pumped Nd:YALO MOPA Systems with Fiber 123
Phase Conjugator
4.8 Actively Q-Switched Flashlamp-pumped Nd:YAG MOPA 129
Systems with Fiber Phase Conjugator
4.9 Continously Pumped Nd:YAG MOPA Systems with Fiber 131
Phase Conjugator
4.10 500-Watt Average Output Power MOPA System with CS2 as SBS 137
Medium
4.11 Conclusion and Outlook 142
References 143
Chapter 5. High-Pulse-Energy Phase Conjugated Laser System 147

C. Brent Dane and Lloyd A. Hackel
5.2 High-Energy SBS Phase Conjugation 149
5.2.1 The Question of Fidelity Versus Input Energy 149
5.2.2 The Experimental Measurement of SBS Wavefront Fidelity 150
5.2.3 The Input Pulse Rise-Time Requirement 152
5.3 A 25-J, 15-ns Amplifier Using a Liquid SBS Cell 154
5.3.1 Design Considerations for the 15-ns System 154
5.3.2 Optical Architecture of the 15-ns System 154
5.3.3 SBS Phase Conjugation with a Liquid Cell 158
5.3.4 Operation of the 25-J/Pulse 15-ns Laser System 161
5.3.5 Summary of the 15-ns High-Energy Laser System 168
5.4 A Long Pulse 500-ns, 30-J Laser System 168
5.4.1 Design Considerations for the 500-ns System 168
5.4.2 Optical Architecture of the 500-ns System 169
5.4.3 Long-Pulse SBS Phase Conjugation 172
5.4.4 Output Characteristics of the 500-ns Laser System 176
5.4.5 Summary of the 500-ns High-Energy Laser System 182
5.5 A 100-J Laser System Using Four Phase-Locked Amplifiers 184
5.5.1 Design Considerations for the Phase-Locked System 185
5.5.2 Optical Architecture of the Phase-Locked System 186
5.5.3 Output Characteristics of the 100-J Laser System 191
5.5.4 Summary of the 100-J Phase-Locked Laser System 197
5.6 Summary and Conclusions 198
References 201
viii CONTENTS
Chapter 6. Advanced Stimulated Brillouin Scattering for Phase 205

Conjugate Mirror Using LAP, DLAP Crystals and
Silica Glass
Hidetsugu Yoshida and Masahiro Nakatsuka
6.2 Crystal Structure of LAP and DLAP 206
6.3 Basic Characteristics for Stimulated Brillouin Scattering 207
6.3.1 Damage Threshold 207
6.3.2 Physical Properties of SBS 207
6.3.3 SBS Reflectivity 209
6.4 Application of Solid-State SBS Mirrors to High-Power Lasers 213
6.4.1 Correction of Aberrations 213
6.4.2 High-Peak Power Laser System with LAP Phase 215
Conjugate Mirror
6.4.3 High-Energy Operation of Nd Lasers with Silica Glass 217
Phase Conjugate Mirror
6.5 Conclusion 220
References 220
Chapter 7. Stimulated Brillouin Scattering Pulse Compression and

Its Application in Lasers 223
G. A. Pasmanik, E. I. Shklovsky, and A. A. Shilov
7.2 Phenomenological Description of Brillouin Compression 224
7.3 Theoretical Analysis of Brillouin Pulse Compression 227
7.4 Numerical Simulation 233
7.5 Characterization of Materials Used for SBS Compressors 237
7.6 Experimental Study of Brillouin Pulse Compression 239
7.7 Application of SBS Pulse Compression to Diode-Pumped 247
Solid-State Lasers with High Pulse Repetition Rate
7.8 Conclusion 252
References 253
Chapter 8. Principles and Optimization of BaTiO3:Rh Phase 257

Conjugators and their Application to MOPA Lasers
at 1.06 mm
Nicolas Huot, Gilles Pauliat, Jean-Michel Jonathan, Gérald Roosen,
Arnaud Brignon, and Jean-Pierre Huignard
CONTENTS ix
8.2 Overview of Material Properties 258

8.2.1 Characterization with CW Illumination 258
8.2.2 Performances of Oxidized Crystals 264
8.2.3 Characterization with Nanosecond Illumination 267
8.3 Self-Pumped Phase Conjugation 272
8.3.1 Internal Loop Self-Pumped Phase Conjugate Mirror 272
8.3.2 Ring Self-Pumped Phase Conjugation 272
8.4 Dynamic Wavefront Correction of MOPA Laser Sources 285
8.4.1 Origin of Aberrations in Nd:YAG Amplifier Rods 285
8.4.2 MOPA Laser Sources Including a Photorefractive 286
Self-Pumped Phase Conjugate Mirror
8.4.3 Comparison of Photorefractive Self-Pumped Phase 291
Conjugation to Other Existing Techniques
8.5 Conclusion 293
References 294
Chapter 9. Spatial and Spectral Control of High-Power Diode Lasers 301

Using Phase Conjugate Mirrors
Paul M. Petersen, Martin Løbel, and Sussie Juul Jensen
9.2 Laser Diode Arrays with Phase Conjugate Feedback 303
9.3 Frequency-Selective Phase Conjugate Feedback with an Etalon in 306
the External Cavity
9.3.1 Experimental Setup 306
9.3.2 Characteristics of the On-Axis Configuration 308
9.3.3 Far-Field Spatial Characteristics in the Off-Axis 309
Configuration
9.3.4 The Improvement of the Spatial Brightness 311
9.3.5 Spectral Characteristics of the Laser System 312
9.3.6 The Improvement of the Temporal Coherence 313
9.4 Tunable Output of High-Power Diode Lasers Using a Grating in 314
the External Cavity
9.5 Stability of the Output of Diode Lasers with External Phase 318
Conjugate Feedback
9.5.1 Long-Term Stability of the Phase Conjugate Laser System 320
9.5.2 The Influence of External Reflections of the Output Beam 320
9.6 Frequency Doubling of High-Power Laser Diode Arrays 323
9.7 Conclusions and Perspectives 325
References 325
x CONTENTS
Chapter 10. Self-Pumped Phase Conjugation by Joint Stimulated 331

Scatterings in Nematic Liquid Crystals and Its
Application for Self-Starting Lasers
Oleg Antipov
10.2 Self-Pumped Phase Conjugation by Joint Stimulated Scattering 333
10.2.1 Geometrical Features of Joint Stimulated Scattering 333
10.2.2 Theoretical Description of Phase Conjugation by Joint 334
Stimulated Scattering in a Nonlinear Layer with Feedback
Loop
10.2.3 Experimental Investigations of Self-Pumped Phase 345
Conjugation of Laser Beams in Nematic Liquid-Crystal
Lasers
10.3 Self-Starting Lasers with a Nonlinear Mirror Based on 351
Nematic Liquid Crystals
10.3.1 Theoretical Description of the Principle of Self-Starting 351
Lasers
10.3.2 Numerical Computation of the Self-Starting Laser with an 353
NLC Mirror
10.3.3 Experimental Investigation of the Self-Starting Lasers 357
10.4 Conclusion 363
References 364
Chapter 11. Self-Adaptive Loop Resonators with Gain Gratings 367

Michael J. Damzen
11.2 Theory of Multiwave Mixing in Gain Media 371
11.2.1 Rate Equation for the Laser Gain Coefficient 371
11.2.2 The Optical Field Equation 372
11.2.3 The Intensity Interference Pattern 372
11.3 The Steady-State Regime 374
11.4 The Transient Regime 377
11.5 The General Time Regime 379
11.5.1 Instantaneous Coupling Coefficients 380
11.5.2 Time-Integrated Coupling Coefficients 381
11.6 Self-Pumped Phase Conjugation 382
11.6.1 Experimental Setup 385
11.6.2 Spatial and Phase Conjugation Behavior 386
11.6.3 Energy and Temporal Behavior 386
CONTENTS xi
11.7 Double Phase Conjugation 387

11.8 Self-Starting Adaptive Gain-Grating Lasers 390
11.9 Self-Adaptive Loop Resonators Using a Thermal Grating Hologram 392
11.10 Experimental Characterization of a Thermal Grating 396
11.10.1 Time Dynamics and Diffraction Efficiency Results 397
11.10.2 Spatial Issues and Phase Conjugation Results 398
11.11 Experimental Operation of a Self-Adaptive Loop Resonator 399
Using a Thermal Grating “Hologram”
11.11.1 Experimental Adaptive Laser System 400
11.11.2 Experimental Results of Adaptive Resonator 401
References 404
Index 407
FOREWORD
Research activities in laser physics and in photonics technologies over the last two
decades have continuously produced a large diversity of new advances. Several
examples illustrate the major impact of optics in the quantum sciences, engineering,
metrology, communication fiber networks, or high-capacity data storage. Besides
these established fields of research and development for industry or for the consumer
markets, laser optics will certainly disseminate in the near future in new areas such
as biology, chemistry, medicine, or nanotechnologies. The constant progress of new
generations of solid-state lasers will support these objectives for the extension of the
fields of applications of photonics.
The performances, reliability, and cost effectiveness of diode pumping has
largely contributed to the current maturity of the laser technologies. It permits the
realization of more efficient sources and the extraction of more energy from the
amplifying media in the continuous or pulse operating modes. These requirements
are challenging innovative approaches for the design of new laser architectures
emitting high power and high brightness beams whose quality is close to the
diffraction limit. This volume, edited by A. Brignon and J.-P. Huignard of Thales
Research and Technology, contributes to these ambitious objectives by reviewing
original nonlinear optical techniques that permit a dynamic correction of any beam
distortion due to passive or active optical elements in the cavity. Optical phase
conjugation possesses the fascinating ability to restore a perfect beam after it is
reflected by a nonlinear mirror. The function has stimulated a great deal of research
into the physics of the nonlinear phenomena and beam interactions which promise to
have the best characteristics for realizing this unconventional optical component.
The authors of the different chapters of this volume are major players in this field,
and they clearly highlight the original concepts of nonlinear optics involved for the
demonstration of novel laser architectures based on conjugate mirrors for delivering
laser beams with a high spatial quality. Basic phenomena, laser structures, and
experiments for beam characterization are treated in great detail in the different
chapters of the volume. This collection of chapters provides the status of the current
developments in the field. It represents a full complement of a long period of basic
research efforts involving the multidisciplinary expertise of scientists and engineers
encompassing optical material sciences, laser physics, and laser engineering. We
hope that this book will stimulate further activities for the discovery of new
nonlinear media since the concept of phase conjugation will undoubtedly apply for
scaling future high-energy laser performances beyond traditional limits. We
are confident that controlling all the key parameters of the sources such as power,
xiii
xiv FOREWORD
spectral bandwidth, and brightness through self-adaptive nonlinear optical technics

will contribute to the widespread development of lasers systems that satisfy the
requirements of industrial and scientific applications.
Dominique Vernay
Technical and Scientific Manager
Thales—Paris
CONTRIBUTORS
Oleg Antipov, Institute of Applied Physics, Russian Academy of Sciences, 603950

Nizhny Novgorod, Russia
Arnaud Brignon, Thales Research and Technology—France, 91404 Orsay, France
Michael J. Damzen, The Blackett Laboratory, Imperial College, London SW7
2BW, United Kingdom
C. Brent Dane, Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory, Livermore, California
94550, USA
Hans J. Eichler, Technische Universität Berlin, Optisches Institut, 10623 Berlin,
Germany
Lloyd A. Hackel, Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory, Livermore, California
94550, USA
Axel Heuer, University of Potsdam, Institute of Physics, Chair of Photonics, 14469
Postdam, Germany
Jean-Pierre Huignard, Thales Research and Technology—France, 91404 Orsay,
France
Nicolas Huot, Laboratoire Charles Fabry, Institut d’Optique, 91403 Orsay, France
Sussie Juul Jensen, Optics and Fluid Dynamics Department, Risø National
Laboratory, DK-4000 Roskilde, Denmark
Jean-Michel Jonathan, Laboratoire Charles Fabry, Institut d’Optique, 91403
Orsay, France
Martin Løbel, Optics and Fluid Dynamics Department, Risø National Laboratory,
DK-4000 Roskilde, Denmark
Oliver Mehl, Technische Universität Berlin, Optisches Institut, 10623 Berlin,
Germany
Ralf Menzel, University of Potsdam, Institute of Physics, Chair of Photonics, 14469
Postdam, Germany
Masahiro Nakatsuka, Institute of Laser Engineering, Osaka University, Osaka
565-0871, Japan
Martin Ostermeyer, University of Potsdam, Institute of Physics, Chair of
Photonics, 14469 Postdam, Germany
xv
xvi CONTRIBUTORS
G. A. Pasmanik, Passat, Toronto, Ontario, Canada M3J 3H9

Gilles Pauliat, Laboratoire Charles Fabry, Institut d’Optique, 91403 Orsay, France
Paul M. Petersen, Optics and Fluid Dynamics Department, Risø National
Laboratory, DK-4000 Roskilde, Denmark
Thomas Riesbeck, Technische Universität Berlin, Optisches Institut, 10623 Berlin,
Germany
Enrico Risse, Technische Universität Berlin, Optisches Institut, 10623 Berlin,
Germany
Gérald Roosen, Laboratoire Charles Fabry, Institut d’Optique, 91403 Orsay, France
A. A. Shilov, Passat, Toronto, Ontario, Canada M3J 3H9
E. I. Shklovsky, Passat, Toronto, Ontario, Canada M3J 3H9
Hidetsugu Yoshida, Institute of Laser Engineering, Osaka University, Osaka 565-
0871, Japan
PREFACE
Since the discovery of the laser in the 1960s, a great amount of research activity has led
to an impressive increase of the overall performances of the sources emitting in the
visible or in the infrared spectral regions. The most significant achievements for
solid-state lasers in the last 10 years are the increase in laser output power or pulse
energy by orders of magnitude due to the introduction of the diode pumping of the
gain media. This technology also led to a remarkable improvement of the electrical
to optical efficiency as well as compactness and reliability of the sources. All these
recent technological breakthroughs have contributed to the fast evolution of the field
of photonics and a growing interest in solid-state lasers for many different industrial
and scientific applications. For example, in manufacturing, material processing, or
the medical areas, lasers are now routinely used to focus high-energy densities on a
surface. This ability also opens new opportunities in basic science interactions for
plasma physics or X-ray generation with sources delivering ultrashort pulses. Also
due to the directivity of optical antennas, lasers will undoubtly be applied in LIDAR
imaging systems, for ground or space communications or for monitoring of the
atmosphere. All these applications clearly require sources delivering high-quality
optical beams whose divergence must not exceed the diffraction limit during beam
propagation. In other terms, the wavefront emitted by a high-power laser must be
free of any aberrations or distortions which would degrade the brightness of the
source and thus would lead to a decrease of the system performances. Attaining
these operating conditions is an important challenge, since thermal loading due to
strong pumping of the gain media induces aberrated thermal lenses, which severely
affects the beam quality. It thus results in wavefront aberrations that reduce the
brightness of the source and that evolve when changing the operating conditions of
the source. Adaptive correction of phase aberrations in a laser cavity or in a master-
oscillator power-amplifier structure is thus a crucial problem that must be taken into
account in solid-state laser sources. An elegant approach offering a great potential to
solve this question involves nonlinear optical phase conjugation. This technique
permits the generation of a complex phase conjugate replica of a wavefront after
beam reflection on a nonlinear mirror, thus leading to a compensation of any
wavefront distorsions. This nonlinear reflection can be interpreted as the conjugate
wavefront generation due to a dynamic hologram in a material that exhibits a third-
order nonlinearity. Since the discovery of the effect in the early 1970s, optical phase
conjugation is now an established field of nonlinear optics, and it has opened very
important scientific and technological advances in laser physics over the last
decades. This book is devoted to the current development in the field of Phase
xvii
xviii PREFACE
Conjugate Lasers with the objective of showing the impact of these innovative
concepts on the architectures and performances of a new class of solid-state lasers.
Phase conjugate lasers exhibit adaptive correction of their own aberrations what-
ever their operating conditions, and they provide maximum brightness to the user for
a large diversity of scientific or industrial applications. The critical issue of this very
attractive approach is to identify the most efficient media and nonlinear mechanisms
that operate at the required wavelengths. In this perspective, the book presents the
basic physical phenomena and materials involved for efficient generation of the
conjugate waves for specific examples of laser sources. The book also develops in
detail an analysis of the laser architectures and nonlinear mirrors that are best suited
to operate in continuous-wave or pulsed regimes, respectively. The ability of phase
conjugate lasers to deliver beams with a high spatial and spectral quality is clearly
outlined in the different chapters.
After a brief overview of the basic principles of nonlinear optical phase
conjugation in Chapter 1, a large part of the book is devoted to lasers, including a
Brillouin phase conjugating mirror. In Chapter 2 the principles, the basic properties,
the materials (bulk and fiber geometry), and performances of stimulated Brillouin
scattering (SBS) mirrors are presented. Such nonlinear mirrors can be implemented
inside a laser resonator as shown in Chapter 3. Besides the demonstration of high
brightness operation, the authors analyze in detail the stability and the mode
structures of these unconventional nonlinear resonators. To achieve high power
with a near-diffraction-limited beam, master-oscillator power-amplifier (MOPA)
configurations are demonstrated in Chapter 4 in which both liquid and glass fiber
Brillouin conjugators are used. The fiber presents the advantages of compactness
and lower energy threshold due to the long interaction length of the fiber medium.
However, to achieve very high energy the use of SBS liquid cells is required as
presented in Chapter 5. Using the capability of phase conjugation to phase-lock
several beams issued from different amplifiers, the authors demonstrate up to 100 J
of output energy while keeping the beam quality close the diffraction limit. Some
applications may require solid-state SBS mirrors instead of liquid cells. For that
purpose, the authors of Chapter 6 investigate and characterize SBS properties of
bulk solid-state materials like organic crystals and glasses. The previous chapters
have concerned the ability of SBS mirrors to compensate for phase aberrations of
gain media. It is also important to highlight (as done in Chapter 7) that an SBS
nonlinear mirror can perform pulse compression in the time domain. This brings the
opportunity of controlling both spatial and temporal characteristics of laser pulses
with the same nonlinear mechanism. In the following chapters, alternative nonlinear
mechanisms are presented. In particular, infrared-sensitive photorefractive crystals
are used in Chapter 8. The authors detail the specific properties of this type of
nonlinear material and demonstrate dynamic correction of MOPA laser sources. It is
also shown in Chapter 9 that photorefractive crystals can be used to realize
a semiconductor laser diode cavity with phase conjugate feedback for spatial and
spectral filtering of the modes. In Chapter 10, a nematic liquid crystal cell is
implemented in a laser resonator to perform phase conjugation and correction of
intracavity distortions. This relies on the large anisotropy and nonlinear effects in
liquid crystals. Thermal gratings can also be used to build a self-adaptive phase
conjugate loop resonator as demonstrated in Chapter 11. In all these studies, two
distinct materials are employed for the gain medium and the phase conjugate mirror.
It is finally shown in Chapter 11 that laser gain media can perform phase conjugation
by using gain saturation as the nonlinear mechanism. Self-adaptive holographic loop
resonators are demonstrated using this interaction.
This book gives a complete review of the state of the art of phase conjugate
lasers, including laser demonstrators, performance, technology, and selection of the
most important and promising classes of nonlinear media.
We express our warm thanks to all our co-authors for their very valuable
contributions and for their fruitful discussions and cooperation during the
preparation of this book.
Jean-Pierre Huignard
Arnaud Brignon
Paris, 2003
xix
CHAPTER 1
Overview of Phase Conjugation

