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A Student's Guide to Newton's Laws of Motion
Newton's laws of motion, which introduce force and describe how it affects motion,
are the gateway to physics - yet they are often misunderstood due to their many
subtleties. Based on the author's twenty years of teaching physics and engineering,
this intuitive guide to Newton's laws of motion corrects the many misconceptions
surrounding this fundamental topic. Adopting an informal and pedagogical approach
and a clear, accessible style, this concise text presents Newton's laws in a coherent
story of force and motion. Carefully scaffolded everyday examples and full
explanations of concepts and equations ensure that all students studying physics
develop a deep understanding of Newton's laws of motion.
s AN Jo Y MAH AJAN is Research Affiliate in the Mathematics Department and

J-WEL Affiliate at the Jameel World Education Lab at the Massachusetts Institute of
Technology. After having studied mathematics at the University of Oxford and physics
at the California Institute of Technology, he has taught physics, mathematics, and
engineering around the world, including at the African Institute for Mathematical
Sciences and the University of Cambridge. He is the author of The Art of Insight in
Science and Engineering (MIT Press) and Street-Fighting Mathematics (MIT Press).
3 8888 29229168 3
Other books in the Student Guide series:
r
A Student's Guide to the Sehr/Minger Equation, Daniel Fleisch
A Student's Guide to General Relativity, Norman Gray
A Student's Guide to Analytical Mechanics, John L. Bohn

A Student's Guide to Infinite Series and Sequences, Bernhard W. Bach Jr.
A Student's Guide to Atomic Physics, Mark Fox
A Student's Guide to Waves, Daniel Fleisch, Laura Kinnaman
A Student's Guide to Entropy, Don S. Lemons
A Student's Guide to Dimensional Analysis, Don S. Lemons

A Student's Guide to Numerical Methods, Ian H. Hutchinson
A Student's Guide to Langrangians and Hamiltonians, Patrick Hamill

A Student's Guide to the Mathematics ofAstronomy, Daniel Fleisch, Julia Kregonow
A Student's Guide to Vectors and Tensors, Daniel Fleisch
A Student's Guide to Maxwell's Equations, Daniel Fleisch
A Student's Guide to Fourier Transforms, J. F. James
A Student's Guide to Data and Error Analysis, Herman J.C. Berendsen
r
A Student's Guide to Newton's
Laws of Motion
SANJOY MAHAJAN
Massachusetts Institute of Technology
UCAMBRIDGE
� UNIVERSITY PRESS
CAMBRIDGE
UNIVERSITY PRESS
University Printing House, Cambridge CB2 8BS, United Kingdom

One Liberty Plaza, 20th Floor, New York, NY 10006, USA
477 Williamstown Road, Port Melbourne, VIC 3207, Australia
314-321, 3rd Floor, Plot 3, Splendor Forum, Jasola District Centre,
New Delhi - 110025, India
79 Anson Road, #06---04/06, Singapore 079906
Cambridge University Press is part of the University of Cambridge.

It furthers the University's mission by disseminating knowledge in the pursuit of
education, learning, and research at the highest international levels of excellence.
www.cambridge.org
Information on this title: www.cambridge.org/9781108471145
DOI: 10.1017/9781108557702
© Sanjoy Mahajan 2020
This publication is in copyright. Subject to statutory exception
and to the provisions of relevant collective licensing agreements,
no reproduction of any part may take place without the written
permission of Cambridge University Press.
First published 2020
Printed in the United Kingdom by TJ International Ltd. Padstow Cornwall
A catalogue record for this publication is available from the British Library.
ISBN 978-1-108-47114-5 Hardback
ISBN 978-1-108-45719-4 Paperback
Cambridge University Press has no responsibility for the persistence or accuracy of
URLs for external or third-party internet websites referred to in this publication
and does not guarantee that any content on such websites is, or will remain,
accurate or appropriate.
To John William Warren (1923-2016),
Senior Lecturer in Physics and Reader in Physics Education
at Brunel University, London,
whose works set me on
the path to understanding
Newton's enchanting laws of motion
Contents
Preface ix
Acknowledgments xi
1 Newton's Third Law: Forces Belong to Interactions 1
1.1 Using the Third Law 2
1.2 Classifying Forces 4
1.3 Important Forces 9
1.4 Force Magnitudes 22
1.5 Forces to Avoid 24
1.6 Problems 26
2 Freebody Diagrams: Representing Forces 28
2.1 Making Freebody Diagrams: A Foolproof Recipe 28
2.2 Practicing the Recipe 32
2.3 A Subtle Puzzle: Bumblebees in a Box 36
2.4 Problems 38
3 Newton's First Law: Permission to Use Newton's Second Law 39
3.1 Reference Frames 39
3.2 Applying the Test 41
3.3 Noninertial Frames 43
3.4 Making New Inertial Frames 44
3.5 Problems 46
vii
viii
4 Introducing Newton's Second Law 47

4.1 Force Changes Motion 47
4.2 What Matters Is Net Force 49
4.3 More Mass Means Less Acceleration 50
4.4 Alternative Forms of the Second Law 51
5 Newton's Second Law with Zero Acceleration 53
5.1 Standing on Level Ground 53
5.2 Standing on a Hill 55
5.3 Standing in a Steadily Descending Elevator 56
5.4 Bicycling on Level Ground 57
5.5 Sledding at Constant Velocity 64
5.6 Tension and Tension Forces 70
5.7 Pressure versus Depth in a Lake 80
5.8 Problems 84
6 Describing Changing Motion: Acceleration 90
6.1 Velocity 90
6.2 Acceleration Defined 95
6.3 Circular Motion at Constant Speed 101
6.4 Constant-Speed Motion around an Ellipse 107
6.5 Varying-Speed Motion around a Circle 109
6.6 Acceleration in General: A Summary 113
6.7 Problems 114
7 Newton's Second Law with Changing Motion 116
7.1 Restoring Acceleration to Newton's Second Law 116
7.2 Composite Bodies 141
7.3 Two-Dimensional Motion 143
7.4 Weight 152
7.5 Problems 165
8 What Comes Next 173
8.1 Noninertial Reference Frames 173
8.2 Torque and Rotation 180
8.3 Going beyond Newton's Laws 185
8.4 Bon Voyage! 191
8.5 Problems 191
References 193
Index 195
Preface
Newton's three laws of motion, the basis of almost all science and engineering,
are one of the great achievements of human culture. Using them, we explain,
predict, and plan the motion of bodies in the natural and in our human-created
worlds. Doing so requires knowing how forces affect motion - knowledge em
bodied in Newton's second law. Your fluency with this law is the ultimate goal
of this book. But first you must know when this law is valid - knowledge pro
vided by Newton's first law. And understanding the first law requires a prior
idea, interaction - embodied in Newton's third law.
Thus, you will meet the three laws in the following order: (1) the third law,
to introduce interaction; (2) the first law, to describe when the second law can
even be used; (3) and finally the second law, to describe what forces do.
But, wait! Before studying the effect of force (the second law) or the idea of
interaction (the third law), don't you need to know what force is? No one has
answered that question fully. Fortunately, we can understand and use Newton's
laws without a solution to that philosophical conundrum. All that we need to
know is that a force is a push or a pull. Thus, a force has a strength, formally
known as its magnitude, and a direction. Mathematically, force is a vector.
Now you are ready for Newton's laws. To help you learn them, I have em
bedded throughout this book three types of questions. Questions preceded by a
rightward-pointing triangle ( ) are from me to you. They are what I would ask
you in a one-to-one tutorial on Newton's laws. Questions preceded by a leftward
pointing triangle ( ) are from you to me. They are questions that students have
asked or should ask me. For both types of triangle questions, but especially for
the questions from me to you ( ), try to answer the question before reading
on for my explanation. In that way, you will learn Newton's laws more quickly.
(When my explanation is lengthy and the answer itself easy to ,,miss, I point out
the answer to the triangle question explicitly.)
ix
X Preface
The third type of question is end-of-chapter problems. Like traditional home

work problems, they ask you to apply the ideas that you have learned so far
(including in earlier chapters!). Their solutions are available online. As with the
triangle questions, try your hand before studying my solution, but do use my
solutions as worked examples - one of the most effective ways to learn [20].
Newton's laws are subtle. I have been studying them for over 30 years and
teaching them for over 20 years. Only now do I understand many of their sub
tleties. This book will help you learn in weeks what I learned over decades,
an attempt to fulfill the purpose of teaching described by the physicist Edwin
Jaynes: to implant a way of thinking so that you, the student, can "learn in one
year what the teacher learned in two" [10]. And you can. For I took detours,
covered up deep misunderstandings with symbol manipulation and formalism,
and fell into many conceptual traps - traps arising partly from what the physics
educator J. W. Warren describes as the "incredible confusion of approach" [25,
p. 45]. In the following chapters, we journey quickly and directly to the heart of
this fascinating subject.
Onyva!
Acknowledgments
I am grateful for help from many sides. The book has been typeset using Con
TJ3Xt, built on TJ3X; the friendly ConTJ3Xt community, including Wolfgang
Schuster, Mikael Sundqvist, and Hans Hagen, have offered valuable advice
throughout. The Asymptote developers have provided a powerful and enjoyable
tool for making scientific figures. At Olin College, the Faculty Development
Program provided a writing grant, and Vincent Manno arranged a developmen
tal leave at the right time. Deborah Beers-Jones has taught me about teaching
through teaching me piano. Dave Pritchard has for many years shared his wis
dom about teaching Newton's laws. Steve Holt and Dan Fleisch made insightful
comments on the entire text - as did Joshua Roth, who improved every page.
Simon Capelin, Nick Gibbons, and Roisin Munnelly at Cambridge University
Press provided valuable guidance throughout, and John King expertly edited
the final manuscript. Students in my Mechanics courses helped me clarify many
confusing parts. The Art of Insights group at MIT - Sheryl Barnes, Dave Dar
mofal, Denny Freeman, Woody Flowers, Warren Hoburg, Sanjay Sarma, and
Gerry Sussman - offered a stimulating forum to rethink the teaching of physics
and engineering. Arthur Eisenkraft introduced me to the fascination of physics.
J. W. Warren, in Understanding Force [25] and other works, set me on the path
to understanding Newton's laws. And Juliet, last in this list but first in my life,
encouraged me to become a writer.
xi
1
Newton's Third Law: Forces Belong to
Interactions
The most misunderstood and yet the most important of Newton's three laws
is the third law. For it introduces the idea of interaction. Without that idea,
Newton's first law (Chapter 3), which requires removing interactions, makes no
sense. And without the first law, you don't know when you can use Newton's
second law (Chapter 4) - the heart of mechanics. For want of an interaction, the
kingdom of physics is lost!
Like me, you may have heard or learned the third law in the action-reaction
form: "For every action, there is an equal and opposite reaction." That form
confused me for 20 years and might do the same to you. Here-is a clearer form
inspired by the work of the physics educator Cornellis Hellingman [7].
Newton's Third Law. A force is one side of an interaction between two

bodies A and B. The interaction acts equally strongly in the two opposite
directions, from A to B and from B to A.
This interaction form reminds us, whenever we encounter a force, to look for
the interaction to which it belongs and therefore for the two interacting bodies.
We can express the same law in mathematical notation. If the two bodies
are A and B, then one force is F A on 8: the force on body B due to its interaction
with body A - or, more concisely, the force of A on B. The other force is F 8on A:
the force on body A due to its interaction with body B - the force of B on A. The
boldface type for F indicates that F is a vector, meaning that it has magnitude
and direction. (In handwriting, where boldface is hard to make, you'll see an
italic letter with an arrow: F.) Newton's third law then says that
F A onB = -FBon A · (1.1)
The bare minus sign, meaning multiplication by -1, ensures that the two
forces have opposite directions and equal magnitudes. The magnitude, in the
1
2 Newton's Third Law: Forces Belong to Interactions
internationally standard metric system (the SI system), is measured in newtons.

In one of history 's jokes, this unit was never used by Newton. In Section 1.4,
you develop a feel for this unit as we estimate the magnitudes of diverse forces.
But first you learn how to use the third law (Section 1.1), learn how to classify
forces (Section 1.2), and meet the forces most important in the world around us
(Section 1.3). In the final section (Section 1.5), you learn why you should avoid
two familiar forces whose use almost inevitably generates confusion.
1.1 Using the Third Law
Figure 1.1 Standing on the ground. You stand on the ground and are pulled down
ward by the gravitational force Fg. What's Fg 's third-law counterpart force?
Here is an everyday example of Newton's third law and of how it reveals a hidden
and surprising aspect of the world. The situation: You stand on the ground,
and the earth pulls you with a gravitational force Fg (Figure 1.1). Although the
pull acts on each particle within you, this distributed set of forces is, for most
purposes, equivalent to a single force acting at your center of mass - at the dot
in the diagram. (Problem 5.8 explores a case where this equivalence isn't valid.)
Now try to answer the following question marked with a triangle. As I mention
in the Preface (on p. ix), the rightward-pointing triangle indicates a question that
I'd ask you in a one-to-one tutorial on Newton's laws. Even in this less personal
written format, do make a decent attempt to answer the question; then compare
your answer with the full explanation that follows.
What's the third-law counterpart force of the gravitational force?
Most students and many teachers answer this question incorrectly (see, for
example, the research by Hellingman [7] and by Terry and Jones [24]). As a
student and for many years as a teacher, I would have been among them and
would have answered, "the upward force of the ground on me." For I would have
used the action-reaction form of Newton's third law and reasoned as follows.
1.1 Using the Third Law 3
Gravity is trying to pull you into the ground, so the gravitational force pulling you
down into the ground must be the action. The ground complains: "Wait! Bowed
low by the weight of the world though I may be, I am still a solid object. You
shall not pass through me!" In self-defense, it reacts by pushing you upward. This
upward force must be the reaction. Thus, it's exactly as strong as the gravitational
force. (This conclusion is almost unavoidable in the Commonwealth countries,
where any upward force from the ground is called a "reaction force.")
Although the conclusion is right, the reasoning is wrong - the worst com
bination of right and wrong because the rightness of the conclusion obscures
the fundamental error in the reasoning. In our ends-justify-the-means age, the
rightness may seem like sufficient justification. However, the same reasoning in
many other situations easily leads to wrong conclusions about the upward force
from the ground - for example, when someone pushes you downward, when
you land after a jump, or when you stand in an accelerating elevator.
Fortunately, you cannot fall into these traps when you use the interaction form
of Newton's third law. It's embodied in the following procedure.
I. Determine what two bodies interact to produce the given force. Here, the
given force is the gravitational force on you. Therefore, the two bodies that
interact are you and the earth.
2. Classify the interaction. The choice, as you soon learn in Section 1.2.1, is
between a gravitational and an electromagnetic interaction. This interaction
is gravitational.
3. Describe the given force as one side of this interaction. In words, it's the
gravitational force of the earth on you. In symbols, it's Fearth on you.
4. Describe its third-law counterpart force as the other side of the interaction.
You simply reverse the two bodies' roles. Here, "the gravitational force of
the earth on you" becomes "the gravitational force of you on the earth":
Fyou on earth·
5. Remind yourself of how strong the counterpart force is and in what direction
it points. The two forces that constitute the gravitational (or any) interaction
are equal and opposite (FA on B = -FBon A), so your gravitational force on
the earth has the same strength as the earth's gravitational force on you and
points in the opposite direction.
Thus, through the gravitational interaction, you pull upward on the earth.
I still marvel at this hidden force, revealed by applying the third law. Who
would have thought that a mere human could pull the mighty earth?
To summarize this long answer to the triangle question: (1) Forces belong to
interactions. (2) The third-law counterpart force of the gravitational force on
you is Fyou on earth, which is the gravitational force on the earth from you. The
counterpart is not Fground on you• which belongs to an entirely different interaction.
Interaction was Newton's own view of the third law [2, pp. 568-569]:
For all action is mutual. .. It is not one action by which the Sun attracts Jupiter,
and another by which Jupiter attracts the Sun; but it is one action by which the
Sun and Jupiter mutually endeavor to come nearer together (by the Third Law of
Motion).
Rather than "action-reaction" with its easy causal-sequence misinterpretation,
"interaction" is the heart of the third law. The distinction is illustrated in the
following dialogue shared with me by Joshua Roth from his many years of
teaching physics in Arlington High School in Massachusetts. A student, giving
an example of a third-law pair, had suggested the causal sequence: "Action: I
punch you in the face. Reaction: You punch me back." Roth: "No! That's the
Mosaic law and maybe justice, but it's not Newton's third law. Action: You
punch me in the face. Reaction according to Newton's law: You break your
�rist." Or: "[W]e cannot touch without being touched" [8, p. 81].
1.2 Classifying Forces
Force is the star of the Newtonian drama. You can help yourself understand the
play by enriching your force vocabulary. Therefore, we next discuss three ways
to classify forces: as one of four fundamental interactions (Section 1.2.1), as
active or passive (Section 1.2.2), and as short or long range (Section 1.2.3).
This seemingly tedious classification process may raise in you the following
question marked with a leftward-pointing triangle. As I mention in the Preface
(on p. ix), that triangle indicates a question that students ask or should ask
me. Make a decent stab at an answer and compare your answer with the full
explanation that follows.
Why go through all this effort to classify forces?

