HEAT AND MASS TRANSFER

LAB
Lab Report # 2

Fourier’s Law for Linear

Conduction of Heat

Aero-21 A

S. No. Name Reg. No.

1 Shahmeer Ali Hassan 220101051

2 Muhammad Umair 220101018
3 Syeda Rumesa Ali 220101053

DEPARTMENT OF AERONAUTICS AND ASTRONAUTICS

Table of Contents
Safety Instructions ............................................................................................................... 3
Clo and Plo’s ....................................................................................................................... 4
Introduction ........................................................................................................................ 5
Objective ............................................................................................................................ 5
Apparatus ........................................................................................................................... 5
Procedure............................................................................................................................ 7
Observations and Calculations ............................................................................................... 7
Graphs: ............................................................................................................................... 9
Conclusion: ....................................................................................................................... 10
Safety Instructions

1. Make sure to read all fire alarms and safety signs and follow the instructions in the
event of an accident or emergency.

2. Be aware of the facility's/building's evacuation procedures.

3. Make sure to know where the lab's safety equipment, including first aid kit and fire
extinguisher are located and how to properly use them.

4. Know emergency phone numbers for help in case of an emergency.

5. Do not touch electrical equipment during the operation with wet hands.

6. Do not touch high temperature equipment during operation as it may cause serious
burns.

7. Do not chew gum, drink, or eat while working in the lab.

8. Never use lab equipment that you are not approved of or trained by your supervisor to
operate.

9. Do not wear loose clothing.

10. If an instrument or piece of equipment fails during use, or isn't operating properly,
report the issue to a lab engineer/technician right away. Never try to repair an
equipment problem on your own.

11. Report all injuries, accidents, and broken equipment or glass right away, even if the
incident seems small or unimportant.

12. In case of an injury, yell out immediately to get quick help.

13. Do not leave the experiments unattended while in progress.

14. Do not crowd around the equipment's & run Inside the laboratory.
Clo and Plo’s
PLO’S:

PLO 1: Demonstrate a strong understanding of fundamental engineering principles, including

thermodynamics and heat transfer.

PLO 2: Conduct experiments and analyze data effectively

PLO 3: Apply theoretical knowledge to real-world engineering problems, particularly in

thermal analysis

CLO’S:

CLO 1: Explain the principles of heat transfer, specifically Fourier's Law, and its relevance to
linear conduction.

CLO 2: Design and conduct experiments to measure temperature profiles along a conductive
medium

CLO 3: Analyze and interpret experimental data to assess compliance with theoretical
predictions of heat conduction.
Introduction

Fourier's law of heat conduction is a fundamental principle that describes the rate at which
heat energy is transferred through a material. The law states that the heat flux is proportional
to the negative gradient of temperature, establishing a foundational understanding of
conductive heat transfer in various engineering applications. This experiment focuses on
analysing heat transfer in a linear and radial conduction setup using two different modules to
explore how material properties, geometry, and temperature gradients influence thermal
conduction.
The differential form of Fourier’s Law is given as:
𝑑𝑇
Q=-kA𝑑𝑥

where,
Q = Rate of heat conduction (W)
k = thermal conductivity (W/m.K)
A = area of the surface perpendicular to heat flow (m2)
dT = change in temperature (K)
dx = change in length (m)
Objective
• To validate Fourier’s law by measuring the heat transfer rate through a homogeneous
bar.
• To calculate the thermal conductivity of the homogeneous bar material.
• To examine the effect of temperature gradients on heat conduction along the length of
the bar.
Apparatus
Linear/Radial Heat Conduction Unit with two different modules, Hydraulic Bench and Power
Supply.
1. Linear Conduction Unit
• Heating Section – Provides a controlled heat input at one end of the bar.
• Homogeneous Conducting Bar – Often made of a material with known thermal
properties, such as aluminium or copper.
• Thermocouples – Sensors placed at regular intervals along the bar to measure
temperature at different points.
• Insulation – Surrounds the bar to minimize heat losses to the surroundings.
• Cooling System or Heat Sink – Maintains the opposite end of the bar at a lower
temperature, creating a temperature gradient.
Material: Brass
Diameter: 25mm
 Figure 1 Schematic diagram of apparatus

2. Hydraulic Bench

• Temperature Regulation: The hydraulic bench supplies a controlled flow of water that
can be heated or cooled, which is then circulated through or around the conduction
unit. By adjusting water flow rates and temperatures, the bench allows users to
maintain consistent thermal conditions for more accurate measurements.
• Heat Transfer Enhancement: Water, with its high specific heat capacity, absorbs or
dissipates heat effectively. In a conduction unit, it provides an efficient medium to
conduct heat away from hot surfaces or deliver heat to cold surfaces.
• Water Drainage: It also has a drainage system which collects and recycles water after
it passes through the heat sink.