JEAN-PIERRE HUIGNARD and ARNAUD BRIGNON
Thales Research and Technology—France, 91404 Orsay, France
1.1 GENERAL INTRODUCTION
The discovery in the early 1970 by Zel’dovich et al. [1] that a nonlinear process could
generate a phase conjugate replica of a complex incident wavefront has opened a
wide interest in the laser and optics community. Since the first experiments done with
a ruby laser and Brillouin scattering in a gas cell, the field of optical phase
conjugation has stimulated a lot of research and development activities that cover
both the fundamental and applied parts of the field of laser optics. The important new
aspects of optical phase conjugation which are of prime interest are the following:
First, phase conjugation is a nonlinear mechanism that reverses both the direction of
propagation and the phase of an aberrated wavefront; second, the generation of the
conjugate beam can be viewed as a dynamic holographic recording process in a
medium that exhibits a third-order nonlinearity. Such an unconventional optical
device is now known as a phase conjugator or a nonlinear phase conjugate mirror.
The major applications of phase conjugation will rely on these remarkable physical
properties, which are illustrated in Fig. 1.1. It shows the now well-known comparison
between a classical mirror on Fig. 1.1a which satisfies the conventional reflection law
for the incident wavefront, while Fig. 1.1b shows the function of a nonlinear mirror
which reverses the sign of the incident wave vector k~i at any point of the incident
wavefront propagating in the þz direction. In other words, if E i ¼ Ei exp(iv0t 2 ikiz)
is the incident scalar optical field expression, the returned conjugate field Ec due to
the nonlinear mirror is expressed by Ec ¼ Ei exp(iv0 t þ iki z). This field propagates
in the 2z direction with complex amplitude Ei and at frequency v0. We will show
later that the intensity of the conjugate field is affected in the general case by a
nonlinear reflection coefficient R (R can be larger than one) and in some interactions
by a slight frequency shift d ! v0. Figure 1.2 illustrates the situation where an
incident wavefront is disturbed by an aberrating medium (atmospheric turbulence,
passive or active optical components, etc.). Due to phase reversal, a diffraction-
Phase Conjugate Laser Optics, edited by Arnaud Brignon and Jean-Pierre Huignard
ISBN 0-471-43957-6 Copyright # 2004 John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
1
2 OVERVIEW OF PHASE CONJUGATION
Figure 1.1. Comparison of beam reflection by (a) a conventional mirror and (b) a nonlinear
phase conjugate mirror.
limited wave can be recovered after double passing through severely aberrated
optical components and beam reflection on the nonlinear mirror. In particular—and
this is the main subject treated in this volume—a phase conjugate mirror permits the
compensation of any static or dynamic aberrations due to high gain medium in a laser
cavity or in a master oscillator power amplifier architecture. These important
properties are described in Fig. 1.3. Figure 1.3a shows a laser oscillator whose cavity
consists of a classical and a conjugate mirror: A stable oscillation can occur because
of the compensation of the thermal lensing effects and aberrations due to the highly
pumped gain media. In such conditions a diffraction-limited beam can be extracted
from the cavity. The alternative approach is presented in Fig. 1.3b. The oscillator
emits a low-energy beam with a diffraction-limited quality. It is then amplified by the
gain medium operating in a double-pass configuration. Due to the conjugate mirror,
the returned beam is compensated for any aberrations due to the high-gain laser
amplifier. A diffraction-limited beam is extracted by 908 polarization rotation. So,
according to these remarkable properties, it is expected that we can realize a new
class of high-power and high-brightness phase conjugate lasers delivering a beam
quality that fits the requirements for scientific and industrial applications. This
Figure 1.2. Compensation of the aberrations due to a phase distorting media by wavefront
reflection on a phase conjugate mirror.
GENERAL INTRODUCTION 3
Figure 1.3. The two main laser architectures involving a phase conjugate mirror for
correction of the aberrations due to thermal effects in the gain medium. (a) Laser oscillator
with intracavity phase conjugate mirror and (b) master-oscillator power amplifier with a phase
conjugate mirror.
capability of aberration compensation was also shown in the earliest research works
on Fourier optics and holography. Kogelnik [2] had already demonstrated that static
aberrations can be compensated by using conventional holographic recording. After
processing of the photographic media and proper readout of the hologram, it
generated the backward conjugate wave for a clear image restoration through a
distorting media. The analogy of phase conjugation with dynamic holography was
then outlined by Yariv [3] and in early experiments with photorefractive crystals [4],
and it contributed to extend the field of applications, thus including parallel image
processing, optical correlation for pattern recognition, holographic interferometry
for non destructive testing, incoherent to coherent image conversion, novelty filters
for moving object detection [3].
It was then recognized that when doing simultaneous recording and readout of a
volume hologram with beams having the same or nearly the same wavelength, the
incident or conjugate waves can be amplified [5 –8]. This is due to the energy
transfer from the pump beams which interfere with the probe beam in the volume of
the nonlinear media. These phenomena of mutual coupling of waves interfering in
the nonlinear media are of great importance in view of applications and have led to
remarkable unified treatments of the fields of nonlinear optics and dynamic
holography. These interactions have led to outstanding applications to coherent
beam amplification and to amplified phase conjugation. The possibility of
amplifying the amplitude of a complex wavefront through a third-order nonlinearity
permits (a) the demonstration of novel types of optical resonators, including a

nonlinear mirror with gain, or (b) the attainment of high-gain and low-noise image
amplification. We must also outline that pioneering experiments on dynamic
holography were done in the 1970s in different media allowing the recording of
elementary gratings by interfering two beams at the same wavelength. The gratings
was due to a change of the absorption or of the index of refraction of the media. In
these early experiments, the holographic technique was mainly used to probe the
spatiotemporal evolution of the physical mechanisms responsible for grating
formation in materials like semiconductors or saturable absorbers [9, 10].
The mechanisms of dynamic holography and phase conjugation have stimulated a
great interest in the research laboratories for nearly two decades. First, it was
important to analyze and to characterize with details the physics of the third-order
nonlinearities x (3) when the material is illuminated by interference of a pump and
probe beams. It induces a spatial modulation of the material complex dielectric
constant which generates an amplitude or a phase volume grating. Third-order effects
occur in isotropic transparent media, and there is no restriction to material that
exhibits an inversion symmetry center as for the second-order nonlinearities. In
particular, the most established x (3) nonlinear mechanisms for phase conjugation are
Kerr effects, Brillouin scattering, and Raman scattering. However, other effects that
may also provide an efficient index or amplitude modulation through mechanisms
with a response time ranging several nanoseconds to seconds are of great interest for
phase conjugation [11]. This is the situation encountered with photorefractive effects,
free carrier generation in semiconductors, laser gain media, and so on; several
chapters of this book will present laser architectures and system performances based
on these nonlinearities used to realize an efficient phase conjugate mirror. Another
aspect of the field which has been intensively covered in the research labs is the
capability of the dynamic hologram to exchange energy between the incident and
conjugate waves that interfere in the dynamic media. First observed and analyzed by
holographic self-diffraction phenomena in photorefractive crystals like LiNbO3, [12,
13], these effects were subjects to intense research activities either using the
formalism of wave propagation in the nonlinear media, or based on the point of view
of holography and self-diffraction that can reinforce (or reduce) the intensity of one
of the interfering probe (or pump) beams. Both approaches complement each other
with regard to the understanding of the physical phenomena involved for the
generation of a phase conjugate wavefront. They permit the prediction of novel beam
interactions and applications and also enable us to compare materials and
mechanisms through the calculation and experimental measurements of the two-
wave or four-wave mixing gain coefficients per unit of length of the nonlinear media.
This parameter, as well as the required laser characteristics such as wavelength,
continuous or pulsed operation, and incident energy or power levels, will contribute
to our making the right choice of the nonlinear mechanism and materials for a reliable
operation of the laser including a phase conjugator [14, 15]. Hereafter, we will detail
the main optical configurations as well as the physical mechanisms and materials that
have been proposed and studied during the early stages of the field [16 – 18]. They are
PHASE CONJUGATION THROUGH FOUR-WAVE MIXING 5
now at the origin of the current developments of optical phase conjugation for novel
laser cavities and architectures which are treated in this book.
1.2 PHASE CONJUGATION THROUGH FOUR-WAVE MIXING
1.2.1 Phase conjugation and holography

It is now well established from previous works that the basic geometry for phase
conjugation consists of two counterpropagating plane waves that are the pump
beams of amplitudes E1 and E2 and that interfere with a probe beam of amplitude Ep.
In general, the beams have the same polarization state, and the probe is incident at an
arbitrary angle on the recording medium having a third-order nonlinearity. A clear
interpretation of conjugate beam generation shown in Fig. 1.4 is the following: The
probe and signal beam interfere in the nonlinear material and create an interference
periodic pattern that modulates the properties of the media. The resulting grating
wave vector amplitude is k ¼ 2p=L. The fringe period L is given by the formula
L ¼ l=2 sin u, where l is the laser wavelength, and +u is the pump and probe beam
incident angles with respect to the normal to the nonlinear media; it results in a
complex volume hologram due to a spatial distribution of the refractive index (Kerr-
like media), of the absorption (saturable absorbers), or of the gain when the
conjugator is the laser medium itself. The second antiparallel pump beam is then
diffracted under Bragg conditions by the dynamic volume hologram; following the
classical formalism of holography, it generates a backward conjugate wavefront
whose complex amplitude can written as Ec ¼ Ep E1 E2 . It is named the conjugate
image beam in holography, and its amplitude is proportional to Ep . Since this
geometry involves waves E1, E2, Ep, and Ec which are simultaneously present in the
material, it is known as four-wave mixing (4WM). The reflectivity of the nonlinear
mirror is thus defined as R ¼ jEc (0)=Ep (0)j2 . Considering that v1, v2, and vp are the
respective frequencies of the pump and probe beams, the conjugate beam exhibits a
frequency vc ¼ v1 þ v2 2 vp. However, starting from this general formula, two
particular situations are of interest: the degenerate four-wave mixing where all
frequencies are equal to v0 (Fig. 1.4a) and the nearly degenerate four-wave mixing
case (Fig. 1.4b) where vc ¼ v0 2 d, d ! v0 when the probe and pump frequencies
are respectively v0 þ d and v0. This last situation is com-monly encountered in
several types of efficient nonlinearities (Brillouin scattering, photorefractives, etc.)
where the frequency detuning d range respectively from several gigahertz to few
hertz. It is viewed as a nonlinear interaction involving a moving holographic grating.
The formalism describing the coupling of the interfering optical fields via a given
material nonlinearity is another important aspect of the work done on phase
conjugation. The analysis must identify the conditions for efficient interactions
between the beams for energy transfer from the pump to the incident and conjugate
beams. In particular, it will be shown that interactions involving nearly degenerate
four-wave mixing or a nonlocal spatial response of the material (phase-shifted
volume grating) permit the attainment of high gain coefficients. It will result in
Figure 1.4. Generation of a phase conjugate wavefront by four-wave mixing interaction. The
pump and probe beams interfere to create a dynamic hologram in the nonlinear medium.
(a) Degenerate four-wave mixing and (b) nearly degenerate four-wave mixing.
amplification (or depletion) of the probe or amplified conjugate beam reflectivity.

These unique properties make the 4WM interactions extremely useful for the
applications developed in this book. Hereafter, we give some of the major relations
that govern the amplitudes of the transmitted Ep (z ¼ L) and conjugate Ec (z ¼ 0)
waves, thus allowing us to calculate the reflectivity of the nonlinear mirror.
1.2.2 The basic formalism of four-wave mixing

The original equations of degenerate (or nearly degenerate) 4WM were first derived
independently by Yariv and Pepper [5] and Bloom and Bjorklund [8] by considering
a set of coupling wave equations which will describe the space and time evolution of
the waves that interact all together in the nonlinear media. The equations relate the
fact that the hologram is dynamic: It adapts in real time (with an inertia due to a finite
response time) to the interference pattern due to mutual interference of the beams in
the gratings that they are writing and reading. Note that with all beams having the
same or nearly the same frequency (d ! v0), we consider that there is a perfect
phase matching of the k~ vectors k~c ¼ k~1 þ k~2 k~p , where k~i is the optical wave
vector. In the hypothesis of nondepleted pump beam and equal frequencies, we have
from Refs. [5 – 9] the following set of coupled equations for the steady-state
amplitudes of the optical fields Ec and Ep:

rffiffiffiffi
dEc v0 m (3)
¼i x Ep E 1 E2 (1)
dz 2 1
rffiffiffiffi
dEp v0 m (3)
¼ i x Ec E1 E2 (2)
dz 2 1
where v0 the optical frequency of the beams, x(3) is the third-order nonlinearity in SI
units, and m and 1 are the susceptibility and permittivity of the media. From these
general expressions we can derive more simple formulas when introducing a
coupling constant K that will be proportional to the pump beam amplitudes E1 and
E2 and to the third-order nonlinear coefficient of the media x3:
dEp
¼ iK Ec (3)
dz
dEc
¼ iK EP (4)
dz
pffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi
where K ¼ i(v0 =2) m=1x(3) E1 E2 . Solving these equations leads to the following
expressions for the transmitted and reflected fields for a material interaction length
L:
K
Ec (0) ¼ iEp (0) tanjKjL (5)
jKj
1
Ep (L) ¼ Ep (0) (6)
cosjKjL
Two parameters will be of interest in view of applications of degenerate four-wave

mixing: first, the reflectivity R ¼ jEc (0)=Ep (0)j2 of the nonlinear phase conjugate
mirror; and second, the gain G ¼ jEp (L)=Ep (0)j2 , which characterizes probe beam
amplification. According to the above relations, the parameters R and G which are
characteristic of the degenerate 4WM interaction are expressed by the following
expressions:
R ¼ tan2 jKjL (7)