I offer you an analogy from my learning piano. I just couldn't learn a difficult
passage, the last line of Handel's Gavotte in G (Figure 1.2). My teacher showed
me several ways to play and think about that line: by connecting the notes in the
left hand into groups of notes (chords) while playing the right hand's melody,
by connecting the right hand's notes while playing the left hand's melody, and
by singing the right hand's melody while playing the left hand. After I tried
these approaches, the line came to make sense, and I could play it as written.
You are playing one of the hardest passages in physics, the concept of force, so
take aid from and find comfort in all ways of reflecting on forces!
Figure 1.2 The last line of Handel's Gavotte in G (HWY 491). The right hand
plays the notes on upper staff, and the left hand plays the notes on the lower staff.
1.2.1 The Four Interactions in Nature
Nature, as far as is known to science, uses four types of interactions and therefore
four types of forces.
l. Gravitational interaction. This interaction acts between any two bodies, any
where in the universe.
2. Electromagnetic interaction. This interaction acts only between charged

bodies. It includes the electrostatic interaction between two charges and the
magnetic interaction between moving charges (including magnets).
3. Strong nuclear interaction. This interaction acts between and holds together
the quarks that make up protons and neutrons.
4. Weak nuclear interaction. This interaction acts between protons, neutrons,

and electrons and can turn protons into neutrons and vice versa. It lies behind
radioactive decay and nuclear fission. As its name suggests, it's much weaker
than the strong nuclear interaction.
The last two interactions, the strong and weak nuclear interactions, have a minus
cule range, about 1 femtometer (10-15 meters) or roughly the size of a nucleus.
In the world around us, they have no direct effect. (Their indirect effect, however,
is essential: Without them, protons and neutrons would not hold together, and
there would be no atoms.) So, in learning and when using Newton's laws, we
can ignore them.
With that simplification, classify every interaction - and the two forces that
constitute it - as either gravitational or electromagnetic. The consequence:
If a force is neither gravitational nor electromagnetic, it doesn't exist.
Gravitational forces and interactions, because they join every pair of bodies
in the universe, are surprisingly generic. In contrast, electromagnetic forces
are diverse. They include contact forces between touching bodies, covalent
bonds within molecules (for example, between hydrogen and oxygen atoms
in water), hydrogen bonds between polar molecules (for example, between
water molecules), ionic bonds within solids (for example, between sodium and
chlorine ions in table salt), and Van der Waals bonds between nonpolar atoms
or molecules (for example, between helium atoms or nitrogen molecules).
The classification into gravitational, electromagnetic, or nothing helps prevent
a common and dangerous misconception.
Imagine a passenger sitting in a car or train wagon going around a turn. Is

there an outward force on the passenger? If so, what's it called?
You might suspect that there is an outward force and, if you had a proper edu
cation in Lilin, that it's called the centrifugal force ("centrifugal" means away
from the center). As a student, even lacking Latin, I would have agreed.
However, now you and I both know how to classify forces and interactions
into one of four types. How then fares the alleged centrifugal force? Is it one of
the two nuclear forces, either strong or weak? No. For as I mentioned on p. 5,
no force in everyday life is a nuclear force. These forces act over too short a
range (the size of a nucleus). Because "too short a range" is always the answer
to a question about their relevance, I now really forget about the nuclear forces
for the rest of the book.
Is the outward force a gravitational force? No. For no planet lies outside the
vehicle's door and pulls the passenger toward it. Is it an electromagnetic force?
If it is, what charges (or magnets) would be responsible for it? Perhaps they are
in the door of the vehicle? But have you ever felt the door of a vehicle pulling
you outward and toward it? I haven't. The door can only push the passenger
inward and away from it.
Perhaps, instead, the outward force is due to the seat - that is, the seat acts on
the passenger with an outward force. But how could the seat manage this feat?
Its deformed part is its outward end, which gets compressed and thus pushes
the passenger inward rather than outward. The mistake here, discussed further
in Section 1.5.1, is confusing the force of the seat on the passenger (an inward
force) with the force of the passenger on the seat (an outward force).
Indeed, and in answer to the triangle question, no outward force acts on the
passenger. Thus, the alleged centrifugal force is none of the four forces in nature.
It does not exist. (Why then do the passenger and vehicle move in a circle? This
deep question, which involves all of Newton's laws, gets the longer answer that
it deserves in Section 7.3.2.)
As a useful rule, do not mention the centrifugal force! Like most rules, it
has an exception, discussed in Section 8.1. Until then, keep to the rule, avoid
a widespread source of confusion, and greatly increase your chances of using
Newton's laws correctly.
1.2.2 Active versus Passive Forces
The second force classification is into active versus passive forces. This clas
sification, unlike the classification into four fundamental kinds of force (Sec
tion 1.2.1), isn't inherent in nature. Rather, it's a human choice.
1. Active forces are known gravitational and electromagnetic forces and pushes
and pulls made intentionally by an animate being (be it a person, raccoon, or
bear). Examples include the gravitational force on you or me and my push
on a heavy box that remains sitting on the floor.
2. Passive forces, in contrast, arise and adjust themselves in response to active
forces. One example is the force of the ground on you while you stand on the
ground (Section 1.1). This force adjusts itself in response to the gravitational
force on you as that active force tries to pull you into the ground. A second
example is the force of friction preventing my moving that heavy box. This
force adjusts itself in response to my active force on the box. As I push harder,
the friction force grows in magnitude. If I am strong enough, the friction force
can no longer adjust itself to match, and the box starts moving. This change
illustrates a characteristic of passive forces, that they can adjust themselves
in magnitude or direction only within limits.
This classification, like most human-created ones, isn't airtight. For example,
when I hold a book over my head, the active force on the book is the downward
gravitational force on it, but what kind of force is my upward force on it? Is it
active because I'm animate? Or is it passive because I adjust how hard I push
based on the gravitational force (pushing harder on a bigger book)? I would call
it a passive force, but either choice fulfills the main purpose of this classification,
which is to prevent us from overlooking a force from an inanimate object (like
a door or a floor).
A puzzling feature of passive forces, especially given that they are produced
(almost always) by inanimate object, is how they know their strength. How, for
example, does the friction force on that heavy box (p. 7) adjust itself to prevent
the box from moving even as I, frustrated by the box's obstinacy, increase
how hard I push? This deep question implicates three subtle ideas: spring forces
(Section 1.3.2), Newton's second law (Chapter 4), and acceleration (Section 6.2).
Thus, its answer comes after their development (Section 7.1.6).
Until then, keep in mind the main reason for the idea of passive forces. It
gives us a category, and therefore a name, for the forces exerted by inanimate"
objects. This category reminds us that inanimate objects can exert forces. These
forces then become harder to overlook.
As a second benefit, the classification names an .important connection between
forces, one otherwise easily mislabeled as Newton's third law. When I stand on
the ground and the gravitational force - here, the action and the active force -
pulls me downward, the ground reacts by pushing me upward. This reaction, as
you learned in Section 1.1, is not a third-law counterpart to the action (which is
why I loathe the action-reaction name for the third law). However, this reaction
is the passive force arising in response to the active force. When one force leads
to another, the two forces cannot constitute a third-law pair; almost always, they
comprise an active force and its corresponding passive force.
1.2.3 Long-Range versus Short-Range Forces
The third and final classification is into long-range forces, also known as body
or volume forces, versus short-range forces, also known as contact or surface
forces. For gravitational forces, this classification is easy. They are always long
range: Gravitational forces are so weak that they require large sources, such as
asteroids, moons, or planets, to have significant effects.
In contrast, electromagnetic forces, being relatively strong, don't require large
sources of charge to have an appreciable effect. Thus, they can be either short or
long range. One long-range example is the electromagnetic force on electrons in
your retina due to jiggling electrons in the sun; that force is how you see the sun.
Another example is the force on a compass needle due to electrons circulating
in the earth's core. In contrast, the force between my finger and a pen, though
also electromagnetic, is a short-range force (a contact force). As you learn when
you meet spring forces (Section 1.3.2), this contact force is due to electrostatic
repulsion between the outermost electrons in my skin cell's molecules and the
outermost electrons in the pen's molecules.
In this book, with its focus on mechanics rather than electromagnetism, all
electromagnetic forces will be short-range, contact forces. Thus, the classifica
tion into gravitational and electromagnetic forces will parallel the classification
into long-range and short-range forces.
Either classification prevents you from overlooking forces. The short-range
forces acting on a body are usually easy to spot: one due to each touching body.
But the long-range forces are easier to overlook: out of sight, out of mind. By
asking yourself, "On this body, are there also any long-range forces?" you are
more likely to spot them too.
1.3 Important Forces
Understanding that forces belong to interactions (Section 1. 1) is important, as

is classifying forces (Section 1.2). However, you need forces to classify. Thus,
you next meet the most important forces in the world around us. They, through
Newton's laws, explain the motion of most everyday and heavenly bodies.
1.3.1 Gravitational Forces
The gravitational force comes in two seemingly different forms. One form is
more famous: Newton's law of universal gravitation. It states that the gravita
tional force between mass m 1 and mass m2 has magnitude
F = G m 1 m2 (1.2)
r2 ,
where G is Newton's constant of gravitation, and r is the distance between the
two masses (assumed to be points). As for the direction: The force is attractive,
pointing from each mass to the other (Figure 1.3).
Specifying a vector, such as force, requires giving its magnitude and direction.
Thus, never say that the gravitational force is Gm 1 m2 / r2 - which provides
only the magnitude. I recommend fanaticism about the distinction between a
vector and its magnitude: Confusing these two quantities leads to many further
difficulties with Newton's laws, an already subtle subject. (Even fanatics stray
by mistake, so let me know if you find any such mistakes in this book.)
Newton's Third Law: Forces Belong to Interactions
r
Figure 1.3 Gravitational interaction. Two particles, m1 and m2, separated by a dis
tance r, participate in a gravitational interaction. The interaction's two forces have
magnitude Gm1 m2 /r2 and are opposite in direction.
If the bodies are not point particles but are spheres with a spherically symmetric
density (which is roughly true for most planets), the force law (1.2) still works
as long as r is measured between the bodies' centers (Newton invented calculus
partly to prove this statement). In other words, a spherically symmetric body
acts, for the purposes of the gravitational interaction, as if all its mass were
concentrated at its center.
The most important gravitational force, at least for humanity, is the force
of the sun on the earth. You could also argue for the gravitational force of the
earth on each of us. However, without the sun holding the earth at just the right
distance from the sun, giving the earth's surface just the right temperature to
support life, none of us would be alive to argue for this alternative.
Roughly how large is the gravitational force of the sun on the earth?
To find out, just put the appropriate values into the force law (1.2). Newton's
constant (G) is roughly 7x10- 11 crazy SI units, which are meters cubed per
kilogram second squared (kg- 1 m3 s- 2 ). The earth's mass (m1 ) is approximately
6x10 24 kilograms. The sun's mass (m2 ) is almost exactly 2x1030 kilograms.
And the earth-sun distance (r) is roughly 1.5 x1011 meters. Then
G
1
7x10- kg- m s- x 6x10 kg x 2x10 kg
11
F�----�--------�----�
3 2 24 30
2
(1.3)
(1.5 X 1011 m)
r2
Rather than calculating F by breaking out the calculator, which would give
us many spurious decimal places of precision and atrophy our intuitive sense
for quantities in the world, let's estimate F by hand. Such calculations are best
broken into three stages ordered from most to least important: the units, the
powers of 10, and the mantissa (the remaining factor). The three stages are then
reassembled to form the estimate:
F � mantissa x 1oexponent units. (1.4)
1. Units. This stage comes first because using the wrong units with even the
correct number in front is dangerously wrong (as the sad crash of NASA's
Mars Climate Orbiter shows [15]). Here, the units portion is
-
kg-1 m3 s-2 x kg x kg
(1.5)
m2
r2
In the numerator, the kg- l and one of the two kg factors cancel. Furthermore,
the m2 in the denominator cancels the m2 within the numerator's m 3 . So:
_kg::: 1-- m'3... s-2 x ,kg x kg

--------- =kg m s-2 . (1.6)
'rn-2-.. �
The unit combination kg m s-2 is the expanded form of the newton, abbre
viated N, when written in terms of the fundamental SI units of kilograms,
meters, and seconds: A newton is a kilogram meter per second squared.
(Thus, force has dimensions of mass times length per time squared.) The
force calculation so far, after tqis units stage, is then
F "" mantissa x 1oexponent N. (1.7)
This units calculation has a useful side benefit. By starting with crazy
units for G (namely kg- 1 m3 s-2 ) and ending with the correct units of force
(namely newtons), it confirms the crazy units for G.
2. Powers of 10. Here, the powers of 10 are
G � ,!:!:3.._
10-11 X 1024 X 1030
2
(1.8)
(1011 )
r2
The numerator contributes -11 + 24 + 30, or 43, powers of 10. The denom
inator contains 2 x 11, or 22, powers of 10. Dividing the numerator by the
denominator gives 43 - 22, or 21, powers of 10.
Thus, the force calculation so far, after this powers-of- IO stage, is
F z mantissa x 102 1 N. (1.9)
3. Mantissa (remaining factors). After we set aside the units and the powers
of 10, the following factors remain:
G �l ";J
7 X 6 X 2
(1.10)
1.52
The factor of 6 in the numerator combines with one factor of 1.5 in the
denominator to give 6/1.5 or 4. The factors of 7 and 2 in the numerator
combine with the other factor of 1.5 in the denominator to give 14/1.5 or
almost exactly 10. Thus, the mantissa is approximately 4 x 10 or 40.
To summarize this long answer to the triangle question: The result of the three
stages is that the magnitude of the gravitational force is
F"' 40x 102 1 N = 4x 1022 N. (1.11)
The force points from the earth to the sun (Figure 1.4). The force of the earth
on the sun has the same magnitude but points from the sun to the earth. (You
can find further three-stage calculations in The Art of Insight in Science and
Engineering [14, pp. 222, 307, and 336--337].)
sun
earth
Gr-----1..
► 4 X 1022 N 4 X 1022 N ◄..a-------;0
r = l.5 x 1011 m (1 AU)

