COMPUTER NETWORK AND SECURITY Types of Networks

● Local Area Network (LAN)

Computer network ○ Limited to a small geographic
● It is a collection of interconnected area, such as a single
computers and other devices that building or a campus.
are capable of sharing resources ○ It allows computers and
and information. devices to share resources
● Its purpose is to enable and information locally.
communication and collaboration ● Wide Area Network (WAN)
between different devices, allowing ○ A WAN covers a larger
them to share data, applications and geographical area, often
resources. connecting multiple LANs
across cities, countries, or
Network Components even continents.
● Nodes ○ The internet is an example of
○ The individual devices a global WAN.
connected to the network ● Metropolitan Area Network (MAN)
○ Includes computers, servers, ○ A MAN falls between a LAN
routers, switches, printers, and a WAN in terms of size,
and other devices. covering a larger area than a
● Links single building but smaller
○ Links refer to the than a city.
communication pathways ○ Designed to provide network
that connect nodes in a connectivity within a
network. metropolitan area.
○ These can be wired
(Ethernet cables) or wireless Internetworks
(Wi-Fi). ● An internetwork is a networked
● Topology collection of LANs tied together by
○ The physical or logical devices such as routers.
arrangement of nodes and
links in a network. Specialized Networks
○ E.g. star, bus, ring, mesh and ● Storage Area Network (SAN)
hybrid configurations. ○ Uses high-speed networking
● Protocols technologies to provide
○ Set of rules and conventions servers with fast access to
that govern communication large amounts of disk
between devices on a storage.
network. ● Wireless Personal Area Network
○ e.g. TCP/IP (Transmission (WPAN)
Control Protocol/ Internet ○ Short-range networking
Protocol). technology designed to
connect personal devices to
exchange information.
 ○ Devices include cell phones, practical choice and
pagers, personal digital technology has moved past
assistants (PDAs), global this obsolete method of
positioning system (GPS) connecting computers.
devices, MP3 players, and
even watches. How data travels in a Physical Bus
- Electrical pulses (signals) travel the
Network Topologies cables’ length in all directions.
- A network topology describes how a - Signal continues until it weakens or
network is physically laid out and is absorbed by a terminator.
how signals travel from one device - A terminator is an electrical
to another. component called a resistor
- Since the physical layout of the that absorbs the signal
devices and cables doesn’t describe instead of allowing it to
how a signal travels from one device bounce back up the wire.
to another, they are broken down - Signal travel across the medium and
into physical and logical topologies. from device to device is called signal
propagation.
● Bus Topology - If not terminated, the signal bounces
○ The simplest and once was or is reflected at the end of the
the most common method for medium.
connecting computers. - Signal bounce is the term
○ Defined as a continuous used when electricity
length of cable connecting bounces off the end of a
one computer to another in cable and back in the other
daisy-chain fashion. direction.
○ Limit of 30 computers per
cable segment Bus Topology Advantages and
○ Maximum total length of Disadvantages
cabling is 185 meters
○ Both ends of the bus must be Advantages:
terminated ● Easy to connect a computer or
○ Any break in the bus brings peripheral device.
down the entire network ● Requires less cable length than star
○ Adding or removing a topology.
machine brings down the Disadvantages:
entire network temporarily ● Entire network shuts down if there is
○ Technologies using this a break in the main cable.
topology are limited to 10 ● Terminators are required at both
Mbps half-duplex ends of the backbone cable.
communication since they ● Difficult to identify the problem if the
use coaxial cabling. entire network shuts down.
○ Due to the limitations, this
topology is no longer a
● Star Topology switches or hubs forming
○ Uses a central device (hub or additional stars.
switch) to connect ○ Sometimes referred to as
computers. “hierarchical star”.
○ As long as cabling and NICs
support it, a star network can Star Topology Advantages and
be easily updated by simply Disadvantages
replacing the central device.
○ When the number of Advantages:
workstations you need ● Easy to install and manage
exceeds the number of ports ● No disruptions to the network when
on a central device, you connecting and removing devices.