1
G¼ (8)
cos2 jKjL
These formula clearly show that amplified reflection and transmission can occur for
jKLj satisfying p=4 , jKjL , 3p=4. In these conditions, the nonlinear interaction
can be seen as a parametric amplifier for both the reflected and transmitted waves
due to efficient energy transfer from the pump beams. Also an important
consequence is the existence of self-oscillation when jKjL ¼ p=2. It physically
corresponds to an optical oscillation without mirror feedback for zero intensity
probe beam.
Since amplification appears to be independent of the pump-probe beam angle in

the above formula, 4WM interaction could permit to amplify complex incident and
conjugate wavefront carrying spatial informations. However, it will be shown that
with real materials there often exist an optimum range of pump-probe beam angles
due to the physical mechanisms involved for the generation of the photoinduced
grating index modulation. This angular bandpass will limit the number of transverse
modes that can be amplified or conjugated, and it determines the space bandwidth
product of this new type of image amplifier.
As an example, stimulated Brillouin scattering and photorefractive phenomena at
zero applied field are more efficient for high spatial frequency gratings arising from
interference of contrapropagating beams. On the other hand, other effects will
require large grating periods due a low beam angle between probe and pump.
An important consequence of the 4WM interaction is its capability of realizing a
laser cavity including a phase conjugate mirror having a continuous gain as
demonstrated first by Feinberg and Hellwarth [19] with BaTiO3 crystal and shown in
Fig. 1.5. A classical mirror of amplitude reflectivity r is introduced on the path of the
incident probe; and due to the phase conjugate properties of the nonlinear mirror
whose reflectivity can be higher than unity, there can be a stable oscillation buildup in
the cavity. The beam oscillating in the cavity starts from the coherent noise due to the
pump beams E1 and E2. Its frequency is equal to the pump frequencies v0 in the case
of a degenerate interaction and is independent of the distance between the mirror and
the nonlinear medium. This experiment is generally realized with interfering pump
and probe beams having the same state of polarization. If this condition is not satisfied
due to the optical components that introduce both spatial aberrations and
depolarizations, a special experimental arrangement is required to process the two
polarization states for obtaining vectorial phase conjugation.
1.2.3 Self-pumped phase conjugation

Another important configuration for conjugation shown in Fig. 1.6 consists only of
an aberrated signal beam that is reflected back by the nonlinear medium as a
conjugate wavefront. This particular interaction, called self-pumped phase
conjugation [20], does not require external contrapropagative pump beams, which
Figure 1.5. Phase conjugate oscillator. The oscillation is due to the nonlinear phase
conjugate mirror that exhibits a reflectivity higher than unity.
Figure 1.6. Self-pumped phase conjugate (SPPC) configurations. (a) SPPC by nonlinear
backscattering, (b) SPPC due to self-induced internal feedback loop inside the nonlinear
material, and (c) SPPC due to an external feedback loop.
interfere with the signal wave as shown in the Fig. 1.4a. In view of applications, it
thus appears very convenient to use this interaction whose main characteristics are
thus the following: The maximum conjugate beam reflectivity is equal to unity since
there is no gain is due to energy transfer from a pump beam as is achieved in the
conventional 4WM geometry; the phase conjugate beam originates from the
coherent noise due to the signal beam. As shown in the Fig. 1.6a, it generates in the
nonlinear medium complex reflection (or transmission) types of holographic volume
gratings which are due to the interference of the signal with scattered plane waves
components that propagate in the same or in opposite directions. It thus results in
regions in the nonlinear medium where there is the equivalent of a 4WM interaction
that self-generates the conjugate wave of the incident one. Also, the beams inside the
volume of the media may form a loop (Fig. 1.6b), but the interaction can also be
reinforced by using and external ring cavity geometry [21] to perform self-pumped
phase conjugation with higher reflectivity (Fig. 1.6c). This geometry is very simple
to use in experiments, and it has a great potential for improving the brightness of
laser sources. However, this self-pumped interaction is not encountered in all
nonlinear mechanisms. Self-pumped phase conjugation is very well suited in
interactions involving stimulated Brillouin scattering or photorefractive back-
scattering phenomena and in particular several chapters of this book will illustrate
applications showing the great potential of these mechanisms for beam quality
control in laser cavities or in master oscillator power amplifier laser architectures.
1.3 THE NONLINEAR MATERIALS
There is potentially a wide variety of nonlinear physical mechanisms that can be

used for optical phase conjugation of coherent laser beams. The generation of a
phase conjugate wavefront arises from the third-order material nonlinearity;
moreover, analogy with holography introduced above affords the opportunity of
using materials allowing the recording of phase or amplitude dynamic volume of the
holograms. Therefore, the mechanisms presented hereafter have been the subject of
extensive research activities during the last two decades—both on the basic material
properties and in depth analysis of interactions between beams that interfere in the
volume of the nonlinear media.
1.3.1 Optical Kerr effects

This mechanism is a basic third-order nonlinearity that appears in isotropic materials
such as gases, liquids, or solids in the presence of a strong electric field due to an
intense optical beam or to an external applied voltage. On the microscopic scale it
corresponds to a reorientation of dipoles in the presence of the high field. In such
conditions the material refractive index n becomes a function of the light intensity
according to the relation of the form n ¼ n0 þ n2 I, where I is the intensity of the
optical beam and n2 is the nonlinear refractive index, which is related to the electro-
optic Kerr coefficient of the material. Kerr nonlinearity may exhibit an extremely
short response time (picosecond range), but it generally requires high peak
intensities (.10 GW . cm22) to induce efficient index nonlinearity for phase
conjugation or ultrafast optical switching. Main materials used for experiments in
wave mixing are liquids such as carbone disulfide (CS2), nitrobenzene, acetone, and
benzene or solids like quartz, silica, and glass (bulk or fibers).
1.3.2 Stimulated Brillouin scattering

The stimulated Brillouin scattering (SBS) effect originates from the electrostrictive
effect in the transparent dielectric media such as liquids, gases or solids. The
interference patterns due to the incident and spontaneous scattered optical fields
generate a traveling acoustic wave that modulates the material refractive index
through the elasto-optic effect. It thus results from the interaction the equivalent of a
coherent moving phase grating that propagates at the sound velocity and that
diffracts in the backward direction a phase conjugate replica of the incident high-
intensity laser beam. SBS is a phenomena that exhibits a threshold, and its typical
response time ranges in the nanosecond due to the phonon lifetime. Also, because of
the moving grating the retro-reflected Stokes wave is frequency-shifted by the
THE NONLINEAR MATERIALS 11
Doppler effect corresponding to the sound velocity by several gigahertz. As will be

shown in several chapters of this book, SBS is a very well suited interaction for self-
pumped phase conjugation and most efficient materials are high-pressure gases (SF6,
N2, Xe, etc.), liquids (CS2, CCl4, GeCl4, SiCl4, TiCl4, freon, acetone, etc.), or solids
(silica fibers or bulk, quartz, organic crystals such as LAP, DLAP, etc.).
1.3.3 Photorefraction
Photorefraction is a particular type of nonlinearity which arises in materials that
exhibit linear (or quadratic) electro-optic (EO) effects. The illumination of the
material by a two-beam interference pattern generates a photoinduced charge
distribution. The photo-generated carriers (electrons or holes) are trapped, and thus
it results in a space-charge field in the volume of the material which modulates the
refractive index through the electro-optics coefficient. Microscopic phenomena for
space-charge buildup involves electrons charge diffusion or drift under an external
applied electric field. There are several specific characteristics of the photorefractive
effect which differ from other known nonlinear mechanisms. First, there is no
threshold effect and the material responds to the incident energy. In such conditions
the material response time can be easily controlled from a fraction of a microsecond
to several seconds; second, the amplitude of the photoinduced index modulation is
mainly determined by the value of the electro-optic coefficient and by the trapping
center density. Also, photorefractive materials have a dark storage time constant,
equivalent to memory effect. Photorefractive materials have already demonstrated
their great importance in experiments based on the recording and erasure of
holograms for optical information processing, high-gain wave mixing, and phase
conjugation with low-power visible or near-infrared laser beams. Most of the
experiments were performed with different types of EO materials such as LiNbO3,
BaTiO3, and Bi12(Si,Ge,Ti)O20; semiconductors such as GaAs, InP, and CdTe;
PLZT ceramics; and, more recently, doped EO polymers or liquid crystals.
1.3.4 Free carriers in semiconductors

Semiconductors are excellent candidates for nonlinear optics experiments since they
possess a large variety of physical mechanisms that can provide efficient and fast
spatial index or absorption modulation under continuous-wave (CW) or pulsed laser
illumination. The first 4WM experiments were based on electron – hole generation
under pulsed laser for transient gratings recording at a wavelength for which photon
energy is larger than the bandgap energy. The generated plasma induces a large
modification of the semiconductor dielectric constant, thus leading to the recording
of both phase and amplitude gratings. However, the index modulation will, in
general, be the dominant contribution in efficient 4WM interactions involving large
period gratings (L . 10 mm). Due to spatial plasma diffusion, small period gratings
are washed out and their contribution to the diffraction is very much reduced.
Temporal dynamics in semiconductors ranges from picoseconds to several 10 ns,
depending of the material and laser wavelength used in the experiments.
Microcrystallites of a semiconductor can also be included in a glass matrix. It results

in a bulk and isotropic material that may exhibit relatively efficient 4WM even for
small period gratings as was demonstrated in CdSe-doped glasses in the green– red
spectral region. Also, major advances in the semiconductor technology now permit
the confinement of electron –hole pairs in potential walls called multiquantum wells.
It permits an increase in the electronic density of states, thus leading to enhanced
optical nonlinearities as already demonstrated in wave mixing experiments done on
multiquantum well structures with GaAlAs – GaInAs on GaAs substrates. These
materials may operate efficiently at semiconductor laser wavelength with low
incident power.
1.3.5 Saturable amplification

The laser gain media itself is also of great interest for its capabilities of performing
real-time holography and phase conjugation through saturable amplification. When
two beams interfere in a flash lamp of diode pumped gain media, they create a spatial
modulation of the beam amplitudes due to gain saturation effect. In other words, in
bright region of the fringes, the amplification is reduced due to the gain saturation,
while dark regions of the fringes receive a higher gain. It thus results in a spatial gain
grating that diffracts the incident waves and generates a phase conjugate of the
incident probe wave through a 4WM configuration. We note that in this interaction
the amplitude grating is shifted by p with respect to the incident interference fringes.
Also, the beams that interfere in the gain media will be amplified through the laser
gain, and energy transfer will also occur through self-diffraction phenomena.
Therefore, four-wave mixing in the laser media offers very attractive features:
Highly efficient diffraction can be obtained for transmission- or reflection-type
gratings, fast response time, and self-matching nonlinearity with respect to the laser
wavelength. This interaction can operate in different temporal regimes and does not
require high optical powers. Conjugate beams with high reflectivities can be
obtained after optimizing the pump beam fluences with respect to (a) the saturation
fluence of the laser media and (b) pump-to-probe beam ratios. With such conditions,
self-pumped phase conjugate loop resonators using four-wave mixing in the gain
media are demonstrated; they can be injected or self-starting. It will be shown that
this interaction is well suited in laser media having a high gain length product, and
experiments have been performed in solid-state saturable amplifiers such as ruby,
Nd:YAG, Nd:YVO4, Nd:glass, Nd:YLF, Ti:sapphire, liquid rhodamine dyes, or CO2
and Cu vapor gas lasers.
1.3.6 Saturable absorption

The saturable absorption was recognized early as an efficient mechanism for
efficient phase conjugation. It is based on the dependence of the absorption and
refractive index of a two-level system as a function of the incident average intensity
due to pump and probe beams. It is expected that transitions with a large cross
section and a long relaxation time are more easily saturable. Also another important
THE NONLINEAR MATERIALS 13
parameter is the frequency detuning off the transition line center. The effect of
detuning the laser permits to have a dominant contribution of the phase grating, thus
leading to a significant increase of the conjugate beam reflectivity. After optimizing
the conditions of interactions—in particular, using large grating periods—amplified
reflections by four-wave mixing was observed in atomic sodium vapor. However,
for applications, it may be more attractive to use solid-state saturable absorbers such
as Cr3þ-doped, Nd3þ-doped, and color-center crystals. More recently it was also
shown that Cr4þ-doped GSGG and Cr4þ:YAG possess a broad absorption band
around 1 mm and can be used for phase conjugation at 1.06 mm. Such characteristics
are well suited for further applications on laser beam control, dynamic holography
performed at this important wavelength.
1.3.7 Molecular reorientation in liquid crystals

Organics may offer very attractive properties when used in wave-mixing and
dynamic holographic experiments: Large-size materials can be fabricated; and due
to the large diversity of chemical compounds for material synthesis, it is expected
that their nonlinearities can be optimized for a given application. The most
promising media are based on polymers, liquid crystal, or a mixture of polymer-
dispersed liquid crystal. In these materials the photoinduced index anisotropic called
the Fredericks transition arises from molecular reorientation due to the electric
field. It results in an index spatial modulation that gives rise to a dynamic grating or
to self-phase modulation. Due to the large birefringence of liquid crystal, quite
efficient photoinduced nonlinearities can be obtained in the visible or near-IR
wavelengths. Typically, a nonlinear response in liquid crystal requires an equivalent
electric field of 1 to 10 V . mm21, while other polymer materials require more than
100 V . mm21. Another remarkable property is that the nonlinear response can be
further increased by doping with a dye such as dispersed red or orange. Although
large gain coefficients have been measured in wave mixing experiments, the detailed
mechanisms for molecular reorientation at low power levels in dye-doped liquid
crystals are not yet fully explained. Several mechanisms with different time
constants may be present: space-charge field at the interfaces, photomolecular
alignment, and photoisomerization, thus leading to the recording of dynamic or
nearly permanent holograms. Also, a different structure can be made: It consists of a
liquid crystal layer deposited on a photoconductive film. In wave-mixing experi-
ments, this hybrid structure behaves as a nonlinear media for dynamic phase
holography. Liquid crystals thus provide the opportunity of new types of third-order
nonlinearities; moreover, their physical and chemical properties continue to
progress due to the development of the display market.
1.3.8 Thermal gratings

The energy or incident power absorbed by a media at a given wavelength in wave-
mixing interactions also induces spatial index modulation through the contribution
of the thermal coefficient @n=@T. This intensity-dependent change of the refractive
index in liquids or solids may result in very significant self-diffraction effects for
phase conjugate beam generation. From early works on these mechanisms, it is well
established from heat equations that the steady-state index modulation varies as the
square of the grating period and is inversely proportional to the thermal conductivity
of the material. Therefore, for small grating periods, thermal diffusion tends to
reduce both the photoinduced index modulation amplitude and the diffraction
efficiency of thermal holograms. For that reason, wave-mixing experiments based on
thermal nonlinearities will benefit from using a small pump-probe beam angle or a
longer wavelength up to 10 mm. Also, in the pulse regime, if the pulse duration is
short compared to the thermal relaxation time, the induced index nonlinearity is
reduced. To perform efficient wave mixing, phase conjugation materials that display
high thermal coefficient must be used, and this condition can be achieved in
semiconductors like HgCdTe where @n=@T ¼ 103 at l ¼ 10.6 mm, or in liquid
crystals where @n=@T ¼ 103 at room temperature and @n=@T ¼ 102 near the
transition temperature.
1.4 THE CRITERIA FOR THE CHOICE OF MATERIALS
This review (which summarizes the main physical mechanisms) and nonlinear
media highlight the great diversity and the intense research activities that have been
pursued in the field of phase conjugation. Both the fundamental and applied aspects
of the field have stimulated remarkable innovative concepts and subsequent new
applications. To identify the most convenient mechanism is now an important task
since each material exhibits very specific properties and the choice will result from a
compromise with respect to the requirements due to the applica-tions. To illustrate
this complex situation, we outline in the following list the main parameters which
will contribute to identify the most suitable nonlinearity and material:
† Operating mode of the source: pulsed, CW, wavelength