Figure 1.4 Earth-sun gravitational interaction. The two gravitational forces have
the same magnitude, 4 x 102 2 newtons, and are opposite in direction. (The separa
tion is 1 astronomical unit (AU), and its value in meters is worth memorizing.)
Interestingly, although the earth orbits the sun because of the gravitational force
of the sun, the earth never moves along the direction of this force. (It moves
perpendicularly to the force.) This example illustrates the great subtlety of
Newton's laws: that force does not produce motion itself. Motion can happen
without any force. The great message of the second law, elaborated in Chapter 7,
is that force only changes motion.
In contrast to (1.2), the second forIILof the gravitational force uses the constant
g (lowercase!), known as the acceleration due to gravity or the gravitational
acceleration. Its value is approximately 10 meters per second squared (m s-2).
In this form, the gravitational force on an object of mass m has magnitude
F = mg. (1.12)
On me (m "' 60 kilograms), and using the newton's definition (1.6),
F"' 60 kg x lOm s-2 = 600 kg m s- 2 = 600N. (1.13)
Figure 1.5 A body of mass m on the earth's surface. The earth acts like a point
mass concentrated at the earth's center.
This second form only looks like a new form. As we'll soon see, it's just a useful
approximation to the first form, Newton's law of universal gravitation (1.2),
valid for bodies on or near the earth's surface (Figure 1.5). In that limit, the
distance between the two bodies, r in (1.2), is approximately the earth's radius:
r ""Rearth ""6.4x106 m. (1.14)
The reason is that the earth has a spherically symmetric mass distribution (the
case that I mentioned on p. 10). It therefore acts gravitationally like a point mass
concentrated at the center of the earth.
Using the first form (1.2) with the separation r set equal to Rearth, the magni
tude of the gravitational force on a body of mass m is
G
F = ( �earth ) m. (1.15)
Rearth
The parenthesized quantity, Gmearth /R;arth, is the same for all bodies, so you can
compute it just once. As a fairly accurate estimate,
Gm 7x10-11kg-1m3 s-2 x6x1024 kg
� "" ------------ ""lOm s- 2 . (1.16)
R;arth (6.4xl0 6 m) 2 --r
The result is g! (Making a three-stage estimate for g is the subject of Prob
lem 1.3.) With g replacing the parenthesized quantity in (1.15), the gravitational
force F indeed has magnitude mg.
Fair warning: The F = mg form with gas calculated in (1.16) is valid only
for a body near (or on) the earth's surface, where the approximation r ""Rearth
is reasonably accurate - as it is whenever the body's distance from the earth's
surface is small compared to the size of the earth (thousands of kilometers). At
the top of the atmosphere, about 10 kilometers up, g is only 0.3 percent smaller
than it is at sea level. Even high above the atmosphere in low-earth orbit, g is
only a few percent smaller than it is at sea level (as you show in Problem 1.5).
Even when the change in g is too large because the body is too high, you
can often still use the F = mg form, just with a modified g. If the body isn't
changing its altitude h significantly, you just work out a modified g using (1.16)
with Rearth replaced by Rearth + h. For example, for a satellite in a geosynchronous
(a 24-hour) orbit, h ""5.6Rearth· At that height, g is a factor of 6.62 smaller than
it is at sea level. However, as long as the satellite's altitude remains close to
5.6Rearth, you can use F = mg with the smaller g.
Back on earth, the F = mg form (1.12) provides an enjoyable way to feel and
remember the size of a newton. For it's said, perhaps apocryphally, that Newton,
having fled Cambridge because of the plague, once sat under an apple tree in
his garden in the English countryside, puzzling over the mysteries of gravity
(many still unresolved). An apple fell from the tree onto his head and jolted him
into the great insight that the motion of the apple and the motion of the moon,
seemingly so different, can be explained by one, universal law of nature.
lN
Figure 1.6 A small apple, perhaps the one that allegedly fell onto Newton. Its mass
is approximately 0.1 kilograms, so mg is approximately 1 newton.
An apple in Newton's time, before Mendel, selective breeding, and genetic engi
neering, was small (Figure 1.6). The gravitational force on a small Newtonian
apple, with a mass of roughly 100 grams or 0.1 kilograms, has a magnitude of
about 1 newton:
F z 0.1 kg x lOm s-2 = lN.
--------
m
._..--,
g
(1.17)
1.3.2 Spring Forces
Once upon a time, the word "spring" reminded me only of the large metal coils
under a bicycle seat or car frame that make the ride smoother. The forces ex-
erted by such macroscopic springs, however, originate in microscopic spring
interactions - in the short-range electromagnetic interactions between atoms or
molecules. These interactions, like macroscopic spring interactions, can be at
tractive (when a spring is stretched) or repulsive (when a spring is compressed).
To see how atoms (or molecules) can generate attraction and compression, con
sider as an example a crude model of sodium chloride, table salt. A sodium
atom easily gives up its lone and weakly bound electron in its outermost shell.
A neighboring chlorine atom easily accepts this gift and thereby completes its
outermost electron shell (technically, its 3p shell). The gift and its acceptance
create an interaction between the positively charged sodium ion Na + and the
negatively charged chlorine ion Cl- (also called chloride).
attractive electromagnetic
Na+ - - - - - -. - - - .- - - - - - - c1-
mteract10n
Figure 1.7 Electromagnetic attraction between distant sodium and chloride ions.
When these ions are far apart, they see each other as shown in Figure 1.7, as a
single positive facing a single negative charge. The interaction between these
opposite charges is attractive - as if a spring between them were stretched.
When the ions are close to each other, they see each other's internal struc
ture: positively charged protons in the nucleus and negatively charged electrons
surrounding the nucleus. Now the strongest interaction is between the closest
charges, which are in the electron clouds. This electromagnetic interaction be
tween like charges is repulsive (Figure 1.8). Thus, at close range, the ions repel
each other - as if a spring between them were compressed.
@ -repulsive
----
interaction 8
0
Na+ -18
Figure 1.8 Electromagnetic repulsion between close sodium and chloride ions.
Somewhere in between, the bond between the sodium ion and the chloride ion
has its natural, or relaxed, length where the interaction is neither repulsive ("nei
ther too close" in Goldilocks's terms) nor attractive ("nor too far"). This property
isn't specific to sodium chloride but applies to any interatomic interaction.
Thus, substances have a natural size and shape, when all their interatornic
bonds have their natural lengths. Deviations from the natural state bespeak an
outside interaction. Imagine, for example, a water glass standing on a table. The
glass participates in two interactions: a gravitational interaction with the earth
and a spring interaction with the table. The spring interaction means that the
chemical bonds near the surface of contact, in the glass and the table, change
their lengths: The table and glass deform slightly. To make such deformations
visible, I sit on a soft sofa and observe how the cushion and my rear end deform!
xo (relaxed, or natural, bond length)
/- - B
FA on B ______________
.. ®
\ I
,_
x (new, longer length)
Figure 1.9 A stretched atomic-bond spring. Atoms A and B have a natural sep
aration of x0 . When their separation xis greater than x0 , their spring interaction
consists of two attractive forces.
When the change in length of a spring is small, whether a physical spring or an

interatornic or intermolecular bond spring (Figure 1.9), the two forces in the
spring interaction have a magnitude given by Hooke's law:
i}lli.t}�llfig Hong Kong Public Libraries

F = klx-xol, (1.18)
where k is called the spring constant and measures the spring's stiffness, x0 is the
spring's natural or relaxed length, and Ix - x01 is then the change in the spring's
length (compared to its natural length). Thus, when the spring is compressed,
x - x0 is negative, but Ix - x0 I is still positive - keeping F (a magnitude) positive.
You may have seen Hooke's law as F = -kx. However, the more complex
form (1.18) is better. It makes the natural length explicit, rather than hiding it/
in the meaning of x (as the spring extension). It also has no minus sign. Thus,
it doesn't invite us to confuse the magnitude of a spring force, which is never
negative, with the value of the force's component (which could be negative).
The two forces in the interaction oppose the change from the spring's natural
length. In a coordinate system with the positive x axis pointing to the right (from
atom A to atom B), the force vectors have the components
F/onB = -k(x - Xo );
(1.19)
F}onA = +k(x-xo).
The minus sign in the spring force's component F/onB means that, when the
spring is stretched (x > x0 ), the force on atom B fights the stretch and pulls
atom B back toward atom A. The positive sign in F} on A has the same function,
making the force on atom A also fight the stretch.
Do these formulas for the force components change when the spring is com
pressed (rather than stretched)?
No! Figure 1.10 shows the compressed spring with the resulting forces and their
directions. Let's check that the components are consistent with (1.19).
xo (relaxed length)
x (new, shorter length)

Figure 1.10 A compressed atomic-bond spring. Atoms A and B have a natural
separation of x0. When their separation x is less than x0, their spring interaction
consists of two repulsive forces.
In compression, x - x0 is negative, so the force component from (1.19),

(1.20)
is positive - the minus sign in front cancels the negative value of x - x0 - as it
should be. The compressed spring tries to push atom B away from atom A, in
the positive x direction and back to the equilibrium position where the spring
has its relaxed length.
Now imagine again the water glass standing on the table. The contact forces
in the table-glass interaction are each the sum of zillions of tiny interatomic (or
intermolecular) electromagnetic spring forces. In other words, contact forces
are spring forces, even when the deformation of the springs is too tiny to see;
and spring forces are short-range electromagnetic forces.
1.3.3 Drag
Perhaps a sign that we live in a fallen world, among the most prevalent forces
in everyday life are friction forces. Thus, we now meet the most important
friction forces, in order of increasing conceptual complexity: drag (this section),
dynamic friction (Section 1.3.4), and static friction (Section 1.3.5).
Drag, also known as air or fluid resistance, opposes the motion of any object
moving through a fluid. It results from contact between the object and fluid,
so it's another short-range electromagnetic contact force. For most everyday
objects in most fluids, its magnitude is given roughly by
(1.21)
where p is the fluid's density, v is the object's speed, and A cs is the object's
cross-sectional area (its area perpendicular to the flow). Figure 1.11, for example,
shows a solid cone moving with speed v to the right and the same cone seen
head on as it approaches you. The cross-sectional area, A cs , is the area of the
cone's back surface (the shaded area), not the area of the cone's whole surface.
(Here and in subsequent figures, velocity is indicated with an arrow having only
a single harpoon - a reminder that the arrow is not a force arrow.)
With that understanding, you can see that the Fdrag formula (1.21) makes
physical sense. Running in a swimming pool (high p) is much harder than run
ning in air (low p), so Fdrag should, and does, increase as p increases. Similarly,
running rapidly in water (high v) is much harder than running slowly in water
(low v), so Fdrag should, and does, increase as v increases. Finally, bicycling
upright (large A cs ) is harder than bicycling in a crouch (low A cs ), so Fdrag should,
and does, increase as A cs increases.
G
� �
� �V
(a) (b)
Figure 1.11 Cross-sectional area A c,· (a) A cone moving in a fluid. (b) The same
cone heading toward you. The shaded area that you see is its cross-sectional area.
The - ("twiddle" or "tilde") in (1.21) indicates that the relation omits a dimen
sionless constant, meaning a pure number such as 0.7, JT, or 2.3. This missing
number can be calculated in special circumstances and can be measured in a
wind tunnel in many circumstances. As a useful rule of thumb, the missing num
ber isn't too different from 1.
As an example of drag's importance, let's estimate the magnitudes of the two
forces on a ping-pong ball (a hollow plastic ball an inch or a few centimeters,
in diameter): the gravitational force and the drag force. (The ball experiences a
third force, buoyancy, but this force is tiny and ignored throughout this book.)
1. Gravitational force. A ping-pong ball has a mass m of approximately 10

grams (about one-third of an ounce) or 10- 2 kilograms. The gravitational
force acting on it, from (1.12), has magnitude mg. Thus,
--
Fg "" 10- 2 kg x lOm s- 2 = 0.lN.
m g
(1.22)
2. Drag force. The drag force depends on the ball's speed. Let's imagine that
one player served the ball and that the second player has hit it back with
decent speed (in my misspent youth, I played much ping-pong and could
have been that second player). On the return flight, the ball's speed vis, say,
15 meters per second (33 miles per hour). Its cross-sectional area is about
5 square centimeters or 5 x 1o-4 square meters. And the density of air is
roughly 1 kilogram per cubic meter. With these values,
2
Fdrag - lkg m-3x(15m s-1) x5x10-4m2 ;,,:;Q.lN. (1.23)
p v2
The drag force has approximately the same magnitude as the gravitational force
(Figure 1.12)! Thus, drag strongly affects how the ping-pong ball moves.
__:,. V
� ~ 0.1 N (drag)
0.1 N (gravity)
Figure 1.12 Forces on the ping-pong ball. The ball, moving to the right at speed v,
experiences a drag force to the left. It also experiences a gravitational force down
ward. For typical ping-pong speeds, the two forces are comparable in magnitude.
Drag is a cousin to two other forces due to motion in a fluid: lift and thrust. To
describe these forces, and many others later in this book, I first need to distinguish
a component (a standard term) from a portion - a term that I invented for this
book in order to seal off conceptual traps.
A component of a vector is the vector's projection in a given direction: "The

z component of the gravitational force is 20 newtons" (if the z axis points down).
Symbolically, the z component Fz is defined as a dot product:
z component of a vector F = F • z, (1.24)
Fz
where the triple-equals sign ( =) means "is defined to be," and z ("z hat") is the
unit vector in the +z direction. A component's value can depend on the direction
chosen, but a component has no direction itself. Thus, it's not a vector.
In contrast, a portion is a piece of a vector: "The z portion of the contact force
is 20 newtons downward; the x portion is 10 newtons to the left." A portion,
being itself a vector, has magnitude and direction. The z portion Fz is defined as
the z component times the z unit vector (multiplication by the unit vector turns
the component into a vector):
z portion of a vector F = (F • z) z. (1.25)
Of particular relevance to drag and thrust, we can also speak of an x (or a y

or a vertical, etc.) portion of an overall force, meaning a conceptually separate
force in the x direction that contributes or belongs to the overall force.
lift V 5:'b-°<J
7 �
----'- V
thrust drag
mg
(a) (b)
Figure 1.13 (a) The three portions of the contact force of the air on a plane: (1) Lift
is the portion perpendicular to the plane's motion; (2) thrust is a portion along the
plane's motion; (3) drag is a portion opposite to the plane's motion. (b) Thrust and
drag on a rocket. Thrust is the contact force of the hot exploding fuel on the rocket.
(The gravitational forces are included for completeness.)
A plane experiences lift, drag, and thrust - all portions of one overall force,
the electromagnetic contact force of the air on the plane (Figure 1.13a). Lift is
the portion perpendicular to the plane's motion. Thrust is a portion along the
plane's motion. And drag is a portion opposite to the plane's motion. (Thus, the
portion parallel to the plane's motion is the sum of thrust and drag.) Drag is
the force attributable purely to the plane's motion, without the engines running.
Thrust is the force attributable to the running engines. However, beware of a
common trap: The engines don't supply the thrust, even though we speak that
way informally. Rather, they move the air in such a way that the air supplies a
forward force on the plane. Thrust is a portion of the contact force of the air.
A rocket (Figure 1.13b) experiences thrust and drag (but usually not lift). Drag
is the contact force of the air or, when the rocket is in space, of the interplanetary
gas. Thrust, in contrast to its interpretation for a plane, is the contact force of
the hot exploding fuel. The repulsive fuel-rocket contact interaction has two
equal-and-opposite sides: (1) the rocket exerting a backward force on the fuel,,
and (2) the fuel exerting a forward force - the thrust - on the rocket.
Failure to understand this application of Newton's third law led even knowl
edgeable contemporaries of Robert Goddard in the 1920s to ridicule his ideas for
rocket flight [6]. They insisted that rocket flight was impossible without air "to
push against." I write these words on the 50th anniversary of Neil Armstrong's
walk on the moon; Goddard and the third law get the last laugh.
1.3.4 Dynamic Friction
When one body touches and slides past another, each experiences a contact
force - a short-range electromagnetic force. This force can be divided into
two portions. The portion parallel to the surface of contact is called dynamic or
sliding friction - our second important friction force. The portion perpendicular
to the surface of the contact is called the normal force. Here, "normal" is used
in its mostly archaic meaning of "perpendicular."
Dynamic friction's magnitude Fµ is given by the empirical relation
Fµ = µN, (1.26)
where µ is the sliding-friction coefficient (it's a dimensionless constant like
0.83 or 0.02), and N is the magnitude of the normal force. (A coefficient means
"a dimensionless quantity that we cannot calculate from first principles, so we
measure it or look it up in a table.")
A slippery surface means a low µ. For example, for ice skates sliding on
recently groomed and smooth ice, µ is about 0.001. When I skate, a rare event
because I easily fall over, the normal force has roughly the same magnitude
as the gravitational force on me, whose magnitude is 600 newtons. (The two
magnitudes are equal based on Newton's second law, as you learn in Section 5.1.)
So the dynamic or sliding friction on me is (in magnitude) about 0.6 newtons:
Fµ "" 0.001 x 600 N = 0.6 N. (1.27)
7 Ji,
Dynamic friction - like any interaction or part of an interaction - results in
two forces: (1) a 0.6-newton force on me that points backward (opposite to my
direction of motion), and (2) a 0.6-newton force on the ice that points forward
(in my direction of motion). By skating, I try to pull the ice forward - though
with little success as the ice is connected to the massive earth.
1.3.5 Static Friction
The third important "friction" is static friction. Like dynamic friction, it occurs
when two bodies are in contact and is the parallel portion of the contact force.
Its magnitude Fstatic also looks similar to dynamic friction's magnitude (1.26):
(1.28)
where µ 8 is the static-friction coefficient, andNis again the magnitude of the
normal force (the perpendicular portion of the contact force). Because of this
structural similarity, static friction is misleadingly called a friction force. I will
discuss why the name "static friction" is misleading after I unpack the magnitude
equation (1.28).
The interesting features of (1.28) are the � sign and the absence of information
on the force's direction. The reason for both features is that static friction is a
passive force (Section 1.2.2): It adjusts itself to prevent two bodies from moving
relative to each other. (The seemingly magical adjustment process is demystified
in Section 7.1.6.) It's therefore the enemy of dynamic friction, trying to prevent
dynamic friction from even occurring.
Imagine a box sitting on a hill (Figure 1.14). The box is held in place by
static friction, which points uphill. This force adjusts its strength and direction
in order to hold the box in place. When you push the box uphill without moving
it, static friction reduces its magnitude. If you push hard enough, static friction
changes direction and points downhill, in order to hold the box in place.
Figure 1.14 A box sitting on a hill and held in place by static friction.
Now place the box on level ground and try gently but unsuccessfully to push
it forward. As long as the box doesn't move, your push is opposed by static
friction, which points backward. If you instead push the box backward (and the
box still doesn't move), static friction again opposes your push - by pointing
forward. Not only the magnitude but also the direction of static friction adjusts
to keep two bodies from moving relative to each other.
However, this adjustment happens only within limits, as indicated by the :S