3. Control Panel

• Temperature Control Knob/Buttons: Allows the user to set and adjust the
temperature of the heat source or the cold side of the unit.
• Digital Temperature Display: Shows real-time temperatures of the heat source,
cold sink, and intermediate points along the conduction path.
• Thermocouple Indicators: Displays readings from multiple thermocouples placed
along the conductive material to monitor temperature gradients.
• Flow Rate Control: Adjusts the flow rate of coolant (if a water-based cooling
system is present), which influences heat dissipation.
• Power Control Switch: Controls power supply to the heater or other active heat
sources, allowing the user to adjust or turn off heating as needed.
• Cooling System Control: If the unit uses forced convection or a cold-water supply,
this control adjusts the coolant or airflow for temperature management.
• Heat Input Display: Shows the amount of heat energy being supplied, often in
watts, which is critical for calculating heat transfer rates.
Procedure

• Ensure the main switch is in the off position initially. Insert a brass conductor (25
mm diameter) section into the intermediate section of the linear module, then
secure it with clamps.
• Activate the water supply, ensuring water flows continuously from the free end of
the water pipe to the drainpipe. Periodically check that water is flowing properly.
• Set the heater power control knob on the panel to the fully counterclockwise
position and connect the sensor leads.
• Switch on the main power supply, and the digital displays should light up.
• Adjust the heater power control to 20 watts and wait until the system reaches a
steady-state condition before recording the temperature at all nine sensor points,
along with the power input from the wattmeter (Q). Repeat this process with input
power levels down to 10 watts, allowing sufficient time after each adjustment to
reach steady-state conditions.

Observations and Calculations

The Power of the heater is given from the DC Power Supply from where Voltage and Current
values are obtained and the value for Power is obtained:

Figure 2 observations

Formula for power calculations

P = IV

Table 1 input voltage and current

Current (A) Voltage (V) Power (W)

1.23 9.1 11.2
2.35 16.3 38.3
2.73 19.0 51.9
 Table 2 temperature readings from the sensors

Heater T1 T2 T3 T4 T5 T6 T7 T8 T9
Power (˚C) (˚C) (˚C) (˚C) (˚C) (˚C) (˚C) (˚C) (˚C)
(W)
11.2 60.0 59.5 58.8 37.0 34.9 32.5 35.1 34.6 33.0
38.3 60.1 59.5 58.7 37.3 34.6 32.5 35.4 34.6 33.3
51.9 61.5 60.6 59.6 37.6 34.9 32.8 35.5 34.9 33.6

The distance between the thermocouples = 10mm

Calculations for Fourier’s Law
𝑑𝑇
Q = -kA𝑑𝑥

Kbrass = 150 W/m.K

dbrass = 0.025m
𝑑2 0.0252
Abrass = π 4 = π = 0.000491m2
4

L = 0.08m
𝑄𝐿
k = -𝐴∆𝑇

Q (W) Abrass (m2) ∆T (T9 – L (m) kbrass

T1) (K) (W/mK)
11.2 0.000491 -27 0.08 67.6
38.3 0.000491 -26.8 0.08 232.8
51.9 0.000491 -27.9 0.08 303.1

Error calculations:
67.6+232.8+303.1
Kaverage = = 201.66 W/m.K
3

Ktheoretical = 150 W/m.K

201.66−150
Error = = 0.344 = 34.4%
150

This discrepancy may arise from factors such as heat loss to the surroundings,
measurement inaccuracies, or slight temperature variations across thermocouple points.
Additionally, non-ideal insulation or steady-state inconsistencies could contribute to this
error. Calculating these variations helps in identifying the precision of our measurements
and the potential impact of experimental conditions on the observed results.
Graphs:

P=11.2W
P=11.2W

70
60
50
40
DT

30
20
10
0 DX
0 20 40 60 80 100

P=38.3W
P=38.3W

70
60
50
40
DT

30
20
10
0
0 20 40 60 80 100
DX

P=51.9W
P=51.9W

70
60
50
40
DT

30
20
10
0
0 20 40 60 80 100
DX
Conclusion:
This experiment successfully demonstrated the application of Fourier’s Law for heat
conduction, verifying its theoretical foundations through practical measurements. By
setting up a controlled temperature gradient along a brass conductor and observing the
resulting heat transfer, we quantified the rate of heat conduction and calculated the
thermal conductivity of brass. The results showed a substantial increase in the observed
thermal conductivity as the input power increased. However, the calculated average
thermal conductivity value of 201.66 W/m·K exhibited a 34.4% deviation from the
theoretical value of 150 W/m·K, likely due to experimental errors or unaccounted heat
losses.
The findings underline the significance of material properties, temperature gradients, and
geometric factors in influencing thermal conduction. Despite discrepancies with
theoretical predictions, this experiment provided valuable insights into the principles of
heat transfer and underscored the importance of accurate control and measurement in
thermal analysis. The exercise highlighted the practical challenges in thermal
experiments, reinforcing the need for precise calibration, insulation, and steady-state
conditions to minimize errors and enhance the reliability of experimental results.