† Required conjugate beam reflectivity and beam interactions (4WM or self-
pumped)
† Required response time of the nonlinearity (can range from seconds to
nanoseconds or even shorter).
† Good optical quality and stability, high damage threshold and compactness.
Beside these most important parameters, other characteristics such as low speckle
noise wavefront generation, conjugate beam fidelity, and material reliability may
also contribute to the selection of the good material for an optimum operation of the
nonlinear mirror in a full-scale laser system. Nonlinear optical phase conjugation
undoubtedly offers a great potential for energy scaling of laser sources, and several
comprehensive books or review papers exist on this subject, on both the basic and
applied aspects of this field [22 –33].
CONCLUSION 15
1.5 CONCLUSION
Optical phase conjugation is now established as a domain of nonlinear optics, and

further noticeable advances are expected due to the interest in the development of
high-energy or high average power laser sources. The concept of phase conjugation
permits the restoration of a beam whose quality is close to the diffraction limit
whatever the phase aberrations present on the optical path of the laser beam.
Moreover, this property is maintained even when changing the laser pulse energy or
pulse repetition rate. This permits the attainment of a great flexibility in the
operating conditions of the source for adjusting its characteristics to the
requirements of the applications. Also, another very important property of phase
conjugation is the capability of combining and phase locking of several laser
sources, thus leading to an improvement of power and brightness of the emitted
beam. For that purpose the concept of phase conjugation permits to overpass the
limitations of classical laser architectures for power or energy scaling. To
demonstrate and to integrate these concepts in laser systems require efficient third-
order nonlinear materials for conjugate beam generation through a dynamic
hologram. The main objective of this book is therefore to highlight the most suitable
class of nonlinear mechanisms such as Brillouin scattering, photorefraction,
saturable amplification, or thermal index modulation. Beside these established
effects, there is still a great potential for optimizing the properties of existing media
or for the discovery of new fundamental mechanisms or laser architectures based on
the remarkable properties of nonlinear optical phase conjugation.
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between the wave fronts of the reflected and exciting light in stimulated Mandel’shtam–
Brillouin scattering, Zh. Eksp. Teor. Fiz. Pis’ma Red. 15, 160 (1972) [English translation:
Sov. Phys. JETP 15, 109 (1972)].
2. H. Kogelnik, Holographic image projection through inhomogeneous media, Bell Syst.
Tech. J. 44, 2451 (1965).
3. A. Yariv, Phase conjugate optics for real time holography, IEEE J. Quantum Electron.
QE-14, 650 (1978).
4. J. P. Huignard, J. P. Herriau, Ph. Aubourg, and E. Spitz, Phase conjugate wavefront
generation via real time holography in photorefractive Bi12SiO20 crystals, Opt. Lett. 5,
519 (1979).
5. A. Yariv and D. M. Pepper, Amplified reflection, phase conjugation and oscillation in
degenerate four wave mixing, Opt. Lett. 1, 16 (1977).
6. B. Fischer, M. Cronin Golomb, J. O. White, and A. Yariv, Amplified reflection,
transmission and self oscillation in real time holography, Opt. Lett. 6, 519 (1981).
7. R. W. Hellwarth, Generation of time reversed wavefronts by nonlinear refraction, J. Opt.
Soc. Am. 67, 1 (1977).
8. D. M. Bloom and G. C. Bjorklund, Conjugate wavefront generation and image

reconstruction by four wave mixing, Appl. Phys. Lett. 31, 592 (1977).
9. J. P. Woerdman, Formation of a transient free carrier hologram in Si, Opt. Commun. 2,
212 (1971).
10. B. I. Stepanov, E. V. Ivakin, and A. S. Rubanov, Recording two-dimensional and three-
dimensional dynamic holograms in bleachable substances, Dokl. Aka. Nauk SSSR 196,
567 [English translation: Sov. Phys. Dokl.-Tech. Phys. 16, 46 (1971)].
11. R. A. Fisher, Optical Phase Conjugation, Series in Quantum Electronics, Principles and
Applications, Academic Press, New York (1983).
12. D. L. Staebler and A. J. Amodei, Coupled wave analysis of holographic storage in
LiNbO3, J. Appl. Phys. 43, 1042 (1972).
13. P. Günter, Holography, coherent light amplification and optical phase conjugation with
photorefractive materials, Phys. Rep. 93, 201 (1982).
14. C. R. Guliano, Applications of optical phase conjugation, Phys. Today 34, 27 (1981).
15. S. G. Odoulov, E. N. Sal’kova, M. S. Soskin, and L. G. Sukhoverkhova, Removal of
distortions induced in laser beam amplifiers by methods of dynamic holography, Ukr. Fiz.
Zh. 23, 562 (1978).
16. S. Odoulov, M. Soskin, and M. Vasnetsov, Compensation for time-dependent phase
inhomogeneity via degenerate four-wave mixing in LiTaO3, Opt. Commun. 32, 355
(1980).
17. D. M. Pepper, Nonlinear optical phase conjugation, Special issue of Opt. Eng. 21, (1982).
18. J.-P. Huignard and A. Marrackchi, Coherent signal beam amplification in two wave
mixing experiments with Bi12SiO20 crystals, Opt. Commun. 38, 249 (1981).
19. J. Feinberg and R. W. Hellwarth, Phase conjugating mirror with continuous wave gain,
Opt. Lett. 5, 519 (1980).
20. J. Feinberg, Self-pumped continuous wave phase conjugator using internal reflection,
Opt. Lett. 7, 486 (1982).
21. M. Cronin-Golomb, B. Fischer, J. O. White, and A. Yariv, Passive self pumped phase
conjugate mirror: Theoretical and experimental investigation, Appl. Phys. Lett. 41, 689
(1982).
22. V. L. Vinetsky, N. V. Kukhtarev, V. B. Markov, S. G. Odulov, and M. S. Soskin,
Amplification of coherent beams by dynamic holograms in ferroelectric crystals, Izv.
Akad. Nauk SSSR 41, 811 (1977).
23. D. M. Pepper, (ed.), Nonlinear optical phase conjugation, Special issue of Opt. Eng. 21,
155 (1982).
24. B. Ya. Zeldovich, N. F. Pilipetsky, and V. U. Shkunov, Principles of Phase Conjugation,
Springer-Verlag, Berlin (1985).
25. G. C. Valley, A review of stimulated Brillouin scattering excited with a broad band pump
laser, IEEE J. Quantum Electron. 22, 704, (1986).
26. D. A. Rockwell, A review of phase conjugate solid state lasers, IEEE J. Quantum
Electron. 24, 1124 (1988).
27. P. Yeh, Two wave mixing in nonlinear media, IEEE J. Quantum Electron. 25, 484 (1989).
28. P. Günter and J.-P. Huignard (eds.), Photorefractive Materials and Their Applications,
Vol. 61 – 62, Topics in Applied Physics, Springer-Verlag, Berlin (1989).
REFERENCES 17
29. S. Odoulov, M. Soskin, and A. Khyzhniak, Optical Oscillators with Degenerate Four-
Wave Mixing (Dynamic Grating Lasers), Harwood Academic Publishers, Chur (1991).
30. P. Yeh, Photorefractive phase conjugators, IEEE 80, 3, 486 (1992).
31. L. Solymar, D. J. Webb, and A. Grunnet-Jepsen, The Physics and Applications of
Photorefractive Materials, Clarendon, Oxford (1996).
32. H. J. Eichler and O. Mehl, Phase conjugate mirrors, J. Nonlinear Optical Physics Mater.
10, 43 (2001).
33. R. Menzel, Photonics—Linear and Nonlinear Interactions of Laser Light and Matter,
Springer-Verlag, Berlin (2001).
CHAPTER 2
Principles of Phase Conjugating

Brillouin Mirrors
AXEL HEUER and RALF MENZEL

University of Potsdam, Institute of Physics, Chair of Photonics,
14469 Potsdam, Germany
2.1 INTRODUCTION
Stimulated Brillouin scattering (SBS) is one of the most common nonlinear optical
processes for achieving phase conjugating mirrors [1]. Although SBS is a third-order
nonlinear process, it can be driven by one pump beam, only, which will finally be
phase conjugate reflected in the SBS volume mirror [2]. As a result, phase conjugating
SBS mirrors are simple self-pumped devices that can easily be applied in master
oscillator double-pass amplifier (MOPA) configurations [3 – 5] or as high-reflecting
mirrors in laser oscillators [6]. The wavefront inversion with respect to the propaga-
tion direction of the light, the phase conjugation, allows for the compensation of phase
distortions from, for example, the active material in solid-state lasers in the second
pass. As a result, almost ideal wavefronts can be obtained at the output of these lasers.
Thus, the beam quality of such laser systems containing phase conjugating SBS
mirrors can be diffraction-limited, although the phase distortions from the highly
pumped and thus strongly thermally stressed active material would not allow
beam propagation factors better than 10. Therefore, these phase conjugation SBS
mirrors find applications in high brightness solid-state laser systems [3–6].
Although the nonlinear optical process of the SBS phase conjugation does not
have a threshold in the sense of (for example) the laser threshold, an onset of,
reflection can be observed as a function of the incident pump power or pump pulse
energy. Therefore, an SBS threshold can be defined for a reflectivity of, for example,
1% or 2% [2]. At high incident pump powers or pulse energies the nonlinear
reflectivity of the SBS mirror saturates in the best cases very close to 1. The highest
observed reflectivities were above 95%. In between, a strong increase of reflectivity
can be obtained, and usually pump powers or pulse energies 10 –20 times above the
threshold value are sufficient for practical applications.
Phase Conjugate Laser Optics, edited by Arnaud Brignon and Jean-Pierre Huignard
ISBN 0-471-43957-6 Copyright # 2004 John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
19
20 PRINCIPLES OF PHASE CONJUGATING BRILLOUIN MIRRORS
Finally, the phase conjugating SBS mirror as nonlinear optical device can be
characterized by this threshold value, maximum reflectivity, the dynamic range, and
the fidelity of the phase conjugation. In addition, the useful wavelength range, size,
and toxicity may be important for practical use. Because the buildup of the phase
conjugating mirror in the SBS materials is based on interference effects in the volume,
the coherence demands of the pump light are another important feature. While for
very narrow bandwidth lasers with very long coherence lengths in the range of
kilometers the SBS threshold can be very low, for practical purposes SBS mirrors
with coherence demands in the range of less than 1 m are required.
Therefore, phase conjugating SBS mirrors are usually designed for a special
purpose—that is, for the special laser system they should be applied to. The
following theoretical descriptions are helpful in developing the design criteria for
these SBS mirrors and thus in optimizing the features of the optical phase
conjugation based on SBS.
The SBS as a self-pumped process is normally achieved by focusing a laser beam
into the SBS medium. In this medium the light is scattered at a self-induced acoustic
wave grating. The stimulated scattering is based on the spontaneous Brillouin
scattering of the incident light at the hypersound waves in the matter. The name of
the process was taken from Léon Brillouin, who studied first, around 1920 [7], the
scattering of light by acoustic waves (phonons). The noise of the acoustic waves is
stochastic and has its origin in thermal fluctuations; this scattering is spontaneous
and nondirectional.
The general aspects of the Brillouin scattering are shown in Fig. 2.1. An incident
light beam with a wavelength lP , a frequency nP , and a wave vector k~P travels in
the material through an acoustic wave of the wavelength LB , frequency nB , and
wave vector k~B . This acoustic wave provides a propagating refractive index
Figure 2.1. Schematic illustration of the Brillouin scattering.

THEORETICAL DESCRIPTION OF THE SBS PROCESS 21
modulation in the material. Due to this refractive grating, part of the incident light is
scattered, fulfilling the Bragg condition:

Q
2LB sin ¼ lP (1)
2
Since the acoustic wave is moving with the velocity v, the frequency nS of the
scattered light is shifted by the Doppler effect:

vn Q
nS ¼ 1 + 2 sin nP ¼ n P + n B (2)
c 2
The frequency shift of the scattered light jnP 2 nSj is identical with the frequency of
the acoustic wave nB. If the acoustic wave and the incident light wave have the same
direction, the shift has a negative sign (Stokes), and for the case of counter
propagating waves the sign is positive (anti-Stokes). In the particle picture, this is
equivalent to a generation (2 sign) and an annihilation (þ sign) of an acoustic
phonon. Equation (2) also shows that the frequency shift and therefore the frequency
of the matching acoustic wave depends on the scattering angle and reaches its
maximum for the backward direction u ¼ 1808.
2vn
nB ¼ (3)
lP
Typical ranges of the Brillouin shift for backward scattering are 100 MHz for
gaseous materials, 1 GHz for liquids, and 10 GHz for solid-state matter. Phase
conjugating SBS mirrors are based on backward scattering. In this case, only the
Stokes component exists in the Brillouin spectrum. SBS demands sufficiently high
light powers, as they are supplied by lasers only. Therefore the first experimental
examinations of SBS were made in 1964 [8 – 11] after the invention of the laser. A
comprehensive summary of these early experiments is given in Ref. 12.
For a better understanding the SBS process can be divided into four steps (see
Fig. 2.2). The process starts with spontaneous scattering at thermal density fluctuations.
The spontaneous Brillouin scattering is unidirectional, and only a very small fraction
will be scattered exactly in the backward direction. This small amount of the scattered
light will interfere with the incident light and build up an interference pattern with a beat
frequency equal to the Brillouin shift nB. This light beat amplifies the acoustic wave via
electrostriction. Since this acoustic wave has the right frequency nB and the right
direction, the scattering is increased and a positive feedback loop is completed. Thus
the back-reflected part of the incident light increases rapidly and will reach saturation
value of possibly more than 90%.
2.2 THEORETICAL DESCRIPTION OF THE SBS PROCESS
The basic equations describing the SBS process are known in detail, and therefore
the theoretical description of SBS phase conjugation is more or less a technical
problem, only. But it turns out that the system of partial differential equations
Figure 2.2. Schematic illustration of the SBS process.
cannot be solved analytically, and even numerical approaches demand further

approximations. Therefore, different levels of simplifications were realized, and the
resulting solutions are useful for special situations only. Nevertheless, important
consequences can be derived from these models with respect to the expected
nonlinear behavior on one side and the fidelity of the phase conjugation on the
other. Especially the latest modeling based on mixtures of transversal modes allows
the description of SBS phase conjugation with very high accuracy.
2.2.1 General equations

The general description of the SBS process has to take into account the growing of
the reflected Stokes light from the SBS process, the depletion of the incident pump
light, and the growing of the hypersound wave inside the SBS material. The
interaction is based on the electrostriction in the SBS material. The thermally
generated hypersound noise causes spontaneous Brillouin scattering, which is
necessary for starting the stimulated scattering.
For the description it is assumed that the incident pump light propagates along the
z axis into the SBS material. The total electric field amplitude E ~ can then be
represented as the sum of the two counterpropagating fields:
~ ¼E
E ~ P (~r , t) þ E
~ S (~r , t) (4)
with the component of the pump light

~ P ¼ 1 EP (~r , t) exp½i(kP z vP t) þ c:c: ~eP
E (5)
2
and the reflected Stokes light

~ S ¼ 1 ES (~r , t) exp½i(kS z vS t) þ c:c: ~eS
E (6)
2
with kP=S ¼ 2p=lP=S and vP=S ¼ 2pnP=S . The incident field propagates in the positive
z direction toward the right side in Fig. 2.3, and the reflected or Stokes component
propagates in the negative z direction to the left. EP (~r , t), ES (~r , t) are the complex
amplitudes of the electric fields and ~eP , ~eS are normalized polarization vectors. The
frequencies of the two fields vP , vS and the wave numbers kP , kS are related to
frequency and the wave vector of the acoustic wave (vB, kB) by Eq. (2)
(vB ¼ vP vS ; k~B ¼ k~P k~S ).
The propagation of an electromagnetic wave in a Brillouin medium with
neglectable absorption (a 0) is described by the wave equation
~ 4p @ 2 P
n2 @ 2 E ~ NL e
~
DE ¼ , ~ NL ¼ 1 g E
P ~r (7)
c2 @t2 c2 @t2 4p r0
The nonlinear polarization P~ NL describes the coupling between the electric field E ~
e
and the acoustic wave, which is represented by the modulation density r . g is the
electrostrictive coupling coefficient, and r0 is the stationary density of the medium.
In the coordinates of Fig. 2.3 the density modulation r also propagates along the
positive z direction.
1
r ¼ r(~r, t) exp½i(kB z vB t) þ c:c: (8)
2
The combination of the equation of continuity and the Navier– Stokes equation leads
to an acoustic wave equation [12]:
@2 GB @ ge
r þ v 2
Dr þ D r ¼ DE2 (9)
@t2 kB2 @t 8p
The term on the right side describes the already-mentioned electrostrictive force. It
moves the matter in the electric field via dipole interaction. The third term on the left
Figure 2.3. Definitions for modeling the SBS process.

side describes the damping of the acoustic wave by the phonon decay rate GB.
1 hk 2 1
GB ¼ ¼ B/ 2 (10)
tB r0 lP
The phonon decay rate as the reciprocal of the phonon lifetime tB is a function of the
material viscosity h and density r0. It is roughly proportional to the square of the
wavelength of the incident light.
tB / l2P (11)
To obtain a set of coupled differential equations for the complex electric field
amplitudes EP (~r , t), ES (~r , t) and for the normalized acoustic wave amplitude
vP ge
S(~r , t) ¼ r(~r, t) (12)
2cnr0
we introduce Eq. (4) into Eq. (7) and introduce Eq. (8) into (9). Furthermore, the
approximation of the slowly varying amplitudes (SVA) is used [2]. We also neglect
the propagation of the acoustic wave, and all the optical frequencies are set to be
equal (vS vP). With these assumptions we achieve the following system of
coupled equations:
@EP (~r , t) n @EP (~r , t) i 2 S(~r , t)