sign in the magnitude (1.28). Beyond a certain limit, static friction gives up.
That limit depends on the normal force and the static-friction coefficient µ s . If
you oil the hill - thereby reducing µ s and the static-friction limit - the box will
probably slide downhill (and become subject to the enemy, dynamic friction).
As I mentioned at the start of this section, the name "friction" is badly chosen
for static friction. For friction contains the ideas of energy loss, of opposing �
body's motion, and of turning the energy of this motion into heat energy. There
fore, air drag, often called air friction, is a legitimate friction. However, static
friction, unlike dynamic (sliding) friction, involves no conversion of motion
energy into heat. Nor can it, as the two touching bodies have no relative mo
tion: the whole point of the adjective "static." In short, "static friction" is an
oxymoron (but the name is too entrenched to change).
1.4 Force Magnitudes
You have now met the forces essential for applying Newton's laws to the world
around you. To give you a feel for these forces' strengths and for the size of
the newton, we'll estimate the magnitudes of diverse forces and place these
magnitudes on a logarithmic scale. In contrast to a linear scale, on which a given
distance corresponds to a particular difference, on a logarithmic scale a given
distance corresponds to a particular ratio. A single logarithmic scale can thereby
show forces or interactions of vastly different strengths (Figure 1.15).
1030 earth-sun
earth-moon
1020
sun-Sirius A
� 1010 drag on jumbo jet at cruising altitude
b earth-car
.g 100 drag on hand moving in water
hydrogen electron-proton (electrostatic)
-� 10-10
,., 10-20 two people on opposite sides of the earth
<-8 10-30 earth-electron on surface (gravitational)
10-40
hydrogen electron-proton (gravitational)
10-so
Figure 1.15 Force magnitudes placed on a logarithmic scale. Many are explained
in the text, and a few are left for you (Problem 1.8).
1.4 Force Magnitudes 23
The weakest interaction that we'll place is the gravitational interaction be
tween the proton and electron in a hydrogen atom. From (1.2),
G m1 m2
7 x 10- 11 kg- 1 m3 s- 2 x 1.7 x 10- 27 kg x 10- 3 0 kg
Fg ""
2 (1.29)
( �)
hydrogen's radius
""5 X 10- 47 N.
From Newton's third law, this value is the strength of either side of the interaction:
of the gravitational force on the electron due to the proton or of the gravitational
force of the proton due to the electron.
Much stronger is the electrostatic interaction between the same electron and
proton (electrostatics is the particular case of an electromagnetic interaction with
no magnetic field and fixed electric fields). Its strength is given by Coulomb's
law of electrostatics:
Fe = _l_ lq1qzl (1.30)
4JTfo r ,
2
where € 0 is the permittivity of free space, q1 and q2 are the two charges, and r
is the distance between the charges. Like Newton's law of universal gravitation
(1.2), Coulomb's law is also an inverse-square law, meaning that the interaction's
strength is proportional to 1 / ( separation distance) 2. Unlike gravitation, which
is always attractive, the electrostatic interaction can be repulsive or attractive,
depending on whether the charges are, respectively, like or unlike.
Putting in the electron and proton charges and hydrogen's radius a0 ,
lqelectronqprotonl
(1.31)
a20
where C is the abbreviation for the charge unit of the coulomb.

This interaction is more than a factor of 103 9 stronger than the gravitational
interaction (1.29) between the same electron and proton! (Because Coulomb's
law and Newton's law of gravitation are both inverse-square force laws, this
gigantic ratio applies to any electron-proton separation.)
At the strongest end of our scale sits the gravitational interaction between the
earth and sun. Its strength was calculated in three stages to reach (1.11).
In between sit forces of everyday experience. One example is the gravitational
force on a car. A medium-sized car has a mass of roughly 1000 kilograms.
Based on the approximation (1.12), that F = mg near the earth's surface, the
gravitational force on the car is roughly 104 newtons.
Another everyday force is the drag force on a hand moving through water.
To feel it yourself, fill a kitchen sink with water. Then drag (sorry!) your open,
slightly cupped hand through the water at a moderate speed, roughly 1 meter
per second. If your cupped hand's cross-sectional area is roughly 10- 2 square
meters (10 centimeters by 10 centimeters), then the drag force's magnitude
(1.21) is roughly 10 newtons:
2
Fd - 10 3 kg m- 3 x (lm s-1) x 10- 2 m2 = ION. (1.32;
Pwater vZ
I just tried the experiment. Moving my hand through the water felt as effortful
as holding up a medium-sized book against gravity. And the gravitational force
on a medium-sized book - say, a I-kilogram mass - is also roughly 10 newtons,
which supports the estimate (1.32) of the drag-force magnitude.
1.5 Forces to Avoid
Contrasting the essential forces of Section 1.3 are two terrible forces: the cen
tripetal force and the centrifugal force. When using Newton's laws, these forces
usually lead to disaster. Thus, never use them. If this bare assertion is sufficient
for your purposes, you could skip the rest of this section. If you would like to
know the reason for my dogmatism and what problems it prevents, read on.
1.5.1 Centrifugal Force
"Centrifugal" is a Latin compound meaning "away from the center." Thus, a

centrifugal force is an outward force. It's typically invoked for a body moving
in a circle - for example, on the passenger of Section 1.2.1 sitting in a car or
train going around a turn. The alleged centrifugal force is directed outward,
away from the center of the circle containing the turn. As I hopefully convinced
you in Section 1.2.1 by considering the four kinds of interaction in nature, the
centrifugal force isn't an actual force and should not be invoked.
Yet it's invoked often anyway, for two reasons. First, an outward force often
exists. This force is applied by the passenger, rather than to the passenger. When
the vehicle rounds that turn, the passenger pushes outward against the vehicle's
door (or the seat belt). Now two related but distinct meanings of "push" cause
1.5 Forces to Avoid 25
a problem. In physics, "to push [on an object]" means simply "to exert a force
that points into an object." In everyday life, however, "to push" implies an agent
acting with intent. For example, a book on a table, although it pushes on the
table in the physics sense, is rarely in everyday life said to push on the table.
Thus, in the everyday sense, the passenger, who pushes on the door only
involuntarily, is not pushing on the door. The passenger is a passive body who,
in a passive construction, "gets pushed." And a force conveniently, though
incorrectly, makes itself available to do the pushing: the centrifugal force!
The medicine that treats this subtle malady is Newton's third law. The door
and the passenger share a contact interaction. Because of the nature of their
contact, which is mere touch without glue or other attractive bond, the interaction
must be repulsive. Because of the relative positions (the door on the outside and
the passenger on the inside), the interaction's forces are outward on the door
and inward on the passenger. The centrifugal force is neither needed nor valid.
The second, valid reason for invoking the centrifugal force is that it's needed
in a rotating reference frame. Such reference frames, along with their extra forces
(of which the centrifugal force is one), are a powerful tool (and are touched upon
in Section 8.1). But using them is like swinging a chainsaw: You can easily make
terrible mistakes and cut off your leg. Until you can make beautiful furniture
with hand tools, set down the chainsaw: Until you are skilled at using Newton's
laws without rotating reference frames and their extra forces, don't mention the
centrifugal force. It does not exist!
1.5.2 Centripetal Force
The mirror image of the centrifugal force is the centripetal force. "Centripetal"
is a Latin compound meaning "toward the center." Thus, a centripetal force is a
force toward the center, or inward. In comparison to the centrifugal force, the
centripetal force can exist, making its overuse more tempting.
Consider two versions of the passenger in a train car rounding a turn.
I. The seat is a perfectly smooth and frictionless bench, and the passenger also
presses against a frictionless outer wall (for example, a door). The passenger,
who touches two bodies, experiences two short-range contact forces. The
contact force of the bench is upward ( without friction, the contact force has no
horizontal portion). The contact force of the frictionless outer wall, similarly,
has no vertical portion and points inward: It's a centripetal force. As the only
such force, it's also the centripetal force. In this version, a centripetal force
does exist, and its use is correct.
2. The seat is rough enough that the passenger doesn't slide even without touch
ing the wall. Now the passenger experiences only one contact force, from
the seat. Being the sum of the two contact forces in the first version, this
contact force points upward and inward. The only other force acting on the
passenger is the gravitational force, which points downward. Thus, no force
on the passenger points inward, so no force is a centripetal force.
These versions illustrate two tricky aspects of the centripetal force. First, the
centripetal force, even on a body moving in a circle, might not exist (version 2).
Second, when it does exist (version 1), it's not a new kind of force. Rather,
"centripetal" merely redescribes an actual, physical force (one of nature's four
fundamental kinds in Section 1.2.1) that happens to point directly inward.
Thus, you have a choice. You can keep these two points in mind, invoking
a centripetal force only when one exists and remembering that it's not a new
force. Or you can simplify your life by abstaining from the centripetal force
completely. I choose and recommend abstinence because I find Newton's laws
and force subtle enough without adding avoidable complications.
In summary, forget the centripetal and the centrifugal forces.
1.6 Problems
1.1 For each of the following given forces, (i) determine the two interacting
bodies A and B, (ii) write the force in the form FA on B (replacing A and B
by their short names in that situation), (iii) express the force's third-law
counterpart force in symbols and in words, and (iv) give the counterpart
force's direction. Here are the forces:
a. the force of the ground on you when you stand on the ground,
b. the gravitational force on a freely falling stone,
c. the force of a tree branch on a cherry (and stem) attached to and hanging
from the tree, and
d. the lift force on a hummingbird as it hovers above a flower.
1.2 For each force given in Problem 1.1, classify the force as active or passive,
electromagnetic or gravitational, and short range or long range. (Each
force's third-law counterpart force will have identical classifications.)
1.3 Make the three-stage estimate (without a calculator!) - units, exponent,
and then mantissa - for the g calculation (1.16).
1.6 Problems 27
1.4 Estimate the gravitational force of the moon on the earth (in magnitude).
Feel free to look up the moon's mass and its distance from the earth (center
to center), also known as its orbital radius. How does the force compare
to the gravitational force of the sun on the earth (1.11)?
1.5 Calculate, to two or three decimal places, the dimensionless ratio
g at an altitude of 200 kilometers (a low-earth orbit)
(1.33)
g at sea level
Is the ratio close to what you expected? (I found it surprising.)
1.6 Estimate and compare the magnitudes of the drag force and the dynamic
friction force on an Olympic speed skater.
1.7 Return to the box sitting peacefully on the hill in Section 1.3.5 and to the
static-friction force on the box. What's the Newton's-third-law counterpart
to this force? In what direction does this counterpart force point?
1.8 Looking up needed masses and distances, confirm the approximate place
ment on the logarithmic scale (Figure 1.15) of the following forces and
interactions:
a. the gravitational interaction between the earth and an electron on the
surface of the earth,
b. the (gravitational) interaction between two people on opposite sides
of the earth,
c. the drag force on a jumbo jet at cruising speed and altitude, and
d. the (gravitational) interaction between the sun and Sirius A (the bright
est star in the night sky, also known as the Dog Star).
2
Freebody Diagrams: Representing Forces
Forces easily get overlooked, especially among several bodies sharing many in
teractions. The tool for tracking and representing forces is the freebody diagram:
the analog of a circuit diagram. A circuit diagram makes a circuit comprehensi
ble; a freebody diagram makes a mechanical system comprehensible.
2.1 Making Freebody Diagrams: A Foolproof Recipe
The name freebody diagram describes, in abbreviated form, how to make one.
Each of the name's three parts -free, body, and diagram - carries an important
meaning and commandment.
l. Diagram. The forces shall be represented pictorially, with arrows indicating
their magnitudes and directions.
2. Body. The diagram shall show the forces acting on exactly one body, called the
primary body. Thus, the diagram of you standing on the ground (Figure 1.1) -
shows the forces acting only on you, not on the ground. The body can be
several bodies lumped mentally into one composite body: for example, you
and your socks and shoes. We then care about only the forces from outside the
composite body and ignore the forces within it (you learn why in Section 7.2).
3. Free. The body shall be drawn free of contact with other bodies. The example
diagram represents only you, not the earth - even though you touch the earth.
These commandments are built into the following recipe for a correct freebody
diagram. The recipe uses two principles: Interactions are short or long range
(Section 1.2.3), and a force is one side of an interaction (Newton's third law).
28
How to Make a Correct Freebody Diagram Every Time

1. Handle the short-range, contact interactions.
1 a. Free the primary body.
l b. Replace broken contacts with contact forces.
2. Handle the long-range interactions.
2a. Find the long-range interactions.
2b. Represent these interactions by drawing long-range forces.
3. Optional: Include a ghostly reminder of the forces' origins.
To illustrate the recipe, look again at the familiar situation of a person standing
on the ground. Our goal is a freebody diagram of the person, the primary body.
1. Handle the short-range, contact interactions. Interactions can be short or
long range. But handle the short-range interactions first because they are the
easier ones to find and because doing so frees the primary body right away.
la. Free the primary body. Tear the primary body from the secondary bodies
that touch it (Figure 2.1). The primary body thereby gets its own diagram
free of other bodies - thereby satisfying commandment 3.
ID
Figure 2.1 Step la: Freeing the primary body (the person). The "free" in freebody
diagram means that the primary body is drawn separated from all other bodies.
Here, the primary body is the person, and the torn-off (and only) sec
ondary body is the earth. Making a secondary diagram, an optional step,
gives us practice with Newton's third law, so let's make it for this ex
ample. (This secondary diagram, thanks to the rest of this recipe, might
also become a freebody diagram, as it will here.)
1b. Replace broken contacts with contactforces. Each tear breaks one contact
interaction. Here, the tear breaks the interaction between the person
and the ground (as a part of the earth). According to Newton's third law,
an interaction has two equal and opposite sides. Here, these sides are
Fperson on ground and Fground on person·
Place one side of each contact interaction - the force on the primary
body - on the primary diagram (Figure 2.2). Place the other side - the
30 Freebody Diagrams: Representing Forces
force due to the primary body- on the appropriate secondary diagram (if
it's being made). Here, you place and label Fground on person on the person's
diagram; and you place and label Fperson on ground on the earth's diagram
(because the ground belongs to the earth).
Fperson on ground
Fground on person
Figure 2.2 Step lb: Replacing broken contact with contact forces.
As a notational simplification, you can omit the "on person" or "on

ground" qualifiers in the force labels. Thus, on the person's diagram,
you can label the force as simply Fground - with the "on person" quali
fier understood because it's the person's diagram. The shorter label is
unambiguous thanks to step la when you freed the primary body.
The secondary diagrams give us a place to draw the opposite side of
each contact force on the primary body. They remind us of the reciprocal
nature of Newton's third law and prevent us from placing the opposite
side on the primary diagram - a common fatal mistake.
As a reminder that contact forces act on a body's surface rather than
throughout the body, draw these arrows outside but touching the body.
When the contact interaction is repulsive, the more common case, out
side but touching means that the arrow's tip touches the body (leaving
the tail outside the body). When the contact interaction is attractive- say,
between a schoolchild's desk and the piece of chewing gum stuck under
neath the desk - then outside but touching means that the tail touches
the body (leaving the tip outside the body).
Here, the person-ground interaction is repulsive- each body tries to
repel the other - so Fground on person is drawn with its tip along the person's
bottom surface (and its tail outside the person).
2. Handle the long-range interactions. The other interactions are long range.
2a. Find the long-range interactions. Now identify all of the primary body's
long-range interactions. These interactions are usually gravitational- but
not always. Two bar magnets, for example, have a long-range electromag
netic interaction. In the example here, the sole long-range interaction is
the gravitational interaction between the person and the earth.
2b. Represent these interactions by drawing long-range forces. As with the

short-range interactions (step lb), each long-range interaction has two
sides. Place one side of each long-range interaction - the (labeled) force
on the primary body - on the primary diagram (Figure 2.3). Place the
other side - the (labeled) force due to the primary body - on the appropri
ate secondary diagram (if it's being made). Thus, place the gravitational
force Fearth on erson on the person's diagram; and place the gravitational
force F erson onp earth on the earth's diagram.
p
Fperson on ground Fearth on person
�
F ground on person
Figure 2.3 Step 2b: Drawing the long-range forces. After identifying the long
range interactions, draw the pair of forces from each interaction.
As a reminder that long-range or body forces act throughout the body