þ þ rT EP (~r , t) ¼ i ES (~r , t)
@z c @t 2kP 2
@ES (~r , t) n @ES (~r , t) i 2 S (~r , t)
þ rT ES (~r , t) ¼ i EP (~r , t) (13)
@z c @t 2kS 2
@S(~r , t) 1 gB
þ GB S(~r , t) ¼ i GB EP (~r , t)ES (~r , t)
@t 2 2
The Laplace operator rT2 ¼ @2 =@x2 þ @2 =@y2 refers to the transversal distributions
to the field, and gB is the so-called Brillouin gain coefficient:
2
g e v2P
gB ¼ (14)
c3 nr0 vGB
This coefficient is almost no function of the frequency or wavelength of the pump

light because GB is a quadratic function of the frequency, too [see Eq. (10)].
Typical values are of the order of magnitude 1028 cm/W. The significance of this
coefficient becomes obvious in case of stationary scattering of light pulses with
durations much longer than the phonon lifetime, resulting in time-independent
differential equations @EP =@t, @ES =@t, @S=@t ¼ 0. If also pump intensity depletion
is neglected (IP @ IS), with IP ¼ jEP j2 and IS ¼ jES j2 the following solution is
obtained:
IS (z) ¼ IS (L) exp(G(z)) with G(z) ¼ gB IP (L z) (15)

The Stokes intensity IS grows exponentially in the backward direction. The

amplification starts at the point z ¼ L with an initial value IS(L), and L indicates
the interaction length inside the Brillouin medium. This initial value of the
backscattered intensity is given by the amount of spontaneous scattered light. If
the intensity IS(L) is a from outside into the Brillouin cell-injected Stokes beam, it
operates as an SBS amplifier.
A general analytic solution of the differential Eq. (13) does not exist. In Sections
2.2.4– 2.2.6, different numerical methods for solving this system of differential
equations are discussed.
2.2.2 Optical phase conjugation by SBS

Optical phase conjugation means the reversing of the phase front of the propagating
light wave with respect to the propagation direction. This means that the phase front
of the reflected light is perfectly identical with the phase front of the incident light if
the propagation direction is changed by 1808 in the phase conjugating mirror. It is
obvious that this phase conjugate reflection can be realized in volume mirrors only.
In comparison to conventional mirrors, where only the perpendicular component of
the wave vector is reflected at the mirror, in phase conjugation all components of the
wave vector of the incident light wave will be inverted. For the theoretical
description we assume an incident wave E ~ (~r , t):
~ (~r , t) ¼ 1 A
E ~ (~r ) exp(i(k~~r vt)) þ c:c: ¼ 1 E ~ (~r ) exp(ivt) þ c:c: (16)
2 2
If the spatial part of the incident wave E ~ PC (~r , t) is complex conjugated, the resulting
reflected and then phase conjugated wave with the electric field E ~ PC (~r , t) is described
by
~ PC (~r , t) ¼ 1 E
E ~ (~r ) exp(ivt) þ c:c: ¼ 1 A
~ (~r ) exp(i(k~~r þ vt)) þ c:c: (17)
2 2
This process is formally equivalent with the transformation t ! 2t in the term
describing the phase of the light wave. Therefore in the literature [13] sometimes
optical phase conjugation was assigned to time reversal. This point of view is indeed
true if the optical path of the light propagation is described. The phase conjugate
reflected light will indeed follow exactly the same path as the incident light, but in
the opposite direction. Also, all phase conditions stay constant. Therefore, the phase
conjugate reflected light can combine at beam splitters or scattering elements to the
original single beam. Thus, no loss occurs at the beam splitters, and a perfect
incident Gaussian beam will be reconstructed after passing the scattering elements
the second time [16, 17] (see Fig. 2.4). But the time reversal of the phase term of the
optical wave does not mean also time reversal in the amplitude of, for example, a
reflected light pulse. Therefore, the time reversal does not include, for example, the
pulse shape reversal of an incident pulse. So far, the “time reversal” in connection
with optical phase conjugation has to be used careful.
The nonlinear optical element realizing the phase conjugation is therefore called
a phase conjugating mirror (PCM). If this mirror is realized with stimulated
Figure 2.4. Schematic of the compensation of phase distortions by a phase conjugating

mirror (PCM).
Brillouin scattering, the resulting mirror is called SBS-PCM or SBS mirror. These
PCMs are most useful for the compensation of phase distortions, for example, in
high-power solid-state lasers [1].
In contrast to generated four-wave mixing [13], in stimulated Brillouin scattering
the phase conjugate wave ES (~r ) / EP (~r ) cannot directly be derived as a solution of
the system of differential equations [Eq. (11)]. And indeed, the phase conjugation
based on the SBS does not completely fulfill Eq. (15). Although since 1960
experiments investigated SBS, the first realization of optical phase conjugation
based on SBS was obtained in 1972 [14, 15].
The mechanism of optical phase conjugation based on stimulated Brillouin
scattering can be understood with Fig. 2.2. The interference field of the incident and
the scattered light will be stronger because the reflected Stokes light will have the
same wavefront as the incident pump light. Because of the positive feedback, this
interference mechanism will select the wavefront match of the reflected light. So far,
the phase conjugate wave has the highest gain in the reflection in stimulated
Brillouin scattering. Therefore, the phase conjugated wave will grow from noise. It
will finally be the dominant wave in SBS-PCMs.
Mathematically, this process can be modeled analytically in the stationary case
[18]. Therefore, we assume that both electric fields of the pump light EP and the
reflected light ES consist of a large number of different modes
X
EP (~r ) ¼ ai (z)Ai (~r )
i
X (18)
ES (~r ) ¼ bi (z)Bi (~r )
i
These modes are part of a complete orthonormal system of solutions of differential

equations which can be described by
@Ai (~r ) @Bi (~r )

þ rT2 Ai (~r ) ¼ 0, þ rT2 Bi (~r ) ¼ 0 (19)
@z @z
ð1 ð1
Ai (~r )Aj (~r ) dxdy ¼ dij , Bi (~r )Bj (~r ) dxdy ¼ dij (20)
1 1
Using these fields of Eq. (17) in the system of differential equations [Eq. (12)], the
stationary case can be written as
X @ai (z) gB X
Ai (~r ) ¼ GB bj (z)Bj (~r )bk (z)Bk (~r )al (z)Al (~r )
i
@z 2 jkl
(21)
X @bi (z) gB X
Bi (~r ) ¼ GB aj (z)Aj (~r )ak (z)Ak (~r )bl (z)Bl (~r )
i
@z 2 jkl
Equation (20) is then multiplied with the complex conjugate of one component (i.e.,
transversal fundamental mode) of orthonormal system (An , Bn ) and then integrated
over the whole space using the orthonormal condition of Eq. (19), resulting in the
following equations:
ð1
@an (z) gB X
¼ GB bj (z)bk (z)al (z) Bj (~r )Bk (~r )Al (~r )An (~r ) dxdy
@z 2 jkl 1
ð (22)
@bn (z) gB X 1

¼ GB aj (z)ak (z)bl (z) Aj (~r )Ak (~r )Bl (~r )Bn (~r ) dxdy
@z 2 jkl 1
From these equations it can be seen that only these modes are important because
they have large coefficients An and Bn, meaning that they have a large overlap
integral between the incident and the reflected modes. If it is further assumed that the
incident light field consists of one mode, only
EP (~r ) ¼ a0 (z)A0 (~r ), with A0 (~r ) ¼ B0 (~r ) (23)
and this field of Eq. (22) is used in Eq. (21) results in
@bn (z) X
¼ ja0 (z)j2 bl (z) gln (z) (24)
@z l
with
ð1
gB
jB0 (~r )j Bl (~r )Bn (~r ) dxdy
2
gln (z) ¼ GB (25)
2 1
with the gain coefficient gln(z) for the Stokes components. It can be seen that the
coefficient g1 with Bl, Bn ¼ B0 is the largest. In Ref. 19 a factor of 2 higher gain
coefficient compared to the gain coefficients of the other modes was given. With this
high gain coefficient, this phase conjugate mode will be amplified exponentially
much more than all other modes. If all parameters of the SBS phase conjugating
mirror are designed in the way that this gain coefficient relationship will be
established, the almost perfect phase conjugation can be obtained.
X
ES (~r ) ¼ bi (z)Bi (~r ) / b0 (z)B0 (~r ) / EP (~r ) (26)
i
So far, SBS phase conjugation is realized by the selection of the well-suited Stokes
components via higher amplification. In case of saturation of the SBS process the
difference between the different overlap integrals of Eq. (24) will decrease [20]. In
this case, besides the phase conjugate component in the Stokes signal, also other
components can be amplified from noise. Numerical simulations resulted for
focused Gauss beam as pump field in this case in 95% phase conjugated reflected
signal. For practical purposes, this value usually will be sufficient for the
applications of phase conjugating SBS mirrors.
As a measure for the quality of the phase conjugation, the fidelity F is introduced.
In theoretical studies, this fidelity is defined as a normalized correlation function
[20].
Ð
j ES (~r )EP (~r ) dxdyj2
F(z) ¼ Ð Ð (27)
jES (~r )j2 dxdy jEP (~r )j2 dxdy
The value of F(z) is in the range from 0 to 1. In the case of perfect phase conjugation,
the wavefronts of the pump and the Stokes light are proportional to each other,
ES (~r ) / EP (~r ), and then F(z) ¼ 1.
In agreement with the experiments, it can be shown theoretically [19 – 22] that the
fidelity obtained with the focusing geometry is smaller than the fidelity that is
observed by the phase conjugation in waveguides, especially if bell-shaped
transversal beam profiles such as for example, the diffraction-limited Gaussian
beams shall be phase conjugated with an SBS mirror because transversally spatial
gain narrowing can be obtained in the focus range of the light. As result of this
transversal gain profile of the SBS, the wings of the pump light beam will be
reflected weaker than the central part. The reflected beam will then show a smaller
beam waist radius w0 compared to the pump beam. This beam waist reduction can be
described by a factor b (0 , b , 1) [23, 24]. This factor b is a function of the
intensity and will increase with higher pump intensities up to values close to 1. If the
pump light shows aberrations, a spatial filtering can occur from this spatial gain
narrowing [25 –27]. As result, a higher spatial frequency that will occur in the
Fourier plane in a larger distance from the beam axis can be depleted during the SBS
reflection. This can decrease the fidelity of the SBS phase conjugation.
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Moderatour said—There is a motion made concerning thanksgiving
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The Assemblie allowes this Article, and ordaines Ministers to make
intimation in their pulpits of the conclusion of this Assemblie, the
first Sabbath efter their returne home, and desyre their people to
prepaire themselfes against the next Sabbath thereafter, not for
carnall festivitie, but for a humble thanksgiving.
The Assemblie ordaines the Presbitries to proceid against those
who subscryvit the declinatour, and all uthers who will not
acknowledge the Assembly, with the censures of the Kirk; and
becaus there are some of this sort about Aberdein that their voits
will be moe in Presbitries, the Assembly ordaines them to be called
before the Commission at Aberdein.
Lykewayes the Assembly ordaines the Moderatour and Clerk to
give out summonds upon relevant complaints of parties before the
next Generall Assembly, becaus the tyme could not be weill
condiscendit upon. The rolles were called, and most parte of the
Assembly voited that the third Wednesday of Jullii, the next Generall
Assemblie should sitt at Edinburgh; and if the Kings Majestie be
pleased to indict a Generall Assemblie, either before or efter this
tyme, the Assemblie declaires that it was good reason his Majesties
tyme wer waited on.
Then the Commissioners of Sᵗ Androwes presented their
supplication for the tranportation of Mr Robert Blair from Air to Sᵗ
Androwes; and, efter many contestations betwixt the Commissioners
of Sᵗ Androwes, my Lord Lindsey, Provest of Air, and uthers, the
mater was put to voiting, and there was no great difference amongst
the voites, except only 4 or 5 moe that voited for Sᵗ Androwes nor
for Air: quharefore,
The Moderatour, in name of the Assemblie, ordained him to goe to
Sᵗ Androwes.
Lykewayes, the Commissioner of Aberdein did supplicat for the
transportation of Mr Samuell Rutherfuird from Anweth, in Galloway,
to be Professor of Divinitie in the new Colledge of Aberdene.
Mr Samuell said—My ministrie and the exercise of it is subject in
the Lord to this Honourable Assemblie. But I trust in God this
Assemblie will never take from me my pastorall charge; for there is a
woe unto me if I preach not the Gospell, and I know not who can
goe betwixt me and that woe. If I doe not preach the Gospell, I
verilie thinke the High Commission did not nor could not doe no
worse nor that unto me; and therefore, he desyrit if there were any
such thing as that in their mynds, they would not intertaine such
thoughts; for he said he would be content to suffer prisonment,
banishment, &c., but never lay downe his ministerie.
The Moderatour answered—He was glad that his reasons were so
weake; and after much reasoning to and fro, it was referred to the
Commission at Edinʳ.
The Moderatour asked of the Assembly if there were any other
particular to be remembred, or if any man had any motion to
propone, or any further to say, since this was the last Session, and
they were now this night to ryse and goe home to their churches?
The Assemblie being silent, and all matters considerable being now
discussed, the Moderatour uttered these speaches as followes:—
The Moderatour, his last speach, directed to the Assembly