rather than only on its surface, draw the long-range forces at least partly
inside the body. But don't place either end (tip or tail) at the surface -
to avoid hinting that the force is short range. Furthermore, for gravita
tional long-range forces - and, in mechanics, all long-range forces are
gravitational - try to place the tail or tip at the body's center of mass.
But this advice is only a rule of thumb. First, typesetting considerations
sometimes override it. Second, "the" gravitational force is really the sum
of many tiny gravitational forces acting on a body's many particles. For
tunately, in most analyses, they act as if they were combined into a single
force acting at the body's center of mass.
What is a body's center of mass?
A body's center ofmass is located at the weighted average ofthe locations
of its individual particles, where each particle is weighted by its mass.
Think of each particle voting for itself as the center of mass: "Me, me,
me!" Each particle gets a number of votes proportional to its mass. The
inevitable discord is resolved by putting the center of mass at the (vector)
average. For example, when a body consists of two identical particles, its
center of mass is midway between the particles. If one particle is twice
as massive as the other, the center of mass is one-third of the way from
the more to the less massive particle.
Now the primary body has a freebody diagram! When a secondary body
interacts only with the primary body, then its diagram is also a freebody
diagram. Here, the secondary body (the earth) interacts only with the person
(through gravitational and contact interactions), so the earth's diagram is
also a freebody diagram. (When the secondary body has other interactions
and you need its freebody diagram, follow this recipe with the secondary
body as the new primary body.)
3. Optional: Include a ghostly reminder of the forces' origins. As an improve
ment helpful in complicated situations, draw in other bodies using dashed
lines - but still don't include any forces acting on these bodies (Figure 2.4).
Otherwise you violate commandment 2. The dashed bodies remind us of
how the interactions happened.
Fearth on person
Fperso� cm ground
I I
I I
/
,,�-
'
'
I i,-ground on person\
I
I
'
I
/
, _ /
/
Figure 2.4 Step 3 (optional): Include a ghostly reminder of the forces' origins.
2.2 Practicing the Recipe
The freebody-diagram recipe will become more automatic after we make a

couple more diagrams - of a falling stone (Section 2.2.1) and a bouncing ball
(Section 2.2.2) - and fix a common but incorrect diagram of a person standing
on the ground (Section 2.2.3).
2.2.1 Falling Stone
In the first example, a stone falls toward the ground.
Ignoring the atmosphere and air drag, what's its freebody diagram?
You can draw this diagram without using the elaborate recipe of Section 2.1.
However, by using the recipe anyway, you practice it in a situation where you
already know the result and can therefore attend to the steps in the recipe.
Here, the stone is the primary body. Without any atmosphere, step 1 (handling
the short-range interactions) could not get simpler: No body touches the stone,
so it participates in no short-range, contact interaction.
In step 2 (handling the long-range interactions), the stone's only long-range
interaction is the gravitational interaction with the earth. That identification
therefore completes step 2a (finding the long-range interactions). The partner
body, the earth, becomes the only secondary body.
In step 2b (drawing the long-range forces), we split the sole long-range inter
action into its two sides: Fearth on stone and Fstone on earth (Figure 2.5). Each force,
from (1.12), has magnitude mg, where mis the stone's mass. The force on the
stone points from the stone to (the center of) the earth. Meanwhile, the force on
the earth points from the (center of the) earth to the stone. Because the secondary
body, the earth, interacts only with the primary body, the earth's diagram is also
a freebody diagram.
r
F earth on stone
t
F stone on earth
/ (a) (b)
Figure 2.5 Freebody diagrams of the stone and the earth. (a) The stone (the pri
mary body). (b) The earth (the secondary body).
These freebody diagrams are the simplest possible for a nonfree body: Each
body experiences only one force, the unavoidable gravitational force. Such a
body is said to be in free fall. Thus, the earth is in free fall too! And so is a
thrown stone (with no air resistance) or a comet as it orbits the sun, even though
neither's motion fits our everyday understanding of falling. A more explicit and
less confusing description is free gravitational motion: motion free of any force
except the gravitational force.
In the optional step 3, we remind ourselves of the reason for the interaction
by drawing in the interacting bodies with dashed lines (Figure 2.6).
r
Fearth on stone
''
t
/
I
\
I
I
I
I
F stone on earth
---
I
/
........
(a) (b)
Figure 2.6 Freebody diagrams of the stone and the earth with ghostly reminders of
the interaction partners. (a) The stone. The dashed earth reminds us of the stone's
partner in the gravitational interaction. (b) The earth (with a dashed stone).
2.2.2 Bouncing Ball
The next example is a drag-free bouncing ball (Figure 2.7).
A C
D
R
ground
Figure 2.7 The path of a bouncing ball showing two bounces from the ground.
What are the free body diagrams of the ball at locations A, B, C, and D?
At each location, the ball touches only the air, which we are ignoring. So, it is
already a free body, and we skip all of step 1 (handling contact interactions).
Next come the long-range interactions (step 2). The ball's only long-range
interaction (step 2a) is its gravitational interaction with the earth. This inter
action's Fearth on ball side goes on the ball's diagram. It has magnitude mg and
points to the center of the earth. Thus, in answer to the triangle question: At
each location A, B, C, or D, the ball's diagram gets a downward force mg - and
no other force (Figure 2.8). The ball is in free gravitational motion (free fall).
A C
mg
ground
Figure 2.8 Freebody diagrams of the ball at each point. The only force acting on
the ball is the gravitational force, mg downward.
You probably didn't need the recipe to draw these diagrams. But slowing down
to follow the recipe anyway helps you avoid a common trap: including a bogus
"force of motion" pointing in the direction of the ball's motion (try Problem 2.1).
The ball's freebody diagrams are, at least when the ball is in the air, identical to
the falling stone's, yet the ball moves so differently from the stone. How? Why?
This question gets to the heart of Newtonian mechanics: to what made it new
and to why we find it so difficult to grasp. Even though the sole force on these
bodies is the same (mg downward), force merely changes motion- it doesn't
cause motion directly. This counterintuitive idea, elaborated in Section 4.1 and
ad nauseam, is worth befriending now.
Here, the ball's motion and the stone's motion change in the same way- but
the stone started from rest, and the ball started with a sideways motion. The
ball's sideways motion continues, not needing a sideways force to explain it. The
constant sideways motion and changing downward motion - changing because
of the downward gravitational force- together give the ball its curved path.
2.2.3 Standing on the Ground, Diagrammed Badly
Figure 2.9 shows a common incorrect freebody diagram.
What's wrong with the diagram ( other than the lack of labels)?
The person is not free and is still touching the earth! Thus, step la got skipped.
That procedural error leaves the force arrows at the contact point ambiguous.
Does the lower downward force inside the box (the person) act on the earth or
on the person? It acts on the earth, as you saw in Section 2.1, but the flawed
diagram hides this important information. Similarly, does the upper upward
force inside the circle (the earth) act on the earth or on the person?
� + .. On which body does this force act?
On which body does this force act? • • • :': • •
Figure 2.9 A common (but incorrect) freebody diagram.
This example is meant to remind you of step la: To make a freebody diagram,
tear the primary body from all bodies that touch it by replacing each contact with
a contact interaction. Then, in step 1b, place on the primary diagram exactly
one side of each contact interaction.
2.3 A Subtle Puzzle: Bumblebees in a Box
As this chapter's final example of making a freebody diagram, we begin to solve

the following puzzle. It concerns a truck carrying among its cargo a box of
bumblebees. (No bees were harmed in the dreaming up of this experiment: The
box has holes so that the bees get plenty of oxygen.) The truck gets pulled over
to the weighing station to check whether it's too heavy. The road's limit is 10
metric tons (104 kilograms or 107 grams). Alas, when put on the scale, the truck
weighs 10.00001 tons, which is 10 grams over the limit.
The puule: Can the driver reduce the truck's weight with the help of the
bees? For example, what if the driver whacks the box when the bees are sleeping
peacefully on the floor of the box, waking up the bees who then take off? While
the bees take off, is the truck's weight lower?
Solving this puzzle requires, among other ideas, understanding weight and
the distinction between it and the gravitational force. Thus, we'll solve it fully
(in Section 7.4.5) after having discussed those ideas. However, the first step in
the solution is a freebody diagram - which we can make now.
In making a freebody diagram, a key step is choosing the correct primary
body. It might be the truck, the weighing scale, the box, or one of the bees.
It might even combine these bodies. For nothing in Newton's laws requires
that a primary (or secondary) body be a single solid body. In astronomy, a useful
primary body is the billions of stars in our galaxy; here, it might be all the bees
as they fly around (with a mental box imagined around them). Or it could be all
2.3 A Subtle Puzzle: Bumblebees in a Box 37
the bees along with the physical box surrounding them. In short, the primary
(or any secondary) body can be composite.
To winnow the possibilities for the primary body's composition, let's at least
eliminate the truck. The box of bees now sits directly on the weighing scale (think
an old-fashioned bathroom scale; see Figure 2.10), which displays 10.01 kilo
grams (10 grams too high). The revised puzzle presents the same conundrum as
does the original puzzle: Can banging on the box, or another action that affects
the bees' motion, reduce the weight below 10 kilograms?
box
•
• •
• •• • •
•
(bees) •
scale
Figure 2.10 The box with its bees sitting on the weighing scale. When the bees
are resting on the bottom of the box, the scale displays 10.01 kilograms.
As a rule of thumb, use the freedom in choosing the primary body to winnow
this body's interactions - as long as the remaining interactions include all forces
of interest. But what are those forces here? As you learn in Section 7.4, a (spring)
scale measures the normal force Non its top surface and displays this force's
magnitude, N (after converting N to mass units using N / g). Thus, the interesting
force is the normal force on the scale's top surface.
Then the surprising best choice for the primary body is the box along with its
bees. This composite body has only two interactions (Figure 2.11) - a pleasantly
small number. Its short-range, contact interaction is with the scale. Its long-range,
gravitational interaction is with the earth.
box and bees
N
Figure 2.11 Freebody diagram of the box and its bees. The ghostly outline reminds
us of the origin of the normal force (the scale).
Thus, its freebody diagram, like the freebody diagram of a person standing on
the earth (Section 2.1), has only two forces: the normal force due to the scale
and the gravitational force due to the earth. This normal force's magnitude, N, is
Exploring the Variety of Random
Documents with Different Content
Durham edited for the Surtees Club, vol. i.
663. Vita S. Margaretæ, cap. iv.
664. Ib. cap. viii.
665. Adamnan’s Life of St. Columba, ed. 1874, p. 96.
666. Girald. Camb., Topogr. Dict., iii. c. 19.
667. See Vit. S. Margaretæ, cap. viii.
668. Vit. St. Margaretæ, c. ix.
669. Malcolmus rex et Margareta regina Scotiæ contulerunt devote

villam de Ballechristin Deo omnipotenti et Keledeis de Louchleven
cum eadem libertate ut prius.—Chart. Prior. S. Α., p. 115.
670. Chart. Prior. S. A., p. 117.
671. Tighernac, who is a contemporary historian, has, in 1072,

‘Diarmed, son of Maelnambo, king of Breatan and Innsegall—or the
Western Isles—and Dublin and the south half of Ireland, slain by
Concobur O’Malsechlan in the battle of Odba, and great slaughter
made of the Galls and men of Leinster with him.’—Chron. Picts. and
Scots, p. 78.
672. 1062 Gilchrist hua Maeldoradh comorba Coluimcille etir Erinn

et Albain in Christo quievit.—An. Ult.
673. 1065 Dubhtach Albannach prim anmchara Erinn acus Albain

in Ardmacha quievit.—Ib.
674. 1070 Abbas Ia, id est, Mac mic Baetan domarbhadh do mac
ind Ab. (slain by the son of the abbot) hua Maeldoradh.—Ib.
675. Inter cætera bona quæ nobilis hera fecerat, Huense

cœnobium, quod servus Christi Columba tempore Brudei regis
Pictorum filii Meilocon, construxerat, sed tempestate præliorum cum
longa vetustate dirutum fuerat, fidelis regina reædificavit, datisque
sumptibus idoneis ad opus Domini monachis reparavit.—Orderic.
Vital., B. viii. c. 22.
676. Magnus Saga, Collect. de Rebus Alb., p. 348.
677. 1099 Donnchadh mac mic Moenaig Ab. Ia in pace pausavit.—

An. Ult. The form of Mac mic, which appears in the names of the
two last abbots of Iona instead of the Irish form hua, rather
indicates that these two abbots were Scotchmen.
678. 1093 Fothadh Ardepscop Albain in Christo quievit.—An. Ult.

The legend of St. Andrew says, speaking of the title Episcopus
Scottorum, ‘Sic quippe ab antiquo episcopi Sancti Andreæ dicti sunt
et in scriptis tam antiquis quam modernis invenientur dicti Summi
Archiepiscopi sive Summi episcopi Scotorum, Unde et conscribi fecit
in theca Evangelii Fothet episcopus, maxime vir authoritatis, versus
istos—
‘Hanc Evangelii thecam construxit aviti

Fothet qui Scotis Summus Episcopus est.’
Bower altered the expression ‘Summus Episcopus’ to ‘Primus

Episcopus,’ and applied it to the first Fothad, whom he made first
bishop, though in the revised edition of the Scotichronicon in the
Cupar MS., he corrects his mistake. Wyntoun takes the same view,
but ‘Summus Episcopus’ is the exact equivalent in Latin of the Irish
Ard epscop, and there is no doubt that the last Fothad is the bishop
meant. The Gospel he so carefully protected may have been a gift
from Queen Margaret.
679. Regist. Prior. S. Andreæ, p. 115.
680. Chron. Picts and Scots, p. 188. See also Dr. Reeves’s British
Culdees, p. 106, and the very valuable commentary in the notes.
681. Dr. Reeves was the first to give the correct explanation of this
passage in the legend. See British Culdees, p. 107, note.
682. Dr. Reeves on the British Culdees, p. 75.
683. Dr. Reeves on the Ancient Churches of Armagh, p. 21.
684. See infra, p. 414, note 780, for original of this passage.
685. Miscellany of the Irish Archæological Society, vol. i. p. 131.
686. Ib. p. 133.
687. Ib. p. 141.
688. Miscellany of the Irish Archæological Society, vol. i. p. 129.
689. Ib., p. 131.
690. Ib., p. 129.

Dr. Reeves has printed in the appendix to Bishop Colton’s
Visitation, edited for the Irish Archæological Society, p. 109, a rule of
Columcille taken from one of the Burgundian MSS. It is obviously the
same rule which Colgan describes as ‘aliam regulam eremiticam seu
præscriptum fratribus scripsit.’ It cannot be connected with St.
Columba himself, and it is probably a rule compiled for the Deoradh
De at the time the Disert Columcille was founded at Kells. It will be
found in the Appendix.
691. See antea, p. 342.
692. These notices are taken from the Annals of the Four Masters,
where they will be found under their respective dates.
693. St. Ciaran, the founder of Clonmacnois, has left a trace of his
name in Iona; for a rising ground south of Martyr’s Bay is called
Cnoc Ciaran.
CHAPTER IX.
EXTINCTION OF THE OLD CELTIC CHURCH IN