immediatlie before the dissolution thereof.
I think there be none heir that expects any discourse of me
worthie the taking up the tyme appointed for so great effaires as hes
bein heir, or of such Noble, prudent, learned, and wise eares as
heares me. Only I will say two things concerning my selfe—one is,
that the evill that I would have schunned is come upon me; for I did
not apprehend it, neither can I call it absolutelie an evil, becaus
there are good in it, and, I am sure, God hes done good by it. But
this I say—I would have schunned it, partlie becaus of that
bashfulnes which I fand in my selfe, and partlie becaus of my
unwillingnes to make my weaknes and infirmities knowne to the
world; but ye see, contrare to my disposition and resolution, I have
bein chargit to take on this charge, quhich I have borne thir dayes
bygone, and I doe crave pardon of the God of Heaven and of this
honourable Assembly, of the faults that hes escaped me since I
tooke it on, quhich I know are manyfold.
This is ane thing concerning myselfe: the uther concerning
myselfe is this—That I observe the beginnings and closeings of the
worke of God to be very answerable. The beginnings were very
weake—by very weake instruments—and so hes the conclusions
beene, by reason of my weaknes, who have bein imployd in it; and
this is, that the Lord may get the glorie that belongs to him of his
own power.
But what shall I say? That I have bein ane Instrument, nay ye
yourselves have bein instruments raised by God. By your pietie,
prudence, and paines, the Lord hes brought this worke to passe;
and I cannot say but all sortes have bein verie diligent and faithfull,
zealous, and stranglie assisted by God in every poynt committed to
them—in trueth to my admiration.
Ye must not rest upon yourselves, but ascend higher, and looke to
these worthie Noblemen who have beine cheefe instruments in this
work, and how it has pleased the Lord to move their hearts, contrare
to their place—being subject to many temptations—and contrare to
the age of some of them, to attend thir effaires quherin is not much
worldlie bewtie or contentment; yea ye know what paines and
hazard they have undergone—yea, what charges—altho’ I will not
mention so fecklesse a mater, for if I should, I would wrong their
pious resolution.
Yet ye must not stint your mynds heir; for, if ye doe, ye wrong
them by giving them more nor due, and so doe prejudice to the
honour of the Majesty of our God; and therefore to ascend higher, I
pray, from the meanest instruments that is heir, of Nobles, of
Barons, of Ministers, of Elders—goe forward and consider of the
Kings Majesties goodnes toward us; for ye know this Assembly was
indicted be his Majesties auctoritie, and that his Majesties High
Commissioner was heir till it was fullie constitut; and let us take this
as a great favour from the Kings Majestie and his Commissioner; and
let us stirre up our hearts to pray to God for his Majesties long
prosperous reigne over us.
But we must not rest upon the King, but ascend yet higher unto
God himselfe, and give him his owne praise; and surelie the name of
our God is worthie of all praise; for he has raised us out of the
deipes of the earth; he has raised us from the dead, and exalted us
very far. The yondest of our wishes was to have bein at our first
reformation; and now, in his graceous dispensation, their measures
are restoired to us; and, if it be not so, let us blame ourselves; for
yee see how the Lord, in his providence, hes given us the occasioun
and opportunitie, that all things may be done in the hous of God,
according to our former integritie, and which, I trust, I am assured,
is according to the will of God. What shall I intreat yow, honorable,
reverend, and weill-beloved, to doe, but, first, to consider the great
and singular kyndnes—the inestimable favour and love of our Lord
Jesus Christ, towards us all, the children of men, redeemed by his
blood—that he so loved us, from all Eternitie, that he gave himself to
so painfull sufferings, and schamefull sufferings, to purchase the
Holy Spirit unto us? And truelie poore Scotland, but rich in respect of
the Gospell, may say, that the Lord hes loved us; yea there was
never such a love heard tell of as he has borne to us.
Next I would have yow to consider—and I put no question but ye
have considerit it—the goodnes of the Lord our God, and his great
bountie toward us in this great worke, which now, ecclesiasticalie, is
brought to a kynd of conclusion. Remember ye not that our
adversaries were at a verie great height of pride? Remember ye not
that they prydit themselves in auctoritie, and in their prudence and
policie; and if there were any name of learning in the land, they
would faine have had it appearing on their syde to be a terrour to
ws, whom they thought sillie, poore, ignorant saules, besyde them?
And how our sun was almost sett at noone—and we would surelie
have died in darknes—except the Lord had appeared and made his
light to shyne?
Next, beloved, I would have yow to consider how small the
beginnings were, yea, both small, weake, and obscure; and so soone
as the Lord toutched the hearts of men of all rankes, from the
highest to the lowest of the countrey, and how sensiblie the Lord
wrought with many a saule, what light filled their mynds, and what
heat filled their hearts! For many old men who wer friezing for cold
for want of devotion, they found yet their hearts glowing with the
heat that was breaking upon them, at the renewing of that
Covenant, and we found the documents of his presence at all our
Meetings; for howbeit there were thousands mett together many
tymes, there were nothing but quyetnes and peace: and surelie our
adversaries themselves have contributed to our conclusions, (thanks
be to the Lord that rules all the actiones of men!) for they have
wrought more for our ends nor our owne prudence hes done. When
our courses failed us, their courses promoved our intentions; and
this is the extraordinarie Providence that workes, not only by
meanes, but without meanes, and contrare to meanes—contrare to
their malicious intentions and purposes that are against ws. And
should not we, beloved, remember with thankfulnes the beginnings
—these glorious beginnings of reformation in this land—greater
pietie—more religious exercises—greater sobrietie, chastitie, and
care to keep the bodie from uncleannes—greater care to perform the
dewties of righteousnes—not so much craft, crueltie, oppression,
falsehood in the land, as was before this work began? And, if it be
prosequut, it will appeare to be the worke of God.
But shall we not acknowledge His hand that would have this
Assemblie indicted by auctoritie, and his Majesties Commissioner
staying till it was fullie constitut; and that the Lord should have
keiped ws heir against all sortes of feares quhatsoever; and, being
heir, has keiped us in such a wonderfull unitie, and, I trust, also the
light of veritie? Surelie this should make ws wonder at the goodnes
of God; but especiallie when we consider the comfortable
conclusions this Assemblie hes brought to passe. And now, we are
quyte of the Service Booke, which was a booke of Slaverie and
Service indeed; the Booke of Cannons, which tyed us in spirituall
bondage; the Booke of Ordination, which was a yocke put upon the
necks of faithfull Ministers; and the High Commission, which was a
guard to keip us all under that slaverie. All these evills God hes red
us of, and lykewayes of the civill places of Kirkmen, quhich was the
splendour of all these evills; and the Lord hes led captivitie captive,
and made Lords slaves. What should we doe less, then resolve, first,
since the Lord hes granted ws libertie to labour, to be sensible of it,
and take notice of it; for we are like to a man newlie awaked out of
a dreame, or lyke a man that hes lyen lang in the irons, who, after
they are tane off, and he redeemed, he feilles not his libertie, but
thinkes the irons are on him still. So it is with us. We doe not feill
our libertie; therefore it were good for us to studie to ken the
bounds of our liberty wherewith Christ hath sett us free, and then
again to labour earnestlie that we be not more intangled with the
yoke of bondage; for, ye know, in logicks, a privatione ad habitum
non datur regressus. [It is] true—in politick places: these that are
great in Court, if once depryved, scarcelie wones to their credit; but
especiallie we know it is true in spirituall things, and yet the Lord,
miraculouslie and extraordinarilie, can give eyes to the blind, give
eares to the deafe, raise the dead; and we find, among ourselves,
that once being, in a manner, depryved, at least run on far in a
course of defection, the Lord hes been pleased to turn to us, and
make us turne to him; but take heid of the second privation—that
which depryves our saules of libertie, and rather endure the greatest
extremitie utherwayes before we be intangled. I grant the Crosse is
hard to looke upon; bot if we get strenth from our Lord, it shall be
an easie yoke and burden. Remember the plague of Laodicea for
lukewarmnes, and bewar of it; for, ye know, the Lord threatens to
spew them out of his mouth, which imports, 1. That he will take
delyte in executing judgement upon us, as a man hes delyte when
he empties his oppressed stomack. 2. It shall have reproach as a
man goes with his vomiting to a backsyde. 3. It imports, that he
shall never returne, as a man returnes not to his vomite. Therefore,
1, let us know our libertie; 2, the esteeme of it reverentlie; 3, to use
it diligentlie.
Then for our thankfulness—I say it becomes us to be thankfull to
the Kings Majestie, under whose peacable protection we have had
this libertie to convine together; and, truelie, I would recommend to
yow, with your permission, two things—the ane is, we would not
cease for any thing is come or can come, or is feared to come, to
pray most ferventlie, and to indure in prayer for our graceous
Sovereigne and King, whom God hes ordained to be our supreme
Magistrat, and to pour out our hearts on his behalfe, that it would
please God to blesse him with all royall blessings. In all our
preachings we would be carefull to recommend his Majestie to the
People. We ought, indeed, so to doe; for it is the Lords will that we
doe it; and next unto Christ let him have the highest place; for
howsoever the fifth command be a precept of the second table, yet
it is next unto the first, teaching us, that next unto our dewtie to
God we owe dew reverence to these that are in places above us:
Therefore, when ye heare evills reported, attribute them not to his
Majestie, but to misinformation. Ye that are acquainted with that
storie, Numbers 22, of Balaam and Balack, ye will find that God spak
to Balaam. Balaam minsched it, and what Balaam spak to Balacks
servands they minched it lykewayes; for Balaam said—“The Lord will
not give lieve to goe,” and the servands said, “Balack.” Balaam said
—“He will not come.” So it comes to pas many tymes with true
Prophets, that God will not give us lieve to doe this or that.
But it is said to the King—“This rebellious People will not doe this
or that,” and he cannot understand but what he heares; therefore
we should pray to Him who hes the hearts of Kings into his hand,
and the keyes of all his senses, that he would convey knowledge to
his Majesties royall heart, that he may understand matters aright;
and we put no question but when he understands our proceedings,
which hes been with respect to religion and loyaltie to him, he will
think so weill of them, that he will vouchsafe his approbation and
royall ratification to them in his owne tyme, which God grant.
Then, for these Nobles, Barrons, Burgesses, and others who have
attendit heir, this I may say confidentlie, and from the warrand of
the Word—“These that honour God, God will honour them.” Your
Lordships, and these worthie Gentlemen and Burgesses, who have
bein honouring God, and giving testimony ample of your love to
religion this time bygane, (though I will not excuse your former
backslydings,) that, if ye will goe on, the Lord shall protect you,
blesse you, honour you; and your faith shall be found in the day of
the revelation of Jesus Christ, unto praise, honour, and glorie—that
is to say, these that speake evill of you shall praise you; these that
thinkes you foolish now, at that day shall confesse you were zealous;
these that dishonoured you shall honour you; or, as the word ‘glorie’
imports, that they shall have a reverend opinion of you; nay, even in
this world, your faith, devotion, and zeale shall be found unto praise,
honour, and glorie; and the Lord shall returne you ane hundreth fold
more in this lyfe, and, in the world to come, lyfe everlasting.
And I must say one word of these Nobles whom Jesus Christ hath
nobilitat indeed, and declaired sensiblie to be worthie of that title of
nobilitie. Ye know they were lyke the tops of the mountaines that
were first discovered in the deludge, which made the little valleyes
hope to be delyvered from it also; and so it came to passe. I
remember, in the eastern countrie, where they worship the sun, a
number being assembled earlie in the morning to that effect, all
stryving who shall sie the sun first, a servand turned his face to the
west, and waited on. The rest thought him a foolish man, and yet he
got the first sight of the sun schyning on the tops of the western
mountaines. So, truelie, he would have bein thought a foolish man
that would have looked for such thinges of our nobilitie; yet the Sun
of righteousnesse hes beine pleased to shyne first upon these
mountaines; and long, long may he shyne upon them, for the
comfort of the hilles and refreshing of the valleyes; and the blessing
of God be upon them and their families; and, we trust, it shall be
seene to the generations following.
As for us of the ministry, we have caus to praise the Lord that hes
had such a peacable meetting heir, and that the Lord hes led us on
in peace and trueth; that there hes beine no difference worthie of
consideration amongst us. It is a rare thing to sie such a harmonie;
scarce hes the lyke beene seene in any nationall Assembly.
Last, I must give a word of thanksgiving to this Cittie, wherein we
have had such a comfortable residence, and to the principall
Magistrats of it, who hes heir attendit our meeting, and hes had due
cair to provyde extraordinary commodious seats for us, and we have
receaved very good intertainment in this cittie. The best recompence
we can give to them is, to pray for the blessing of God upon them,
and to give them a tast of our labours by visiting their colledge, and
any other thing that consists in our power, without prejudice to the
Kirk of God, that so the kingdome of Christ may be established
among them, and glorie may dwell in this land.
After which the Moderatour desyred some of the brethren to
speak a word of exhortation.
Mr David Dick said—We know not how shortlie the Lord may call
us to trouble and sufferings for his trueth; for his Majestie hath
keeped us still in suspence all this tyme, and, as he has mingled all
our former steppes with fear, so now he keepes us in the same
temper, to the end our rejoycing might be as it should. But if we will
continue to doe as we have begun, in supplicating our God and our
King, and sett our face toward our Lord, and hold the rule of his
Word before our eyes, and make himselfe our fear and our dread,
we neid not to think any thing els, and acknowledge his sovereigntie
over all creatures. This is the short cutt and perfect rule by which
our goings must be ordered; and if, in this path we meit with harsh
troubles, when they are disgeasted awhile, sweit and solide comfort
will be the upshott of them all, provyding we could wait for patience
on our Lord; and becaus, out of all doubt, the proceedings of the
Assembly will be tryed, let us arme ourselves with the strength of
our Lord to defend all our laudable constitutions, and, withall, bear
with pitie the misconstructions of the world, making use of our
liberty, and labouring to walke in a pure-pointed-out light; wondering
at all the passages of our Lords providence, and admiring the large
measure of reformation granted to this land; rejoycing to see
schame and confusion routed on the fall of Sions adversaries, and
sevenfold rendered into their bosome who slandered our Reformers
as not learned and wyse with their zeale: the contrare quhereof their
laudable acts and constitutions makes manifest. And if this we doe,
having now gotten a reformation sett on foot againe, if we goe on
prudentlie, advancing our Lord Jesus, keeping ourselves from a
lordlie denomination; both Ministers and Ruling Elders knowing their
duties; and everie ane seiking the helpe and assistance of ane uther;
that as the hands cannot say to the feete, nor the feete to the
hands, “we have no neid of yow,” so we may all, as members of ane
bodie, studie to advance our Lord and his honour; and, if we will
studie to repent for the wronges God hes gotten in this land, and
studie for a thorough reformation of ourselfes, our people, and our
families; then it shall come to passe, that the blessing of God shall
be upon ourselfes, our callings, and laboures, and our posteritie, and
we shall be hid in the day of the Lords anger.
Then Mr Andro Ramsay, being called on to speake next, said—
Among all the pairts of Gods worship, I acknowledge none more
acceptable to God than thanksgiving; and it becomes us verie weill
to be thankfull, if we regaird, first, the beginning; secondly, the
progresse; thirdlie, the happie conclusion of this great worke. First, if
we regaird the beginning which was (1) wonderfull, (2) unexpected,
and (3) powerfull. First it was wonderfull, in respect that, by a few
number of the basest offscourings in the land, God did begin this
worke, that the glorie might be given to him alone. Secondlie, As it
was wonderfull, so it was unexpected; for scarce ane in all Scotland
could have any hope to see this dayes worke. Thirdlie, It was
powerfull; for, before it begane, religion was dieing, and the breath
of it expyreing. But now it is reviveing; the winter is over and gone;
the floures appeare in the earth; and the tyme of singing of birds is
come, and the voice of the turtle is heard in our land.
Againe, if we will looke to the progresse of this worke, we will see
great matter of thankfulnes; for whatever any intendit for our hurt,
he made it to turne for our good. Third, for the conclusion, 1, If we
respect this frequent meeting we have had; 2, this powerfull and
gracious assistance we have felt; 3, this wonderfull harmonie and
unanimitie that we have had; 4, the happie conclusion that we see
now with our eyes: In all thir respects we have great reason to
praise God.
First, for the frequencie of this meeting, there was never such a
meeting at such a worke sein in Christendome. 2, So powerfull
assistance, both of the spirit of our God for which we glorified him,
and of these worthie nobles and uthers heir present, on whom we
wish all earthlie blessings—blessings heir, and eternall happinesse in
the lyfe to come. 3, For our harmonie; there was never such a
harmonie; that, all in ane voit, we have rejected and condemned
that Service Booke—a booke of slaverie and servitude indeed—that
superstitious Booke of Ordination, and that Booke of Canons, which
was a bulwarke and defence for all the rest. 4, For the happie
conclusion, we have great reason to thanke God that these bookes
are now condemned. The 5 Articles that rent our Church are now
condemned; Episcopacie now abjured, and all uther matters
introductorie to Popperie—the Lord hes fried us from them; for
which I say we have great reason to thank God. Now let us not sing
a requiem to ourselves, nor yet be insolent in our carriage, but
behave ourselves wiselie and prudentlie towards our superiours;
and, though the Bishops be cast out, let us not be cairelesse of
auctoritie, but let our carriage be modest and our speach seasoned
with grace. 3, Let us be vigilant and not secure; for, a great and
good worke such as this is, it was never brought to ane end without
opposition. 4, Let us be courageous in the strenth of our God; and,
lastlie, thankfull to his great name for that wonderfull unanimitie that
hes beine amongst us, and happie conclusion that God hes granted
unto us.
The Moderatour said—Truelie it becomes us not to be insolent; for
the Lord hes bein pleased so to dispose of us as we have not caus to
be wantoun, for if, as we had divine auctoritie to warrand us, so we
had humane, I feir it should be hard for us to keip ourselves within
bounds. But the Lord, knowing our weaknes, keipes us in this
temper; and if we cary ourselfes worthlie of that God hes bestowed
upon us, who knowes but he will graceouslie grant us all our
desyres, and turn the countenance of our King toward this Kirk?
There rests ane circumstance which I should have remembered. I
am assured it will be acceptable to this Assembly, that some of these
Noblemen who hes bein ane ornament to this Assembly should
speake ane word before it dissolve, especiallie my noble Lord Argyle,
whom we could have wished, if it had pleased his Lordship, to have
come in sooner: but the Lord hes reserved him for the fittest tyme,
and I trust the Lord shall honour him with all blessings, both heir
and heirefter.
My Lord Argyle said—Since it pleases you, Moderatour, to name
my name, yow give me occasion to thanke yow for putting so
favourable a construction upon my cariage, whereas ye wishe me
that I had come in sooner. Truelie, I tell yow it was not want of
affection to the good of religion and my countrie, and I desyre that
favourable construction of yow still, that my intention was to have
done more good wherein I was not inlaiking before; and, when I
saw I could be no more usefull, except I had bein a knave, I thought
good to doe as I have done. Ane thing I would remember yow of
who hath bein purging the Kirk of evill instruments, that ye would
labour to learn a lesson upon their expenses: felix quem faciunt
aliena pericula cautum. I remember, upon ane occasion, I told some
of them to their face, that there was two faults which had brought
meikle evill in this Church—to witt, pride and avarice, which I cannot
deny but to be grievous faults in any man, but especially in
Churchmen. But I hope everie man shall walke by the square and
rule which is now before him—keeping duetie first to superiors;
secondly, to equalls; and, thirdlie to inferiours. For superiours, their
needs nothing to be farder said nor hes bein alreadie by the
Moderatour. Only this; let us all labour, since we are fried of many
yockes of bondage, not to abuse our Christian libertie, which may
make our profession to be evil spoken of. Secondlie, for our duetie to
our equals—there is a caus much spoken of in this Church, betwixt
ruleing elders and ministers. Some ministers feares that it be a
corbing of them; but, if any of these elders stryve to make use of
that power for any end but for the good of the Kirk, they may be
sure of their oune judgment. Truelie, it may be, that some ruleing
elders in some places be not so wise as neid wer; but let not that, if
it fall out, breid a distemper in the peace of this Church; but let
unitie be all our rules; and, if anything of this kind fall out in
Presbytries or Parochines, let neighbour Presbytries and Parochines
joyne togither for settling thereof, that no dissension be of this kind,
for it may doe much evill. Thirdlie, for inferiors—I hope ministers will
studie to know their duetie towards their flocke and people;
lykewayes, will have due regaird to these whom God hes sett over
them; for we must not thinke that becaus we want Bishops,
therefore we may live as we will. And, if this we doe, though our
gracious Master doe not everie thing at first as we would wishe, yet
tyme may worke many things, if we goe on constantlie in the
defence of our religion and of the auctoritie of our gracious
Soveraigne, whom, we pray, may long and prosperouslie reigne over
us.
After that the Moderatour had given thankes to my Lord Argyle for
his speach, and craved pardon of his Lordship for expressing his
name, he said—As for that which my Lord hes beine wiselie
speaking, concerning our duetie to the Kings Majestie, we have good
reason to advert unto it; for this reason, addit to many—becaus our
adversaries gave it out as a calumnie against us, that his
government which we are about, established by Christ in this
Church, cannot stand with monarchicall government, but Episcopall
only; but let us resolve to give a proofe of the contrare—that the
government which Christ hes appoynted, may weill stand with
monarchicall government; and, we trust, that we are not to be
suspected of our loyaltie toward his Majestie; and this certainlie will
make his Majestie perceave that we have done nothing but what we
have done moved by God, and drawen be necessitie to doe. And for
this end let us—to conclude this great worke—beseech Him who hes
the hearts of Kings in his hands, to inclyne our Kings heart, and let
us magnifie, from our hearts, our graceous Lord for this peaceable
meeting and happie conclusion we have had; for the which we are
oblissed all the dayes of our life to be thankfull to our God and King,
and to rander unto the Father, Soune, and blissed Spirit of Grace, all
praise, endless honour, and glorie, for now and ever.—Amen.140
FINIS.
THE
GENERAL ASSEMBLY,
AT EDINBURGH, 1639.
Before proceeding with a detail of the Acts and discussions of the