SCOTLAND.
Causes which The causes which combined to bring the old

brought the Celtic Church to an end may be classed under
Celtic Church to two heads—internal decay and external change.
an end.
Under the first head the chief cause was the
encroachment of the secular element upon the ecclesiastic, and the
gradual absorption of the latter by the former. As long as the old
monastic system remained intact there was a vitality in its
ecclesiastical organisation which to a great extent preserved the
essential character of these monasteries as great ecclesiastical
foundations; but this was to some extent impaired by the
assimilation of the church to that of Rome in the seventh and eighth
centuries, which introduced a secular element among her clergy;
and the Danish invasions, with all their devastating and destructive
consequences, completed the total disorganisation of the Monastic
Church. The monasteries were repeatedly laid waste and destroyed,
and her clergy had either to fly or to take up arms in self-defence;
her lands, with their ruined buildings and reduced establishment, fell
into the hands of laymen, and became hereditary in their families;
until at last nothing was left but the mere name of abbacy applied to
the lands, and of abbot borne by the secular lord for the time. The
external change produced in the church was the result of the policy
adopted towards it by the kings of the race of Queen Margaret. It
was in the main the same policy as that adopted towards Ireland by
the Norman kings of England. It mainly consisted, first, in placing
the church upon a territorial in place of a tribal basis, and
substituting the parochial system and a diocesan episcopacy for the
old tribal churches with their monastic jurisdiction and functional
episcopacy; secondly, in introducing the religious orders of the
Church of Rome, and founding great monasteries as centres of
counter influence to the native church; and, thirdly, in absorbing the
Culdees, now the only clerical element left in the Celtic Church, into
the Roman system, by converting them from secular into regular
canons, and merging them in the latter order.
A.D. 1093-1107. During the war of succession which followed
See of St. the death of Malcolm the Third and ended in the
Andrews remains firm establishment of the sons of the Saxon
vacant and
churches founded Queen Margaret upon the throne of Scotland in
in Lothian only. the person of Edgar, her eldest son, no successor
appears to have been appointed to Fothad, the
last native bishop of St. Andrews, and no attempt appears to have
been made to follow out the policy which had been inaugurated by
that queen of assimilating the native church to that of Rome. During
this interval Scotland north of the Firths of Forth and Clyde was left
without a bishop, and the conflict between the Celtic and the Saxon
element in the population of the country, which was to determine
whether Scotland was to remain a Celtic or a Teutonic kingdom,
probably threw the northern portion of it into too great a confusion
to render any attempt to reorganise the church possible. The only
ecclesiastical foundations made during this period were confined to
the southern districts, where the sons of Malcolm, who owed to
English assistance the vindication of their right to the throne,
showed their gratitude by grants to the church of Durham. Duncan,
the eldest son of Malcolm, made over to the monks of Durham
Tiningeham, Aldeham, Scuchale, Cnolle, Hatherwich, and all right
which Bishop Fodan had in Broccesmuthe.[694] These lands are in
East Lothian, and formed part of the possessions of St. Balthere’s
monastery of Tyningham. The allusion to the rights of Bishop Fodan
or Fothad shows that this part of Lothian at least had by this time
come under the bishops of St. Andrews; and we find that these
lands afterwards reverted to that see.[695]
Edgar, the eldest son of Queen Margaret, had no sooner made
good his right to the throne by English assistance, than we find him
refounding the monastery of Coldingham, which had been destroyed
by the Danes. In his charter he says that he had come to the
dedication of the church of St. Mary at Coldingham, which dedication
had been honourably completed to the praise of God and to his
contentment, and that he had immolated on the altar to the same
church, in endowment, and granted, the whole town of Swintun, to
be held for ever free and quit from all claim, and to be disposed of
at the will of the monks of St. Cuthbert. He adds that he had
ordained to the men of Coldinghamshire, as they themselves have
chosen and confirmed in his hand, that they every year pay to the
monks half a mark of silver for each plough.[696] The mention of
Coldinghamshire, and the burden imposed upon the men of the
district to contribute to the support of the church, indicate
something like a parochial district attached to the church; and we
find, in another charter, the establishment of a parish church clearly
presented to us, as well as the process by which it was
accomplished. In this document, Thor informs his lord, Earl David,
that King Edgar had given him Ednaham, now Ednam, in
Berwickshire, waste; that he had inhabited it, and built from the
foundation the church which King Edgar caused to be dedicated to
Saint Cuthbert, and had endowed it with one plough; and he prays
his son to confirm the donation he had made of the church to St.
Cuthbert and the monks of Durham.[697] Here we have in fact a
formation of a manor with its parish church, and in a subsequent
document it is termed the mother church of Ednam.[698]
A.D. 1107. Edgar appears to have made no attempt to
Turgot appointed introduce a parochial church north of the Forth,
bishop of St. or even to fill up the vacancy in the see of St.
Andrews, and the
Sees of Moray Andrews; but, on his death, when the territory
and Dunkeld which formed his kingdom, with its
created. heterogeneous population, was divided between
his two brothers—the districts north of the Forth
and Clyde, with Lothian as far as the Lammermoors, falling, under
his will, to Alexander as king, and the districts of the Cumbrian
Britons, with the rest of Lothian, to David as earl—the policy which
had been inaugurated by their Saxon mother, Queen Margaret, of
assimilating the native church to that of England, was at once
resumed by both. Alexander’s first step was to fill up the vacancy in
the bishopric of St. Andrews, by the appointment, in the first year of
his reign, of Turgot, prior of Durham, and at the same time to create
two additional bishoprics for the more remote and Celtic portion of
his kingdom. The first was that of Moray, to which he appointed a
bishop named Gregorius; and the second was that of Dunkeld, which
he revived in the person of Cormac.[699]
Establishment of The districts beyond the Spey were at this time
the bishopric of so little under the influence of the Crown, and
Moray. their connection with what formed the kingdom
proper so slender, that the position of a bishop of Moray appointed
by the king can have been little more than nominal. In fact, we know
very little of the state of the church in that great Celtic district at this
time, except what may be gathered from the dedications of the
churches. The low-lying portion of its territory, extending along the
south shore of the Moray Firth from the Spey westward, with its
fertile soil and temperate air, must always have formed an attractive
position for ecclesiastical establishments; and in that part of it which
lies between the Spey and the Findhorn three churches come now
rather prominently forward. These are the churches of Brennach, or
Birnie, Spyny and Kenedor; and we learn something of this last
church from the legend of Saint Gervadius or Gernadius, whose day
is the 8th of November. He was a native of Ireland, and leaving his
home to preach the Word of Life in Scotland, he came to the
territory of Moravia or Moray, in which place he associated with
himself many fellow-soldiers in Christ, and under angelic direction,
as it is said, built an oratory or cell in a place called Kenedor. Here he
had a stone bed, and led the life of an Anchorite.[700] A cave near
Elgin and a spring of water in the rock above bear his name. An
allusion in his legend to a war by the king of the Angles against the
Scots, which brought the Anglic soldiers to his neighbourhood, fixes
his date to the year 934, when Athelstane, king of Northumbria,
invaded Scotland both by sea and land; and his establishment has all
the features of a Culdee church. There was no trace, however, of the
name of Culdee in this district when Alexander founded his
bishopric, and it was not till the time of Bricius, the sixth bishop of
Moray, who filled that position from 1203 to 1222, that the bishops
had any fixed residence in the diocese. They are said before his time
to have had their episcopal seat in one or other of the three
churches of Birnie, Spyny and Kenedor. When Bricius became bishop
in 1203 he fixed his cathedral at Spyny, and founded a chapter of
eight secular canons, giving to his cathedral a constitution founded
on the usage of Lincoln, which he ascertained by a mission to
England.[701] After his death the seat of the bishopric was removed to
Elgin.
Establishment of The bishopric of Dunkeld was in a very
bishopric of different position, and its relations with the
Dunkeld. Crown were of the most intimate character. A
church had been built there by Kenneth mac Alpin, the founder of
the Scottish dynasty, and a part at least of the relics of St. Columba
had been transferred to it by him. The abbot, in his time, was the
first bishop of his Pictish kingdom. It had then, along with the great
territory forming the lay abbacy of Dull, passed into the possession
of a line of lay abbots, from whom the family on the throne were the
male descendants; and it had now, probably by the death of
Ethelred the young lay abbot, again reverted to the Crown, as we
hear no more of him after the reign of Edgar. Mylne, who was a
canon of Dunkeld in the fifteenth century, tells us in his Lives of the
Bishops of Dunkeld ‘that, when it seemed good to the Supreme
Controller of all Christian religion, and when devotion and piety had
increased, St. David, the sovereign, who was the younger son of
King Malcolm Canmor and the holy Queen Margaret, having changed
the constitution of the monastery, erected it into a cathedral church,
and, having superseded the Keledei, created, about the year 1127, a
bishop and canons, and ordained that there should in future be a
secular college. The first bishop on this foundation was for a time
abbot of that monastery, and subsequently a counsellor of the
king.’[702] Mylne is, however, wrong both in the date and in the name
of the founder; for, as we have seen, the bishopric was founded by
Alexander, the predecessor of King David, as early as the year 1107.
The possession of the ample territories belonging to the lay abbacy
of Dunkeld would enable him at once to refound the bishopric with
its cathedral and chapter in proper form. And here we find the
remains of the old Columban Church brought into sharp contact with
the Culdee foundations. The church which Kenneth had founded
there certainly inherited, along with a part of the relics of the great
founder of the Columban Church, to a certain extent also the
primatial jurisdiction of the monastery of Iona over the Columban
monasteries on the mainland. These monasteries had, with few
exceptions, become lay abbacies, and Mylne appears so far to have
given a correct representation of the revival of the episcopate, as we
find that the rights of the original monastery of Dunkeld over the
Columban foundations do appear to have been now exercised by the
bishop. Besides the two great lay abbacies of Dull and Glendochart,
founded respectively by St. Adamnan and St. Fillan in the seventh
century, whose united territory comprised the entire western districts
of Atholl, bounded by Drumalban on the west, and the districts
beyond this range, which afterwards formed the diocese of Argyll,
we find the new bishopric possessing within the limits of other
dioceses disconnected parishes which represented old Columban
foundations. In Stratherne it had the parishes of Madderty and
Crieff, the former dedicated to St. Ethernanus, whose death is
recorded by Tighernac in 669, and who therefore belonged to the
Columban Church; and here we find the bishop dealing with the
rights of Can and Conveth which the clerics of the church of Dunkeld
had from ‘the lands of Madderty, which in Scotch are termed
Abthen.’[703] In charters to the monastery of Dunfermline the rights
of Dunkeld in Fife and Fotherif are specially reserved;[704] and here
the bishopric possessed Incholm, dedicated to St. Columba, and
adjacent lands on the mainland. In Angus it possessed the parishes
of Fearn and Menmuir, dedicated to St. Aidan, the Columban bishop
of Lindisfarne; and it even penetrated beyond the Firth of Forth on
the south, where it possessed Cramond dedicated to St. Columba,
and on the north beyond the Mounth, when we find in a charter
granted by the Mormaer, or earl of Buchan, in the earlier years of
the reign of King David, of the lands of Pet-mec-Cobrig ‘for the
consecration of a church of Christ and Peter the apostle (at Deer)
and to Columcille and to Drostan,’ that is, for the reconsecration of
the church of Deer to St. Peter, which had previously been dedicated
to St. Columba and St. Drostan, and the lands are granted ‘free from
all exactions with their tie to Cormac, bishop of Dunkeld.’[705] This
monastery of Deer is one of the few Columban foundations which
preserved its clerical character intact down to this period, and here
we find no trace of the name of Culdee in connection with it.
Rights of Keledei On the other hand, and in contrast to these
pass to St. rights of Dunkeld, Turgot was no sooner elected
Andrews. bishop of St. Andrews than the fate and fortunes
of the Culdee establishments were committed into his hands; for we
are told that ‘in his days the whole rights of the Keledei over the
whole kingdom of Scotland passed to the bishopric of St.
Andrews.’[706] The appointment of Turgot, the prior of Durham, to the
bishopric of St. Andrews, in conformity with the policy adopted
towards the native church by the sons of Queen Margaret, had one
result which probably King Alexander did not anticipate when he
made it. It brought upon him the claim of the archbishop of York to
supremacy over the Scottish Church, whose bishops he regarded as
his suffragans. It is not necessary for our purpose to enter at length
on this intricate subject. His claim was, no doubt, founded upon the
original commission by Pope Gregory to Augustine in the end of the
sixth century, by which he placed all the churches north of the
Humber under the bishop of York, and to the convention between
the archbishops of Canterbury and York in 1072, by which it was
attempted to revive this arrangement, and to place all the churches
of the northern province, as far as the extreme limits of Scotland,
under the latter;[707] but such a right had never been either
recognised or exercised, and the only substantial ground upon which
it could be based was one very similar to that on which the
supremacy claimed by the king of England over Scotland could be
founded. It is certain that the province of York extended
ecclesiastically, as the kingdom of Northumbria did civilly, to the Firth
of Forth; and so far as concerned the churches of Lothian and
Teviotdale, the former of which were now under the rule of the
bishop of St. Andrews, while the latter were claimed by Glasgow,
there may have been some ground for the assertion of such a right,
similar to that which the annexation of Lothian to the kingdom of
Scotland gave for the civil claim; but beyond the Firths of Forth and
Clyde the claims of both were shadowy in the extreme, and
Alexander, in his jealousy for the independence of his kingdom, saw
the necessity of resisting the threatened encroachment of the
ecclesiastical jurisdiction of York. In the end Turgot was consecrated
at York on 1st August 1109, with reservation of the rights of either
see. He died on 31st August 1115, and during his tenure of office,
owing mainly to these disputes, he appears to have done nothing to
affect the rights of the Culdees. In order to avoid a recurrence of
this question, Alexander applied to the archbishop of Canterbury to
recommend him an English cleric as bishop, stating that the bishops
of St. Andrews had hitherto been consecrated either by the Pope or
by the archbishop of Canterbury. The former assertion was probably
true in so far as regards the later bishops; but the incautious
admission of the latter, which was totally inconsistent with fact, led
the king into a new and unprofitable dispute, which had an equally
awkward bearing upon the more important question of the
independence of the kingdom. Eadmer, a monk of Canterbury, was
sent, but was not elected till 1120; and in the following year he
returned to Canterbury,[708] and the bishopric remained unfilled up
for three years.
Canons regular During this time, however, while St. Andrews
introduced into was, practically speaking, without a bishop,
Scotland. Alexander commenced to carry out another part
of this policy, by introducing the canons-regular of St. Augustine, or
the black canons, as they were called, into Scotland; and for this
purpose he selected the most central and important position in his
kingdom, that of Scone, which was peculiarly associated with the
very heart of the monarchy, and had been the scene of previous
legislation regarding the church. Here he brought a colony of canons
regular from the church of St. Oswald at Nastlay, near Pontefract, in
Yorkshire, and founded a priory in the year 1115, which was
confirmed by the seven earls of his kingdom, and by Gregory and
Cormac, the bishops of the two additional bishoprics he had created,
who here term themselves bishops by the authority of God, and of
the holy apostles Peter and Paul and of Saint Andrew the apostle.
The church, which was previously dedicated to the Trinity, was
placed under the patronage of the Virgin, St. Michael, St. John, St.
Lawrence and St. Augustine.[709] Some years later Alexander
introduced the regular canons into the diocese of Dunkeld. In the
year 1122 he founded a priory of canons on an island near the east
end of Loch Tay, which became a cell of Scone, and here his queen,
Sibylla, died and was buried; and in 1123 he founded a monastery
for the same canons in the island of Inchcolm in the Firth of Forth.
[710]
In the following year Alexander heard of the death of Eadmer,
and filled up the bishopric of St. Andrews by appointing Robert, the
English prior of Scone; but, four months after this appointment, and
before Robert was consecrated, he died in the April of that year.
Probably the last act of his life was the right which he conferred
upon the church of the Holy Trinity of Scone, to hold a court, in a
charter which is addressed to the bishops and earls of Scotland, and
is witnessed by Robert, bishop-elect of St. Andrews, Cormac the
bishop, and Gregory, bishop of Moray.[711]
Diocese of During the whole period of Alexander’s reign,
Glasgow restored his younger brother David was carrying out the
by Earl David. same policy in the southern districts of Scotland,
over which he ruled as earl. In the year 1113 he founded a
monastery at Selkirk, in which he placed Benedictine monks of the
order of Tyron; but his great work there was the reconstitution of
the bishopric of Glasgow. This diocese he restored about the year
1115, and caused an inquisition to be made by the elders and wise
men of Cumbria into the lands and churches which formerly
belonged to the see of Glasgow. In this document, which has been
preserved, and which may be placed in the year 1120 or 1121, its
framers relate the foundation of the church of Glasgow by St.
Kentigern, and that he was succeeded by several bishops in the see;
but that the confusion and revolutions of the country at length
destroyed all traces of the church, and almost of Christianity, till the
restoration of the bishopric by Earl David, and the election and
consecration of John, who had been his tutor, and is commonly
called the first bishop of Glasgow. The bishopric, as reconstituted
after the information derived from this inquisition, extended from the
Clyde on the north to the Solway Firth and the march with England
on the south, and from the western boundary of Lothian on the east
to the river Urr on the west; and it included Teviotdale, which had
remained a part of the diocese of Durham while the Lothian
churches north of the Tweed were transferred to St. Andrews, and
which was now reclaimed as properly belonging to Glasgow. Here
we find no traces of the Keledei, who had formerly formed the
chapter of Glasgow; but in the reign of Malcolm the Fourth the pope
confirmed a constitution of the dean and chapter, which had been
introduced after the model of Sarum by Herbert, elected bishop in
1147.[712] Here, too, the foundation of the new bishopric of Glasgow
brought upon him the claims of the archbishop of York, which were
equally resisted, and the non-dependence of the diocese on any
metropolitan bishop established. The rights of York were, however,
recognised in the case of the bishopric of Candida Casa, likewise
restored some years later, when Gilda Aldan was appointed its first
bishop, as this see had been first established by the Anglic king of
Northumbria in the eighth century. Galloway, though civilly united to
Scotland, was considered ecclesiastically to belong to England, and
its bishop owed obedience as one of his suffragans to the archbishop
of York, by whom Gilda Aldan was consecrated soon after David’s
accession to the throne of Scotland.[713]
Bishoprics and Ailred of Rivaux, who was King David’s
monasteries contemporary, tells us of him that ‘he seemed not
founded by King undeservedly loved both by God and men. He
David.
was plainly beloved by God, for at the very outset
of his reign he diligently practised the things which belong to God in
erecting churches and founding monasteries, which he endowed
with possessions and covered with honours. For whereas he had
found in the whole kingdom of Scotland three or four bishops only,
the other churches, without a shepherd or bishop, going to wrack
and ruin in respect both of morals and substance; what with ancient
ones which he restored and new ones which he founded, he left nine
at his death. He left also monasteries of the Cluniac, Cistercian,
Tyronian orders (who were Benedictines), and the Arovensian,
Præmonstratensian, and Belvacensian (who were canons-regular
from Aroise, Prémontré, and Beauvais), not few in number or small
in size, but full of brethren.’[714] There is a catalogue of religious
houses at the end of Henry of Silgrave’s Chronicle, written about A.D.
1272, which belongs however to an earlier period, and does not
come down later than the reign of William the Lion; and from it
alone do we obtain any information as to the Keledean character of
these foundations.[715] The bishoprics which he found at his
accession were those of St. Andrews, Moray, and Dunkeld, to which
Ailred, probably with some hesitation, adds Glasgow. Galloway was
not included, as it properly belonged to England. We find no trace of
Keledei in either Glasgow or Moray; and the catalogue mentions only
secular canons, that is, the chapters established after their
restoration. The greater part of the new bishoprics which he added
were founded in the first few years of his reign; and he appears to
have commenced his proceedings by having Robert, bishop-elect of
St. Andrews, consecrated in 1128 by the archbishop of York, in the
same manner as Turgot had been consecrated, that is, reserving the
rights of both sees; and by completing the division of Scotland north
of the great range of the Mounth into separate sees.
Establishment of The first of these appears to have been the
bishopric of Ross. diocese of Rosemarky, or Ross. A charter granted
by King David to the monks of Dunfermline, between the years 1128
and 1130, is witnessed by Robert bishop of St. Andrews, who had
now been consecrated, John bishop of Glasgow, Cormac bishop of
Dunkeld, and Gregory bishop of Moray—these are the four bishoprics
alluded to by Ailred—and there now appears as a witness an
additional bishop—Makbeth, bishop of Rosmarkyn, or Rosemarky.[716]
This church, as appears by its dedication, was originally founded as
a Columban monastery by Lugadius, or Moluoc, abbot and bishop of
Lismore, whose death is recorded in 577; but, as we have seen,
Bonifacius refounded it in the eighth century, and dedicated the
church to St. Peter. Here he placed, according to Wyntoun, secular
canons, and we now find the canons designated as Keledei in the
catalogue of religious houses. The chapter, however, was
reconstituted early in the succeeding century, when the term Keledei
disappears, and instead there is a regular cathedral body of canons
under a dean.[717]
Establishment of The next bishopric established appears to have
bishopric of been that of Aberdeen, embracing the extensive
Aberdeen. districts between the Dee and the Spey, and
including the earldom of Mar and Buchan. The memorandum of the
charter by the Mormaer, or Earl, of Buchan, refounding the church of
Deer, which has been already referred to, in which Cormac, bishop of
Dunkeld, is mentioned, is witnessed by Nectan, bishop of Aberdeen;
and this is the earliest notice of that see. According to Fordun, it
succeeded an earlier see founded at Mortlach, on the banks of the
river Fiddich, which falls into the Spey, and therefore not far from
the western boundary of the diocese. Fordun gives the following
account of its foundation. After narrating a victory by King Malcolm
the Second over the Norwegian army in the north, he proceeds:—‘In
the seventh year of his reign Malcolm, thinking over the manifold
blessings continually bestowed upon him by God, pondered
anxiously in his mind what he should give Him in return. At length,
the grace of the Holy Ghost working within him, he set his heart
upon increasing the worship of God; so he established a new
episcopal see at Murthillach, not far from the spot where he had
overcome the Norwegians and gained the victory, and endowed it
with churches and the rents of many estates. He desired to extend
the territory of the diocese, so as to make it reach from the stream
or river called the Dee to the river Spey. To this see a holy man and
one worthy the office of bishop, named Beyn, was at the instance of
the king appointed, as first bishop, by our lord the Pope
Benedict.’[718] The church of Aberdeen appears, however, somewhat
earlier to have had a tradition that the see was originally founded at
Mortlach, and was transferred to Aberdeen by King David in the
thirteenth year of his reign; but the foundation of the church at
Mortlach is ascribed to Malcolm Canmore in the sixth year of his
reign. This tradition is contained in five charters, or memoranda of
charters, prefixed to the Chartulary of Aberdeen, and the interval
between Beyn, the supposed first bishop, and Nectan is filled up by
Donercius, the second bishop, and Cormauch, the third bishop.[719]
That a bishopric was founded there by Malcolm the Second is clearly
at variance with the undoubted fact that there was at that time but
one bishop in Scotland, whose seat was at St. Andrews, and who
was termed the Epscop Albain, or Episcopus Scottorum; and the five
documents which contain the Aberdeen tradition have been shown
by the learned editor of the Chartulary to be unquestionably
spurious.[720] The first authentic writ in that Chartulary is a bull by
Pope Adrian IV. in 1157, confirming to Edward, bishop of Aberdeen,
the church of Aberdeen, the church of St. Machar, with the town of
Old Aberdeen and other lands, in which are included the monastery
of Cloveth and the town and monastery of Murthillach, with five
churches and the lands belonging to them.[721] There is here no
allusion to Murthillach having been an episcopal see, the seat of
which had been transferred to Aberdeen. The designation of
monastery points unequivocally to these churches having been old
Columban monasteries; and accordingly we find that Murthillach was
dedicated to St. Moluoc, the founder of the churches of Lismore and
Rosemarky in the sixth century. Of the three bishops who are said to
have preceded Nectan, Beyn probably belongs to the Columban
period,[722] Donercius has all the appearance of a fictitious name, and
Cormauch is probably Cormac, bishop of Dunkeld, who, as we have
seen, appears in the charter in which Nectan is first mentioned as
having rights connected with the church of Deer, and who may have
possessed similar claims upon the monasteries of Cloveth and
Murthillach, as old Columban foundations, from which probably any
clerical element had by this time disappeared.
Monasteries of We fortunately now possess an invaluable
Deer and Turiff. record in the Book of Deer, which throws some
light upon two Columban foundations in the district of Buchan,
forming the north-eastern portion of the diocese of Aberdeen, as
well as upon the social organisation of the Celtic inhabitants of that
district. These are the monasteries of Deer and Turriff, the one
founded by St. Columba and placed under the care of his nephew St.
Drostan, the other founded by St. Comgan in the following century;
and the notices in the Book of Deer are peculiarly valuable, as it
shows these monasteries retaining their clerical element and Celtic
character unimpaired down to the reign of David I. It is here, if
anywhere, that we should expect to find, according to popular
notions, these Columban clergy bearing the name of Culdees; but
the term Cele De nowhere appears in this record in connection with
them. The peculiar value of this MS. consists in memoranda of grants