Assembly of 1639, it is fitting, in conformity with the general plan of
this work, to state briefly the occurrences which resulted from that
of the preceding year—events, the character of which must, in some
measure, have been anticipated in the perusal of the numerous
documents which we have already concentrated in the foregoing
pages.
It is evident, from many indications in the correspondence and
public documents of the period, that, from the first movements of
the Covenanters against the Service Book and Prelacy, both the King
and the Scotch Leaders contemplated the contingency of an appeal
to arms, although both parties disguised, as much as possible, their
mutual anticipations and arrangements. The rupture which ensued
on the Commissioner’s dissolution of the Assembly on the 29th of
November 1638; the continuance of the Assembly in defiance of the
King’s authority, (apart altogether from the nature of its subsequent
proceedings;) and the proclamations by Hamilton, after his
retirement from the Assembly—in which all who continued in it were
denounced as liable to the penalties of treason—amounted, in
substance and effect, to a declaration of war, on the part of Charles,
against the great body of his Scottish subjects, as rebels. Nor, in the
circumstances, could aught else be expected; for, with the
Sovereign’s notions of the royal prerogative, and influenced by the
spirit disclosed in all his letters and instructions to the Commissioner,
nothing, save consciousness of utter want of power, was likely to
deter him from enforcing full and unlimited authority over all his
subjects; while, on the other hand, the bold, numerous, and
influential representatives of national feeling that composed the
Glasgow Assembly of 1638, must have been prepared, from the first
hour of its meeting, to raise the standard of revolt in the field, unless
the objects at which they aimed with such intense enthusiasm, were
otherwise attained. In fact, even before the meeting of that
Assembly, both the King and the Covenanters had secretly prepared
for a conflict; and, after its dissolution, and the scornful rejection of
its supplication for a sanction to its Acts, the exertions of both
parties were commensurate to their means and their relative
positions.
The chief Acts of the Assembly of 1638—some of which have been
made subjects of controversy—were, 1st, The election of their
Moderator and Clerk, and their constituting the Court before
receiving the Declinature tendered by the Prelates; 2d, The Acts
approving of the Registers; 3d, The continuing to sit after the
Commissioner ordered it to dissolve; 4th, The Act condemning the
spurious Assemblies from 1606 to 1618, inclusive; 5th, The Act
condemning the Service Book, and other Books forced on the
country and Church, by the royal prerogative, without the sanction
of Parliament or of the Church; 6th, The deposition and
excommunication of the Prelates and others; 7th, The prohibition, by
its own authority, of Episcopacy and the practice of the Five Articles
of Perth, under the pains of censure and excommunication; 8th, The
Act against the Press.
Of these, the first five, and some other relative Acts, reviving
former laws of the Church, appear to be quite unexceptionable, and
fully within the competency of a free General Assembly, according to
the laws of the land, and the consuetudes of the Reformed Church,
from the time of the Reformation; and these were all Acts,
legitimately within the range of spiritual and ecclesiastical
jurisdiction. We know not on what ground it can be contended that it
was bound to dissolve itself on the mandate of the King or his
Commissioner. It was confessedly convened by the royal
proclamation; but we know of no authority by which the executive
power was at that time warranted to dissolve a General Assembly, by
its mere fiat, after being so assembled, upon an anticipation that it
was about to act ultra vires and illegally.
The 6th, 7th, and 8th classes of Acts to which we have alluded,
were of a different character, and imported an assumption of civil
power and jurisdiction. Had that Assembly, upon the points referred
to, confined itself to an expression of opinion in the first instance, or
taken cognizance only, and in an orderly manner, of the moral and
ministerial delinquencies of the prelates and ministers, there does
not appear to be any good ground for challenging its procedure;
and, having exhausted its proper spiritual jurisdiction, it could then
have applied to the supreme legislature for a ratification of its
ecclesiastical conclusions, and thus avoided the rock on which it
split, and, for many “evil days,” made shipwreck of the genuine and
legitimate Presbyterian Church of Scotland.
It would be disingenuous, as well as absurd, to disguise the fact,
that several of the Acts of the Assembly of 1638 were violations of,
and irreconcilable with, the existing law of the land, and imported an
assumption of authority identical with that of the State. In fact, that
Assembly was a Political Convention, as much, at least, as an
Ecclesiastical Synod—having fully a hundred Members of Parliament
in its composition; and, in many of its enactments and decrees, it
directly rescinded and superseded a great number of Acts of
Parliament. Without entering at all on controversial ground, we may
remark, as a matter of fact and of notoriety, established on the face
of the Statute Book, and by the tenor of the Assembly’s Acts, that
that Assembly, virtually and explicitly, abrogated a series of Acts of
Parliament, by which Prelacy was fully and distinctly settled as the
Established Church of Scotland, for a period of above thirty years
preceding, under which the greater number of the Clergy in that
Assembly had received ordination and benefices, and in which the
lay members had acquiesced without any visible opposition.141 In
addition to the assumption of civil authority, in practically repealing
Acts of Parliament, the Assembly sustained Complaints against the
Prelates and others, at the instance of miscellaneous and self-
constituted public prosecutors—a practice never recognised as
competent in the law of Scotland at any period.142 It deposed the
Prelates, not solely for erroneous doctrine or immoralities, which was
quite competent to the spiritual jurisdiction of the Assembly, but
chiefly because they held offices conferred on them under the
existing law of the country. It superseded the uniform and settled
law, both of the Church and State, from the time of the Reformation,
on the point of ecclesiastical presentations to benefices, and
transported ministers from place to place, regardless of the rights of
patrons and the wishes of incumbents. It imposed an absolute veto
on the liberty of the press; and, above all, it issued an edict for
coercing the whole people into an adoption of the Covenant or
Confession, and, in obedience to its decrees, under the terrors of
excommunication, (a penalty which, at that time, was tantamount to
outlawry, confiscation of property, and proscription,) in each and all
of these particulars deviating from the spiritual into the civil track of
jurisprudence and legislation. Of this, indeed, that sagacious and
gifted man, Henderson, the Moderator, was fully aware; for he says
explicitly—“Neither can we thinke ourselves secure in peace and
quyetness, till civill auctoritie ratifie what is heir done by
ecclesiasticall constitution.”
One of the most unaccountable characteristics of the Reformation
in this country, is the intolerance and coercive courses adopted by
the Protestants, from their Popish predecessors, for compelling
uniformity to the new doctrines and worship. This appears to be
inconsistent, and indeed irreconcilable with the great first principle of
the Reformation—the right of private judgment in matters of
religion, and in interpreting the Scriptures according to the
conclusions of that judgment. It was the assertion of this right which
shook the Papal domination; and nothing contributed more largely to
the overthrow of Popery in Scotland, than the civil persecutions
which ushered in the dawn of the Reformation, and which excited
the sympathy and indignation of the people; yet no sooner were our
first Reformers disenthralled from that bloody yoke, than they
resorted to similar methods of compelling assent to their principles,
and obedience to the authority of the Kirk. From 1449, in the reign
of James II., “cursing” or “excommunication” by the Church, both
Catholic and Protestant, for nonconformity or other kindred offences,
inferred imprisonment and forfeiture of property in the recusant; and
the unhappy victim of ecclesiastical censure was doomed to
exclusion from society and all its charities, to destitution, to
imprisonment, to exile from his native country, and even to death.
Self-preservation may, perhaps, have prompted this course at first,
when the Reformers were struggling to secure that religious liberty
which was the great object of their zeal; and “The Booke of the
Universall Kirk” affords numberless examples of the eagerness
betrayed for constraining, by civil penalties, all persons to profess
the reformed doctrine, and submit themselves to ecclesiastical
authority. During the space of 140 years after, the spirit of
intolerance continued to govern every party that was dominant for
the time; in the reigns of Mary, James VI., and his son Charles, and
his grandsons Charles II. and James VII. The triumph of the
Covenanters was not more distinguished than any other portion of
the period referred to, for greater relaxation in this respect, than
either the Popish or Episcopal Churches; and, during all the
vicissitudes of their fortune, as already in some measure disclosed,
and to be further illustrated, we cannot find even a trace of any
proposal to give freedom of conscience to others, even when they
were waging war against Popery and Prelacy in the name of religious
liberty. This strikes us as an anomaly in the moral history of our
country, of which we have never seen any satisfactory solution; but
the rigorous enforcement of the Covenant and submission to the
Presbyterian Kirk, and the excommunications, which were directed
against the Prelates and others at the time to which our attention is
more immediately directed, perhaps paved the way, in some degree,
as a precedent, for the interdicts, intercommunings, and diversified
persecutions, which have rendered the reigns of the two last
monarchs of the Stuart dynasty, a byword and a reproach to the
land in which these horrors were perpetrated. It was not till the year
1690 that the civil penalties on religious nonconformity were blotted
from our statute-book, after the settlement of William and Mary on
the throne of Britain.
Greatly as we admire the talents, the courage, and the piety of
many individuals in the Assembly of 1638, we do not deem it
necessary to canonize their errors, or to ascribe a sort of plenary
inspiration to all their proceedings. That in their great objects, they
were right, and that much good resulted from their stern and
intrepid course, we most willingly admit; but (if we may be
permitted to express any opinion of our own) we should say, that
the true and only justification of some Acts, which were ultra vires of
a church assembly, is, that in fact they were partly a political as well
as an ecclesiastical body, constrained, by the necessity of the case,
to resist and to resent the assumption of arbitrary power, which by
its stretches had virtually broken up the fabric of society in Scotland,
and reduced it nearly to its primary elements. The Covenanters had
but too much reason to apprehend that their civil as well as their
religious liberties were in the utmost jeopardy; and, therefore, it is
by no means surprising if, in the tumult of emotions by which the
nation was at that time convulsed, they in some points passed
beyond the strict line of demarcation which separates the spiritual
from the civil authorities in peaceful and well-ordered states—Inter
arma silent leges.
Such was the position of the parties—the King and the Kingdom of
Scotland—in the beginning of the year 1639, after the Assembly of
1638 had terminated its labours.
Immediately after the dissolution of the Assembly, the several
Commissions which it had appointed proceeded to “purge out” all
persons who, either by adherence to Prelacy, or for other causes,
were obnoxious to the now ruling power: and Baillie informs us that
“many ministers who remained obstinate in scandals were deposed
at Edinʳ, St Andrews, Dundee, Irvine, and elsewhere.”143 We learn,
however, from the Acts of 1639 that these depositions were to be
relaxed, (except in the case of gross faults,) upon submission to the
new order of things.144 The members of the late Assembly,
according to its injunctions, had made known to their several
parishes the nature of its proceedings; but at Aberdeen, where there
was a stiff opposition to its authority, Dr Guild was deterred from
doing so; and Lundie, the Commissioner from King’s College, was
summoned before the Senatus Academicus, and threatened with
deprivation for having continued in the Assembly after it was
dissolved by the Commissioner.145
But the attention of the Covenanters was called from such matters
to others of more serious importance. Hamilton had, on the 17th of
December preceding, put forth a full proclamation, containing his
reasons for dissolving the Assembly. His health had suffered much
from mental anxiety and the exertions which he had been called on
to make; and it was not until the 28th of that month that he
proceeded on his journey to London.146 Previously to his final
departure from Scotland, however, the chiefs of the Covenanters
waited on him, to solicit his good offices at Court; but we are told
that he replied to them—“You must not think to use your Kings now
as you did formerly, when they were only Kings of rebels: the King
has now another royal and warlike nation at his command, and you
shall soon feel it to your cost.”147 Hamilton reached Whitehall on the
5th of January, when he found the King highly exasperated, and
resolved, by force of arms, to subdue his obstreperous subjects, the
Covenanters of Scotland.
The plan of operations designed for carrying this object into effect
was, that an English army of 30,000 horse and foot, under the
immediate command of Charles, should invade Scotland on the
eastern borders—that Carlisle and Berwick should be strongly
garrisoned—that 5000 men should be landed in the north, to co-
operate with Huntly and his followers—that the Earl of Antrim should
land in Argyleshire—that Strafford, with such forces as he could
withdraw from Ireland, should enter the Clyde—that another fleet
should enter the Forth, and scour the eastern coast—and thus, by a
simultaneous attack on all sides, distract and overwhelm the
Covenanters. And had this well-devised plan of operations been fully
and promptly carried into effect, there can be but little doubt that it
would have been attended with at least temporary success.
The King, though hampered by increasing discontents among his
English subjects, and weakened by many errors in policy, both
foreign and domestic, roused “the might of England.” He had
effected a saving of £200,000 in his Exchequer; he obtained loans
from the Episcopal Clergy of England, and from the Papists by
means of the Queen and the priests; he had ample stores of arms,
and a formidable train of artillery; and he summoned the English
nobility to assemble, with their followers, at York, on the 1st of
April.148
Of these designs on the part of the King, the Covenanters did not
long remain ignorant; and, indeed, they had anticipated them so far
that they had previously procured arms and munitions secretly from
the Continent, and had secured the services of Alexander Lesly, and
other veteran soldiers, trained to war in the army of the celebrated
Gustavus Adolphus, King of Sweden. The King’s summons to the
English nobility was promulgated on the 26th of January, and the
ground on which it proceeded was a statement that the Scotch
intended to invade England. Even before this public document
appeared, the Covenanters were made aware of the King’s hostile
intentions, from the circumstance of all Scotchmen at Court being
required upon oath to renounce the Assembly, and to promise
assistance when required against the Covenanters. Being anxious to
propitiate the good opinion of the English people, and thereby to
weaken the King’s hands, they had circulated extensively “a printed
sheet or two” of information to the people of England, “for
vindicating their intentions and actions from the unjust calumnies of
their enemies.” It was dated 4th February, and, on the 27th of that
month, Charles issued “A proclamation and declaration to inform the
kingdom of England of the seditious practices of some in Scotland,
seeking to overthrow his regal power under the false pretence of
religion.”149
The deputies of the Covenanters, who assembled in Edinburgh
about the middle of February, resolved to make a reply to this
proclamation, which was drawn up by Henderson, and entitled, “The
Remonstrance of the Nobility, Barons, Burgesses, Ministers, and
Commons, within the Kingdom of Scotland, vindicating them and
their proceedings from the crimes wherewith they are charged by
the late proclamation in England,” &c. “These three or four most
dainty sheets of paper of Mr Henderson,” says Baillie, “made such an
impression, that we, over all England, began to be much more pitied
than before, and our enraged party, [antagonists,] the Bishops, to be
more detested.” These, and various other tracts by Henderson,
Baillie, and others, on the “lawfulness of our defence in arms,”150
and which were distributed extensively through England by pedlers
and otherwise, had a powerful moral influence in that kingdom; in
which, besides, there was a growing discontent, occasioned by the
King’s arbitrary disuse of Parliaments, and other grievances peculiar
to themselves.
“When we had done diligence,” says Baillie, “to inform our
neighbours of England, and make sure the courage of all our friends
at home, in the third place we took course for a real opposition to
our enemies.” On the 7th of March, a full meeting of the deputies
and leaders of the Covenant was held, at which, resolving not to
depend on any foreign auxiliaries, a general committee of the
nobles, barons, and burgesses, and two senators of the College of
Justice, being twenty-six in number, was appointed, (thirteen being a
quorum,) to give out orders, receive intelligence, levy troops, raise
money, &c.; and, exercising all the functions of a supreme,
legislative, and executive body, this “Committee of Estates” issued
an edict that every fourth man should be armed and trained: local
committees of war were appointed, and a complete plan of military
organization was established in every burgh and county in Scotland;
and we have Bishop Burnet’s authority for stating, that “these
committees found small resistance, and no difficulty, of levying men
—greater numbers being offered than could be either armed or
maintained.”151 Thus, the chimera of royal and indefeasible
prerogative was reduced in Scotland to a nonentity; and the nice
metaphysical problem of the lawfulness of resistance by subjects,
was practically solved by the entire Kingdom appearing in arms, to
resist the undefined and unlimited claims of the first Charles Stuart,
to absolute power over all estates in the realm, when about to be
enforced by foreign invasion.
While these transactions were in progress, the Court of Session, it
appears, had remonstrated strongly with their Sovereign against his
belligerent purposes. Their earlier communications on the subject
appear to have been intercepted, probably by the incendiary
courtiers; but, in the month of March, their Lordships sent another
remonstrance to his Majesty by the Lord Justice-Clerk, which we
have not observed in any of the common histories or printed
collections, and which we, therefore, subjoin among the documents
hereto appended, being a piece of evidence entitled to great weight,
as emanating from the supreme civil judicatory of Scotland.152
Their Lordships state that, “when your Majestie was pleased to
indict a General Assembly, we, and most parte of all your good
subjects of this kingdome, wer overjoyed, in expectation that the
doubts in religious worship and kirk government, quhilk was tossed
to and fro this whyle bygone, should have then beine cleerlie settled;
and altho’ the greater part of your people be weill pleased with the
constitutions therein concluded, yet your Majesties displeasure
against that Assembly, and the proceedings thereof, and your
expresse dislike of those who adheres to the same, and the fearfull
consequences therefra like to ensue, hes turned all the hopes of
comfort which we expected, in sorrowes and teares.”—“Your
Majestie may be pleased to pardon us to avere, that in this, they are
but badd counsellours, and no better patriots, who will advis your
Majestie to adde oyle and fewall to the fire.” And among their
“Instructions,” (advices,) their Lordships inform his Majesty, “that, if
our neighbour nation doe invaid this countrie, it will assuredlie be
taken be all Scotsmen, albeit not affected the present way, for a
national quarrel; and all will strive as one man, to defend
themselves, as for their lives, estates, and liberties of the countrie.”
This salutary advice, however, was slighted by King Charles.
We shall not pause to notice all the deliberations and preparations
on either side which ensued, but hasten on to the main points of our
narrative.
On the 21st of March, Leslie, and other officers, commanding
about 1000 men, took Edinburgh Castle—having forced the outer
gate—securing twenty-five field-pieces, and other munitions. The
day following, Rothes, Lowdoun, Home, and Lothian, with a similar
force, invested Dalkeith House, which was surrendered, without
resistance, by Traquair, the keeper: and they seized the Regalia of
Scotland, forty-eight barrels of gunpowder, twenty-four of balls, and
six cart-loads of muskets, which they deposited in Edinburgh Castle.
On the 23d of March, (being a Sunday,) Dumbarton Castle was
secured by a stratagem; and, besides these chief forts, (Stirling was
in the hands of Mar, one of their own party,) Strathaven Castle and
Douglas Castle, in Lanarkshire, and Tantallan Castle, in East Lothian,
Dairsy, in Fife,153 and Broderick Castle, in Arran were seized; the
only enterprise of this kind which failed, being in the case of
Karlaverock Castle, in the south, which it would have been
hazardous to attack, and difficult to maintain. Dumfries, however,
was taken possession of by a body of Covenanters.
In the north, the Earl of Montrose, with a well-appointed force, of
seven or eight thousand men, (“the most were brave, resolute, and
well-armed gentlemen,”) levied in Angus and Mearns, moved to
Aberdeen, appalled Huntly and his adherents, who fled; and
Montrose took possession of Aberdeen, where he levied
contributions, though very generously. There was a subsequent
rallying of the Royalists, headed by Aboyne, Huntly’s son, and Ogilvy
of Banff, who gained some petty advantages; but they were worsted
in a skirmish at Turreff; and Montrose kept all the north country in
awe and subjection—Huntly being seized and conveyed to Edinburgh
Castle, as the only security his opponents could get for his neutrality.
In the Western Highlands, Argyle was on the alert, with a sufficient
force. The enthusiasm was so high, that nobility, gentry, ladies, and
persons of all ranks, joined in the humblest labours for self-defence.
“Leith fortifications went on speedily—above 1000 hands daily
employed; plat up towards the sea, sundry perfect and strong
bastions, well garnished, with a number of double cannon, that we
feared not much any landing of ships on that quarter. The towns of
Fife, all along the shore, made up such sconces and fosses, and
planted such a number of ship-cannon upon batteries, that they
were all in the case of a tolerable defence. Thus, in a short time, by
God’s extraordinary help, we cut the main sinews of our adversaries
hopes; all the strength of our land came in our hands; no man
among us but those who swore they were stout friends. All
otherwise disposed, both Noblemen, Gentlemen, and Ministers, were
got away to our professed enemies, and the whole country put in
such an order and magnanimity, that we found sensibly in every
thing, the hand of God going before us; so all fear of human force
was clean banished away.”154
Such were the energetic and successful movements, which, in the
course of a few days, put the Covenanters in possession of all the
strongholds of Scotland, and inspired them with assured confidence.
Let us now turn to the preparations of King Charles for his enterprise
against them.
About the middle of March, the King published a declaration of the
reasons for his expedition against Scotland, and soon after issued
the “Large Declaration,” or Manifesto, containing a more minute
statement of the grounds of his projected invasion. The latter of
these, as has been already noticed, was written by Balcanquel, Dean
of Durham; and, although we have had occasion to select public
documents from it, which could not be materially falsified, it is to be
regarded merely as a varnished and partial statement on behalf of
the King’s policy, on which no reliance can be placed, except when
his testimony operates against the cause which he advocated. His
Majesty thereafter took his departure from London, on the 27th of
March, and, on the 1st of April, arrived at York, where he remained
till the beginning of May, when he moved on to Newcastle-upon-
Tyne. He marched thence to Berwick-upon-Tweed, in the vicinity of
which he arrived about the beginning of the month, and continued
there till the negotiations and treaty, betwixt him and the
Covenanters, put a stop to the impending hostilities, on the 18th of
June following.
The movements of the two armies, however, during that interval,
form too prominent a picture of the times to be passed over without
a brief notice—referring to the Royal Letters, and other documents
of the day, which will be found annexed, as embodying the most
authentic accounts, not merely of what was visible to the common
eye, but of what was passing behind the scenes, in the secret
councils of the antagonist courts and camps.
Charles, with a well-appointed army, which had preceded and
accompanied him from London to York, was there joined by the
English nobility; and, from the splendour of the national chivalry who
there joined his standard, the march, from thence to Berwick; of
betwixt 20,000 and 30,000 infantry, cavalry, and artillery, is
described as resembling a military triumph. The English host was
under the nominal command of the Earl of Arundel and Essex, but
having its monarch and his standard in the midst. It finally
encamped at the Birks, a few miles above Berwick, on the southern
bank of the Tweed. The long inaction, however, which ensued—the
peculiar nature of the service, in which the sympathies of the
officers, as well as of the common soldiers, were, to a great extent,
with the Scotch—and the unpopularity of Charles’ Government in
England, created by his arbitrary dissolutions and discontinuance of
Parliaments, paralysed the energies of this showy army; and Charles
ere long discovered symptoms that there was peril in relying on a
force the military prowess of which was unnerved by these inherent
moral affections.
During the progress of this prolonged and hesitating advance
towards the boundary which divided the kingdoms, the Marquis of
Hamilton, who had remained in London at the King’s departure, to
superintend the outfit of the naval expedition, had only reached
Yarmouth Roads on the 15th of April, and being there detained by
adverse winds, it was not till the 29th of that month that he reached
Holy Island with his squadron, on board of which there were about
5000 raw levies, so inefficient that the greater part of them,
including even the non-commissioned officers, did not even know
how to fire a musket. On the 1st of May, he entered the Frith of
Forth; and his squadron, consisting of about twenty vessels, cast
anchor in Leith Roads.
The Covenanters were not unprepared for the threatened
invasion. Whenever the fleet appeared in the offing, the beacon fires
blazed along the summits of the mountains, awakening the land to a
sense of its dangers and its duties. From all quarters, the stout
peasantry and burgesses of Scotland followed, with ardour; the
Nobles and gentry, and veteran officers, as their “Crowners” and
commanders, to the point of danger; and, ere Hamilton could
refresh his sickly troops, by landing them on Inchkeith and Inchcolm,
or issue the King’s proclamations, the shores of the Forth, on both
sides of his fleet, gleamed with twenty thousand Scottish spears and
broadswords—the well-known symbols of ancient renown and
national victory—and stood, “a wall of fire,” in defence of their native
land, against what every man deemed an invasion by a foreign foe.
Whatever we may now think of the circumstances of a political
nature which led to this unhappy difference betwixt the King and his
Scottish subjects, and however clearly we may trace, as it appears to
us, through the backward vista of two hundred years, the errors and
the failings of our fathers—there is not a true Scotchman, of these
times, or in any future generations, who can look back on the
records of such a scene, without a throb of pride and of patriotism
swelling in his heart, that he is descended of a race who thus
gathered themselves around the altar of their country and their God,
in the hour of peril—in defence of what they deemed the highest
and the holiest privileges of their fathers, of themselves, and of their
children.
This splendid demonstration of national spirit and power, seems to
have warned Hamilton that his purposes of attack were effectually
frustrated, even if he was not paralyzed by the feelings inseparable
from a generous nature in such a position. He lingered on in a
fruitless series of negotiations with the leaders of the Covenanters,
(of which the particulars are too minute for recapitulation here)—his
strength frittered away by detaching a portion of his troops, and by
the ravages of disease; and he continued in a state of listless
distraction and impotence for many weeks, neither attempting
anything hostile, nor receiving any aggression from his sagacious
antagonists, until he was recalled by his royal master to
headquarters, in the camp near Berwick.
It will be recollected that, by the proclamations of 9th and 22d
September 1638, the General Assembly was indicted for the 21st of
November that year, and the Scottish Parliament to meet on the 16th
of May following.155 The time had now arrived for the assembling of
Parliament, to which, in compliance with the proclamation, the
Nobles, Barons, and others liable or entitled to serve in the Supreme
Legislature convened at Edinburgh, while public affairs were in the
attitude of which we have thus given a brief outline—the King’s
Commissioner on board a naval armament in Leith Roads, for the
subjection of Scotland by force, and the nation mustered in arms to
resist him; the Sovereign himself being at the head of a foreign
army, (for, as regarded Scotland then, it was a foreign army,) on the
eve of invading her territories, and issuing proclamations against the
whole nation, as guilty of treason and rebellion. It was under these
extraordinary circumstances that Parliament assembled on the 16th
of June 1639; and it is necessary to advert to the proceedings which
the Estates, thus convoked by royal authority, adopted.
It was surmised by the royalist partisans that the Covenanters
would hold a Parliament according to the indiction, and proceed,
without either the King or a Commissioner being present, and
establish some form of government, more or less anti-monarchical;
in this, however, they were mistaken. When his Majesty sent orders
to prorogate the Parliament, all agreed that it should be prorogued,
after being fenced, to any period his Majesty thought fit; and it was
prorogued accordingly, and by subsequent adjournment, till
September following. Before separating, however, the Members
concurred in granting a very ample commission to General Leslie, as
Commander-in-Chief, and appointed Balmerino Governor of
Edinburgh Castle. Meanwhile, the Covenanting chiefs omitted no
opportunity of appealing to the justice and patriotism of the King, by
supplications to himself, and communications to others whom they
thought likely to have influence in his councils.
We now turn our attention to that quarter where it appeared
probable the main battle would be fought, had not the
consciousness of danger in the battle-field, and a sinister and double
policy, induced the King to listen to the proposals of peace from his
subjects; and it is one of the most honourable traits in the character
of the Covenanters, that, however mistaken they might be in some
of their views and actions, they ever manifested a desire to avoid
the calamities of war, and ever cherished feelings of loyalty to the
King, and of submission to his constitutional authority.
As the plans of the King began to be developed by his own march
to the Eastern Border, and Hamilton’s expedition to the Forth, the
Covenanters concentrated their forces to meet the threatened
invasion at all points. On the 18th of May, peremptory orders were
given by the Committee of War for general and energetic exertions.
The forces which had been organized and disciplined on the Western
Borders, under Monro, advanced from Dumfries through Nithsdale,
Annandale, Liddisdale, and Teviotdale, towards the Merse, and took
up cantonments at Kelso; while the main army (after leaving
sufficient force to keep Hamilton in check) marched toward the royal
camp, under the command of Alexander Leslie as Generalissimo, and
pitched their tents in an entrenched camp at Dunglas, on the
confines of East Lothian and Berwickshire—each body being so
placed as to interpose an opposing force if the King’s army should

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PHASE CONJUGATE LASER OPTICS † Arnaud Brignon and Jean-Pierre

JOHN WILEY & SONS, INC.

Published by John Wiley & Sons, Inc., Hoboken, New Jersey.

Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data:

Printed in the United States of America

Chapter 1. Overview of Phase Conjugation 1

Chapter 2. Principles of Phase Conjugating Brillouin Mirrors 19

2.2.3 SBS Threshold 30

Chapter 3. Laser Resonators with Brillouin Mirrors 63

Chapter 4. Multi-Kilohertz Pulsed Laser Systems with High Beam 109

4.6 Characterization of Fiber Phase Conjugate Mirror 117

Chapter 5. High-Pulse-Energy Phase Conjugated Laser System 147

Chapter 6. Advanced Stimulated Brillouin Scattering for Phase 205

Chapter 7. Stimulated Brillouin Scattering Pulse Compression and

Chapter 8. Principles and Optimization of BaTiO3:Rh Phase 257

8.2 Overview of Material Properties 258

Chapter 9. Spatial and Spectral Control of High-Power Diode Lasers 301

Chapter 10. Self-Pumped Phase Conjugation by Joint Stimulated 331

Chapter 11. Self-Adaptive Loop Resonators with Gain Gratings 367

11.7 Double Phase Conjugation 387

spectral bandwidth, and brightness through self-adaptive nonlinear optical technics

Oleg Antipov, Institute of Applied Physics, Russian Academy of Sciences, 603950

G. A. Pasmanik, Passat, Toronto, Ontario, Canada M3J 3H9

Overview of Phase Conjugation

1.1 GENERAL INTRODUCTION

permits (a) the demonstration of novel types of optical resonators, including a

1.2 PHASE CONJUGATION THROUGH FOUR-WAVE MIXING

1.2.1 Phase conjugation and holography

amplification (or depletion) of the probe or amplified conjugate beam reflectivity.

1.2.2 The basic formalism of four-wave mixing

amplitudes of the optical ﬁelds Ec and Ep:

Two parameters will be of interest in view of applications of degenerate four-wave

R ¼ tan2 jKjL (7)

Since ampliﬁcation appears to be independent of the pump-probe beam angle in

1.2.3 Self-pumped phase conjugation

1.3 THE NONLINEAR MATERIALS

There is potentially a wide variety of nonlinear physical mechanisms that can be

1.3.1 Optical Kerr effects

1.3.2 Stimulated Brillouin scattering

Doppler effect corresponding to the sound velocity by several gigahertz. As will be

1.3.4 Free carriers in semiconductors

Microcrystallites of a semiconductor can also be included in a glass matrix. It results

1.3.5 Saturable ampliﬁcation

1.3.6 Saturable absorption

EP (~r ) ¼ a0 (z)A0 (~r ), with A0 (~r ) ¼ B0 (~r ) (23)