to the monastery of Deer, written in the Irish character and language
on blank pages or on the margins. These are in two handwritings.
The first contains notices of grants preceding the time of Gartnait,
Mormaer or Earl of Buchan, who lived in the earlier years of King
David’s reign. These are written on three blank pages at the end of
the MS. and on the margin of the first page. The second begins with
the grant by Gartnait refounding the church and dedicating it to St.
Peter, and is followed by a short notice of a grant, by the same earl,
which probably preceded it, as the grant is to Columcille and Drostan
alone, without mentioning St. Peter; and on the margin of the
second page, in the same handwriting, is a grant by Colban, the
son-in-law and successor of Gartnait. The scribe appears to have
added to two of the grants in the first handwriting the important
statement that they were made in freedom from Mormaer and
Toisech to the day of judgment, with ‘his blessing on every one who
shall fulfil, and his curse on every one who shall go against it.’ The
second of the grants by Earl Gartnait, which appears to have
immediately preceded the reconstitution of the church, is witnessed
by ‘Gillecalline the sacart, or priest, Feradach, son of Maelbhricin,
and Maelgirc, son of Tralin,’ in whom we have probably the small
society to which the clerics of Deer had by this time been reduced,
and which rendered a refoundation necessary. As the grant
refounding the church is witnessed by the Ferleighinn, or man of
learning, of Turbruad, or Turriff, it is not a very violent supposition
that he may have been the scribe. The charter granted by King
David towards the end of his reign, declaring that the clerics of Deer
shall be free from all lay interference and exaction, as written in
their book, shows that they had become exposed to the
encroachments of the laity and required protection; and the
foundation by William, earl of Buchan, of the Cistercian abbey of
Deer in the year 1219 seems to have brought to a close its history as
a Celtic monastery. The monastery of Turbruad, or Turriff, appears
also to have existed as a Celtic monastery at the same time, and we
have some incidental notices of it in the Book of Deer. Domingart,
Ferleighinn Turbruad, or ‘lector of Turriff,’ witnesses one of Earl
Gartnait’s grants, and that by his successor Colbain is witnessed by
Cormac, Abb. Turbruad, or ‘abbot of Turriff;’ but it probably passed
into lay hands before the end of David’s reign, as his charter of
confirmation is witnessed by ‘Cormac de Turbrud,’ or Cormac of
Turriff, without any designation implying a clerical character.[723] The
charter by Cainnech, Mormaer or Earl of Buchan, refounding the
church of Deer, contains the last notice of Cormac bishop of
Dunkeld; and Gregorius, the bishop of Moray, appears to have been
translated to Dunkeld, as in a charter by David the First to
Dunfermline, granted before the death of his queen, Matilda, in
1130, we find as witnesses Robert bishop of St. Andrews and
Gregorius bishop of Dunkeld; and along with them appears, for the
first time, Andreas bishop of Cataness, or Caithness.[724]
Establishment of This great district, which comprised both the
bishopric of modern counties of Caithness and Sutherland,
Caithness. and extended from the Dornoch to the Pentland
Firths, was at this time in the possession of the Norwegian earl of
Orkney; and, though he held the earldom of Caithness nominally
under the crown of Scotland, its connection with the Scottish
kingdom was as yet but a slight one. The erection of it into a diocese
and the appointment of a bishop by the king of Scotland could have
had little reality in them till they were accepted by the Norwegian
earl; and David appears to have provided his new bishop with the
means of supporting his position by conferring upon him the church
of the Holy Trinity at Dunkeld, with its possessions of Fordouin,
Dunmernoch, Bendacthin, or Bendochy, Cupermaccultin, Incheturfin
and Chethec, or Keithock. Towards the end of David’s reign Andrew
probably obtained a footing in Caithness, as he made over this
church to the monks of Dunfermline;[725] and we find his immediate
successors, John and Adam, living in Caithness, and claiming certain
subsidies from the people. The principal church of the diocese was
that of Dornoch, situated in the district of Sutherland, on the north
side of the Dornoch Firth. This church was dedicated to St. Bar or
Finbar, and his festival was held on the 25th of September. This is
the day of St. Bar or Finbar, bishop of Cork in the Irish Calendar; but
the legend given in the Aberdeen Breviary obviously identifies him
with St. Finbar of Maghbile, the preceptor and friend of St. Columba,
whose day in the Irish Calendar is the 10th of September. There
seems, therefore, to be some confusion between the two, and it is
more probable that it was, like Rosemarky, a Columban foundation.
The name of St. Duthac, to whom the church of Tain on the opposite
shore of the firth is dedicated, is connected also with the church at
Dornoch, where he is said to have performed a miracle on St.
Finbar’s day;[726] and in his time the Keledei may have been
introduced here, where we find them in the catalogue of religious
houses. In the year 1196 that portion of the earldom of Caithness
which lay between the Ord of Caithness and the Dornoch Firth
appears to have been taken from the Norwegian earl and bestowed
upon Hugh of Moray, of the then rising family of De Moravia; and the
appointment of another member of the family, Gilbert de Moravia,
soon after to the bishopric of Moray led to the proper organisation of
Dornoch as a cathedral. But the Culdees had by this time
disappeared, and the clerical element reduced, as was usual, to a
single priest; for his deed establishing a cathedral chapter of ten
canons, with the usual functionaries of dean, precentor, chancellor,
treasurer and archdeacon, proceeds on the narrative ‘that in the
times of his predecessors there was but a single priest ministering in
the cathedral, both on account of the poverty of the place and by
reason of frequent hostilities; and that he desired to extend the
worship of God in that church, and resolved to build a cathedral
church at his own expense, to dedicate it to the Virgin Mary, and, in
proportion to his limited means, to make it conventual.’[727]
The communities As far as we have gone, the Celtic Church
of Keledei appears mainly as dying out by internal decay,
and as being superseded by the bishoprics
superseded by founded in the earlier years of King David’s reign,
regular canons. and the establishment of the ordinary cathedral
staff of canons with their dean and other functionaries. We have
now arrived at that period of David’s reign when an active war
against the Culdee establishments commenced, and every effort was
made to suppress them entirely, and when the process of internal
decay was accompanied by a course of external aggression which
we must now follow as it rolled from St. Andrews, into whose hands
their fate was committed, westward, till it finally reached the far
shores of the island of Iona.
Suppression of In the year 1144, Robert, bishop of St.
Keledei of St. Andrews, who had been prior of the monastery
Andrews. of regular canons of St. Augustine at Scone,
founded a priory for the same canons at St. Andrews, and, besides
various lands, granted to them two of the seven portions of the
altarage of St. Andrews, which then belonged to lay persons, and
likewise the hospital of St. Andrews, with the portion which belonged
to it; and this grant was confirmed in the same year by the pope
Lucius II. The object of this foundation evidently was that it should in
time supersede the Culdees. Accordingly, in the same year King
David grants a charter to the prior and canons of St. Andrews, in
which he provides that they shall receive the Keledei of Kilrimont
into the canonry, with all their possessions and revenues, if they are
willing to become canons-regular; but, if they refuse, those who are
now alive are to retain them during their lives, and, after their death,
as many canons-regular are to be instituted in the church of St.
Andrews as there are now Keledei, and all their possessions are to
be appropriated to the use of the canons. Three years later Pope
Eugenius III., by a bull directed to the prior of St. Andrews, deprived
the Keledei of their right to elect the bishop, and conferred it upon
the prior and canons of St. Andrews, and at the same time decreed
that, as the Keledei died out, their places were to be filled up by
canons-regular. The Keledei appear to have resisted these changes,
and to have continued to assert their right to participate in the
election of the bishop, as the decree depriving them of it was
renewed from time to time by subsequent popes down to the year
1248. About the year 1156, Robert, bishop of St. Andrews, granted
to the prior and brethren of St. Andrews the whole of the portions of
the altarage, with the exception of the seventh, which belongs to the
bishop, thus adding three more later to the three portions they
already possessed; and six years later Bishop Arnald gave the whole
of the altarage, which was divided into seven portions, and had been
held by seven persons not living a conventual life, to the canons
professing a regular life and living in community.[728] Of the two
bodies into which the community of St. Andrews had been divided,
that one which had passed, with the exception of the bishop’s share,
into the hands of secular persons, thus came to be represented by
the priory of regular canons. In 1220 we find a bull by Pope
Honorius III. requiring the legate of the apostolic see to inquire into a
dispute between the Prior and convent of St. Andrews on the one
hand, and the Bishop and those clerics of St. Andrews who are
commonly called Keledei on the other, in regard to their respective
possessions. The Keledean community at St. Andrews now appears
under the name of the Provost and Keledei of the Church of St.
Mary; and they are so designated in a document connected with the
controversy between the prior and convent of St. Andrews and the
provost of the church of St. Mary of St. Andrews and the Keledei
living there as canons and their vicars;[729] and in the same year
there is a bull by Pope Innocent the Fourth to the prior and canons,
who are now termed the Chapter of St. Andrews in Scotland of the
order of St. Augustine, which narrates that it had been ordained by
his predecessors that, on the decease of the Keledei, their place
should be filled up by canons-regular, and their prebends and
possessions made over for their use; but that, the prebend of Gilbert
the Keledeus having become vacant, the Keledei refused to give it up
or to allow a regular canon to be introduced in his place, contrary to
these statutes; and it directed the Keledei to be excommunicated if
they did not obey them. Master Richard Vermont, Keledeus, appears
on behalf of the Keledei, and resigns the prebend, which is made
over to the canons. Three years later we find in another bull ‘the
provost and chapter of the Caledei of the church of St. Mary in the
city of St. Andrews’ still claiming to participate in the election of the
bishop, and supported by the archdeacon. In a subsequent bull, two
years after, addressed to the prior and chapter of the cathedral
church of St. Andrews of the order of St. Augustine, on the narrative
that ‘two of the Keledei of the church of Saint Mary of Kilrimont, who
term themselves canons,’ had been allowed to take part in the
election of a previous bishop, it is decreed, with consent of the
Keledei, that this shall not operate to their prejudice.[730] In the year
1258 they are finally deprived of their parochial status as vicars of
the parish church of the Holy Trinity of St. Andrews.[731] It is evident
from these deeds that the Keledei asserted their claim to be
considered as canons, and did not submit without a struggle to be
deprived of the right of participating in the election of bishop, from
which they are finally excluded in the year 1273. We again find them
in a document in 1309, and the position which they had now come
to occupy is clearly defined. It is a decision given by Sir Thomas
Randulph, the guardian of Scotland north of the Firth of Forth, in a
controversy between the Keledei and the bishop regarding territorial
jurisdiction, in which he finds that ‘within the bounds of the district
termed the Boar’s Chase there are only three baronies, viz., the
barony of the bishop of St. Andrews, the barony of the prior of St.
Andrews, and the barony of the Keledei, and that these baronies
with their inhabitants are under the immediate jurisdiction of the
bishop of St. Andrews and of the church, and of no one else.’[732]
While, therefore, the priory of the canons-regular of St. Andrews
‘soon took its place as first in rank and wealth of the religious houses
of Scotland, and the prior, with the ring and mitre and symbols of
episcopacy, had rank and place in Parliament above abbots and all
other prelates of the regular clergy,’[733] the name of Keledei
gradually disappears, being mentioned for the last time in the year
1332, when the usual formula of their exclusion in the election of a
bishop is repeated; and instead of them we hear only of the
provostry of ‘the church of Saint Mary of the city of St. Andrews,’ of
‘the church of the blessed Mary of the Rock,’ and of the ‘provostry of
Kirkheugh,’ the society consisting of a provost and ten prebendaries.
[734]
Suppression of The Keledei of Lochleven fared no better than
Keledei of those of St. Andrews, and were extinguished in
Lochleven. much the same manner by being converted into
canons-regular, though the process was a shorter one. They were a
small community, and preserved, even as late as the reign of
Malcolm Canmore, their original character of an eremetical society.
They were the oldest Keledean establishment in Scotland, and thus
exhibited its earliest form. By an arrangement between them and
the bishop of St. Andrews, their establishment had been made over
to him prior to the year 961; and this enabled Bishop Robert, when
he established the priory of regular canons in St. Andrews, to convey
to the prior ‘the abbacy of the island of Lochleven, with all its
pertinents, in order that he might establish in it a body of canons-
regular. He conveys to him all the lands which had from time to time
been granted to the Keledei of Lochleven, with all their revenues,
and likewise the ecclesiastical vestments which belonged to the
Chelede, as well as the books which constituted their library.’[735] This
was followed by a charter by King David, in which he declared ‘that
he had given and granted to the canons of St. Andrews the island of
Lochleven, that they might establish canonical order there; and the
Keledei who shall be found there, if they consent to live as regulars,
shall be permitted to remain in society with and subject to the
others; but, should any of them be disposed to offer resistance, his
will and pleasure was that such should be expelled from the
island.’[736] A century later we find that the conversion of the
community of Keledei into a priory of canons-regular had been fully
accomplished, as in the year 1248 the prior and convent of canons-
regular of St. Andrews, on the narrative that ‘Kings David and
William of Scotland and Bishops Robert and Richard of St. Andrews
had given and confirmed to them the abbacy of Keledei in
Lochleven, and that it was desirable to improve the position of their
priory of Lochleven and of their brethren the canons-regular of the
order of St. Augustine instituted and dwelling there, make over to
the church of St. Servanus of Lochleven the property of the island of
St. Servanus situated on that lake;’[737] and we hear no more of the
Keledei of Lochleven.
Suppression of Another community of Keledei connected with
Keledei of the church of St. Andrews was treated much in
Monimusk. the same manner. Among the possessions of that
church beyond the great chain of the Mounth was Monimusk,
situated in the vale of the river Don. The popular tradition of its
foundation is that Malcolm Canmore, when proceeding on a military
expedition against the people of Moray, came to Monimusk, and,
finding that the barony of Monimusk belonged to the crown, he
vowed it to St. Andrew in order to procure him victory. This tradition
is so stated by Hector Boece, and if it rested upon no better
authority it could hardly be received as historical; but it is certain
that Malcolm Canmore did make an expedition against the race of
Moray in 1078, from which he returned victorious;[738] and in a
bounding charter said to have been transcribed from the Register of
St. Andrews, between the lands of Keig and Monimusk, there is
added that ‘these are the marches which King Malcolm gave to God
and the church of Saint Mary of Monimusk on account of the victory
granted to him.’[739] So far we may infer that it was not an ancient
Columban foundation; and it is certain that the bishop of St.
Andrews was termed the founder of the house, and that it, like the
church of Keledei at St. Andrews, was dedicated to St. Mary, and
contained a community of Keledei which probably emanated from
that church. Their possessions, too, included those northern
churches which were connected with the legend of St. Andrew, or
were dedicated to him, as Kindrochet in Mar, Alford and
Eglismenythok in Angus. The notices of these Keledei are all to be
found in the Register of the Priory of St. Andrews, which contains
various grants made to them. They first appear in the year 1170
simply as the ‘Keledei of Munimusc,’ when they receive a grant from
Roger, earl of Buchan; but their principal benefactor was Gilchrist,
earl of Mar, who flourished between the years 1199 and 1207. He
appears to have built them a convent, and enforced the canonical
rule upon the Keledei, who now call themselves canons; for we find
him granting the church of Loychel to God and St. Marie of
Munimusc and the Keledei serving there, and the bishop of Aberdeen
confirms this grant to the church of the blessed Mary of Munimusc
and the canons, who are called Keledei, serving God there; and
again the bishop confirms the grant which Gilchrist, earl of Mar, had
made to this monastery which he had founded at Munimusc in the
church of St. Mary in which the Keledei previously were. In another
confirmation by the same bishop, as well as in one by the bishop of
St. Andrews, they are termed simply the canons of Munimusc.[740] So
far then the Keledei seem to have been recognised and favoured,
but the storm soon after broke upon them. In 1211 a complaint was
laid before the pope by William, bishop of St. Andrews, that ‘certain
Keledei who professed to be canons, and certain others of the
diocese of Aberdeen in the town of Munimusc, which pertained to
him, were endeavouring to establish a regular canonry, contrary to
justice, to the prejudice of his church;’ whereupon a commission was
issued to the abbots of Melrose and Dryburgh and the archdeacon of
Glasgow to inquire into the matter, which resulted in a convention
between the bishop of St. Andrews and the Keledei of Munimusc to
the following effect:—‘That the Keledei in future should have one
refectory and one dormitory in common, and one oratory without a
cemetery; and that the bodies of the Keledei and of clerks or laymen
who might die when with them should receive the rights of sepulture
at the parish church of Munimusc; further, there were there twelve
Keledei and a thirteenth, Bricius, whom the Keledei were to present
to the bishop of St. Andrews for confirmation, in order that he
should be their master, or prior; that on his retirement or death the
Keledei were to choose three of their society, from among whom the
bishop was to select the one he considered best suited to become
their prior, or master, and who was to do fealty to him as the
founder of the house of the Keledei;’ that the election of the prior, or
master, of the Keledei should be so conducted in future, with this
addition, that it should not be lawful for them at any future time to
profess the life or order of monks or canons-regular without the
bishop’s consent, or to exceed the number; that, when a Keledeus
died or withdrew, those who remained were at liberty to fill up the
vacant place; but that such Keledeus was, upon his admission, to
swear before the bishop or his deputy that he would observe the
terms of this composition. The Keledei were to retain the lands
called Eglismenythok, which they had received from Robert, bishop
of St. Andrews, and other dues commonly belonging to Keledei.
They promised to do nothing to the prejudice of the church of St.
Andrews or the parish church of Munimusc; and when the bishop of
St. Andrews came to Munimusc, the Keledei were to receive him
with a solemn procession.[741] They were thus brought under the
more direct control of the bishop of St. Andrews, who is there called
the founder of their house, and assimilated to the state into which
the Keledei of St. Andrews had been brought. Like them, they
consisted of a prior, or head, with twelve members. Like them, they
were excluded from all parochial functions. As their position gave
them no claim to be considered as a capitular body, it was
unnecessary to exclude them from participation in the election of a
bishop; and the same provision seems to have been made, though
in a more correct manner, for gradually superseding them by regular
canons and inhibiting them as each Keledeus died. In a charter
granted a few years after by Duncan, earl of Mar, of the church of
Loychel and other possessions, they are termed Keledei or canons;
but in the confirmation by Alexander the Second the former term is
dropped, and they are called simply canons; and in 1245 the Keledei
of Munimusk have entirely disappeared, and instead we have, in a
confirmation by Pope Innocent IV., ‘the prior and convent of
Munimusc, of the order of Saint Augustine.’[742]
Monastic orders Another feature of the policy by which the
of Church of kings of this race endeavoured to assimilate the
Rome introduced. native church to that of Rome, was that of
introducing the monastic orders of that church, and establishing
monasteries which should form centres of influence for the spread of
the new system. Upon these monasteries the remains of the old
Columban foundations were to a large extent conferred, and in this
policy the monarchs were very generally seconded by the great earls
and barons of Scotland. King David, soon after his accession,
remodelled the church at Dunfermline which had been founded by
Queen Margaret, and placed in it Benedictine monks, consisting of
an abbot and twelve brethren, brought from Canterbury;[743] and he
introduced the same monks into the district of Moray, by founding at
Urquhart, not far from its eastern boundary, a priory of Benedictines
which became a cell of Dunfermline.[744] Towards the end of his
reign, and after the great district of Moray had been brought under
subjection to the Crown, he founded at Kinloss, somewhat farther
west, and not far from the mouth of the Findhorn, a monastery, in
which he placed Cistertians brought from Melrose.[745] In the
following reign another colony of the same monks was brought from
Melrose by Malcolm IV., and placed at Cupar-Angus, in the diocese of
St. Andrews, where he founded a monastery in the year 1164.[746] In
the reign of his successor another order of Benedictines—those of
Tyron—who had been established by King David at Kelso, was
introduced into the diocese of St. Andrews. Their principal house
was that of Aberbrothock, or Arbroath, founded by King William the
Lion in 1173, and dedicated to St. Mary and St. Thomas the Martyr.
The same year his brother David, earl of Huntingdon, founded a
monastery at Lindores in Fife, for the same order, and in the
following year the earl of Buchan, founded at Fyvie, in the diocese of
Aberdeen, a priory which was affiliated to Arbroath, and belonged to
the same order.[747]
Columban During the reign of King William the
abbacies, or possessions of their principal monastery at
Abthens, in Arbroath increased with great rapidity, and
possession of lay
abbots. estates in land, churches and tithes were heaped
upon the new foundation by the earls and barons
of Angus and the north. These included many of the old Columban
foundations; and, if the Book of Deer throws much light upon the
state of Buchan, both as regards the position of its Columban
monasteries and the social organisation of its old Celtic population,
the Chartulary of Arbroath is in this respect the most important
record we have, and we derive from it much insight into the state
and characteristics of the old territorial system south of the great
range of the Mounth. Among the churches granted by King William,
we find in Angus the church of St. Mary of Old Munros, with its land,
called ‘in the Scottish speech Abthen,’ or, as it is afterwards termed,
‘the land of the abbacy of Munros,’ with other churches there; in Mar,
the churches of Banchory St. Ternan and Coul; in Buchan, Fyvie,
Tarves and Gameryn; and in Banff, the churches of St. Marnan of
Abirchirdir, Inverbondin, or Boindie, dedicated to St. Brandan, and
Banff; and the king likewise grants to them the lands of Forglen, the
church of which was dedicated to St. Adamnan, with the custody of
the Brecbennach, or banner of St. Columba. Margery, countess of
Buchan, grants to them the church of Turfred, or Turriff, dedicated to
St. Comgan, which, as we have seen, had preserved its Celtic
character as late as the reign of David I. The grants by the earls of
Angus give us, however, the most interesting information; and in one
of these we come upon an incidental mention of the Culdees.
Gilchrist, earl of Angus, grants to the monks of Arbroath ‘the church
of Monifod, with its chapels, lands, tithes and oblations, and with the
common pasturage and other privileges belonging to it,’ which grant
is confirmed by King William.[748] Malcolm, earl of Angus, grants
about the year 1220 the land of the Abthein of Munifeth to Nicholas
son of Bricius, priest of Kerimure; and this grant is confirmed by his
daughter, Countess Matilda, whose charter is witnessed by William,
vicar of Monifeit. Another charter by the same countess is witnessed
by William vicar of Monifodh, and Nicholas abbot of Monifodh.
Countess Matilda then grants to the monks of Arbroath ‘the land on
the south side of the church of Monifodh, which the Keledei held in
the life of her father, with a croft at the east end of the church;’ and
finally Michael, lord of the Abbathania of Monifoth, holds this croft in
feu-farm from the monks of Arbroath.[749] Here we see an old
Abthen, or abbacy, granted to the son of a priest, who then calls
himself abbot, while the church is served by a vicar; and a late
descendant appears, as in other cases, with the simple designation
of ‘de Monifoth,’ and calls himself lord of the Abbathania, or territory
of the abbacy. The ancient monastery had therefore now passed into
the hands of a hereditary lay abbot, but we also find part of the land
held by a body of Keledei, who are only once mentioned, and then
pass away for ever. The dedications throw some light on this. The
church of Monifieth, situated on the north shore of the Firth of Tay,
was dedicated to St. Regulus, or St. Rule; but within the parish was
the chapel of Eglismonichty, dedicated to St. Andrew. The
dedications, therefore, reflect the two legends of the foundation of
St. Andrews—the older Columban foundation under St. Regulus, and
the later Pictish one, when the relics of St. Andrew were really
introduced. The lay abbacy represents the former. The Keledean
establishment belongs to the later foundation. We find, too, John
Abbe, son of Malise, granting to the monks the privilege of taking
charcoal in the wood of Edale, which is confirmed by Morgund, son
of John Abbe. The church of Edale, now Edzell, was dedicated to St.
Drostan, the founder of the church of Deer; and here, too, we find
one of the old Columban foundations in the possession of a lay
family, who seem even to have adopted Abbe as a surname.
Establishment of Among other churches granted to the monks of
bishoprics of Arbroath by King William was ‘the church of
Dunblane and Abyrnythy, with its chapels, lands, tithes and
Brechin.
oblations, its common pasturage, and all other
privileges belonging to it;’[750] but this church belonged to the
diocese of Dunblane, one of the latest bishoprics founded by King
David I. Towards the end of his reign he appears to have added two
bishoprics to those already founded by him. These were the
bishoprics of Dunblane and Brechin. They are mentioned as already
existing, in a bull by Pope Adrian addressed to the bishops of
Glasgow, Whithern, St. Andrews, Dunblane, Dunkeld, Brechin,
Aberdeen, Moray, Ross and Caithness, ten in number, in the second
year after King David’s death, in which he directs them to submit to
the archbishop of York,[751] a command which was not obeyed except
by the bishop of Candida Casa, or Whithern. The struggle for the
independence of the Scottish Church was, however, terminated in
the year 1188, when the pope, Clement III., in a bull addressed to
King William the Lion in that year, recognised the independence of
the Scottish Church, and declared ‘the Church of Scotland to be the
daughter of Rome by special grace, and immediately subject to
her.’[752] In this bull the church is said to contain the following
episcopal sees—viz., St. Andrews, Glasgow, Dunkeld, Dunblane,
Brechin, Aberdeen, Moray, Ross and Caithness, that is, nine of the
bishoprics mentioned in the previous bull—that of Candida Casa, or
Whithern, remaining subject to the archbishop of York; and these
nine bishoprics are obviously the episcopal sees referred to by Ailred

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4 Introducing Newton's Second Law 47

The third type of question is end-of-chapter problems. Like traditional home­

Newton's Third Law. A force is one side of an interaction between two

internationally standard metric system (the SI system), is measured in newtons.

1.1 Using the Third Law

What's the third-law counterpart force of the gravitational force?

1.2 Classifying Forces

Why go through all this effort to classify forces?

1.2.1 The Four Interactions in Nature

2. Electromagnetic interaction. This interaction acts only between charged

4. Weak nuclear interaction. This interaction acts between protons, neutrons,

If a force is neither gravitational nor electromagnetic, it doesn't exist.

Imagine a passenger sitting in a car or train wagon going around a turn. Is

1.2.2 Active versus Passive Forces

1.2.3 Long-Range versus Short-Range Forces

1.3 Important Forces

Understanding that forces belong to interactions (Section 1. 1) is important, as

1.3.1 Gravitational Forces

_kg::: 1-- m'3... s-2 x ,kg x kg

r = l.5 x 1011 m (1 AU)

1.3.2 Spring Forces

When the change in length of a spring is small, whether a physical spring or an

i}lli.t}�llfig Hong Kong Public Libraries

x (new, shorter length)

In compression, x - x0 is negative, so the force component from (1.19),

1. Gravitational force. A ping-pong ball has a mass m of approximately 10

A component of a vector is the vector's projection in a given direction: "The

Of particular relevance to drag and thrust, we can also speak of an x (or a y

1.3.4 Dynamic Friction

1.3.5 Static Friction

However, this adjustment happens only within limits, as indicated by the :S

1.4 Force Magnitudes

<-8 10-30 earth-electron on surface (gravitational)

where C is the abbreviation for the charge unit of the coulomb.

1.5 Forces to Avoid

1.5.1 Centrifugal Force

"Centrifugal" is a Latin compound meaning "away from the center." Thus, a

1.5.2 Centripetal Force

2.1 Making Freebody Diagrams: A Foolproof Recipe

How to Make a Correct Freebody Diagram Every Time

As a notational simplification, you can omit the "on person" or "on

2b. Represent these interactions by drawing long-range forces. As with the

The third type of question is end-of-chapter problems. Like traditional home