simply add another central ● Easy to detect faults and to remove
device. parts
Advantages: ● Offer opportunities for expansion
- Much faster Disadvantages:
technologies than bus ● Requires more cable length
- Centralized ● If the hub, switch fails, nodes
monitoring and attached are disabled
management of ● More expensive because of the cost
network traffic is of the hub
possible.
- Easier network ● Ring Topology
upgrades. ○ A physical ring topology is
like a bus
● Extended Star ■ Devices are
○ When several hubs or daisy-chained one to
switches must be connected, another
usually one device is used as ■ But instead of
the central connection point, terminating each end,
forming an extended star the cabling is brought
topology. around from the last
○ Most widely used in networks device back to the
containing more than just a first device to form a
few computers. ring.
○ A central device (usually a ○ Most widely used to connect
switch) sits in the middle and LANs with a technology
instead of attached called Fiber Distributed Data
computers, other switches or Interface (FDDI).
hubs are connected to the ○ FDDI was most often used
central switch’s ports. as a network backbone,
○ Computers and peripherals which is cabling used to
are then attached to these communicate between LANs
 or between hubs and Disadvantages:
switches. ● Failure of one computer can affect
○ Data travels in one direction the ring network.
○ If any station in the ring fails, ● Network is highly dependent on the
data can no longer be wire which connects different
passed along. components.
○ Fiber Distributed Data ● Each packet of data must pass
Interface (FDDI) uses a dual through all the computers between
ring. source and destination, slower than
■ Data travels in both star topology.
directions–One ring
failure doesn’t break ● Mesh Topology
the network. ○ Connects each device to
■ Operates using fiber every other device in a
optic cable at network
100Mbps. ○ Multiple point-to-point
■ Extended star connections for the purposes
topologies with of redundancy and fault
Gigabit Ethernet have tolerance.
largely replaced ○ Purpose of creating a mesh
FDDI. topology is to ensure that if
○ Computers are connected on one or more connections fail,
a single circle of cable. there’s another path for
■ Each node is reaching all devices on the
connected to the two network.
nearest nodes so the ○ Expensive due to multiple
entire network forms interfaces and cabling.
a circle. ○ Found in large WANs and
■ One method for internetworks.
passing data on ring ○ Each of the network nodes,
networks is token computer and other devices
passing. are interconnected with one
another.
Ring Topology Advantages and ○ Every node not only sends its
Disadvantages own signals but also relays
data from other nodes.
Advantages: ○ Mesh topology is the one
● All computers have equal access to where every node is
the whole network. connected to every other
● Even with many users, network node in the network.
performance is better than bus ○ This type of topology is very
topology. expensive as there are many
● Allows error checking and redundant connections, thus
acknowledgement.
 it is not mostly used in ● A hybrid topology is always
computer networks. produced when two different basic
○ It is commonly used in wide network topologies are connected.
area networks (WAN). ● Two common examples for Hybrid
○ The number of links with N networks are:
nodes is calculated as ○ Star Ring Network
N*(N-1)/2. ○ Star Bus Network

Mesh Topology Advantages and Star Ring Network

Disadvantages ● Consists of two or more star
topologies connected using a
Advantages: Multistation Access Unit (MAU) as a
● Data can be transmitted from centralized hub.
different devices simultaneously. ● The hubs in a star ring are
● Can withstand high traffic. connected in a star pattern by the
● Even if one of the components fails main hub.
there is always an alternative
present so data transfer doesn’t get Star Bus Network
affected. ● Consists of two or more star
● Expansion and modification in topologies connected using a bus
topology can be done without trunk (the bus trunk serves as the
disrupting other nodes. network’s backbone).
● If one computer goes down, it will
Disadvantages: not affect the rest of the network.
● There are high chances of The other computers can continue to
redundancy in many of the network communicate.
connections. ● If a hub goes down, all computers on
● Overall cost of this network is way that hub are unable to communicate.
too high as compared to other ● If a hub is linked to other hubs, those
network topologies. connections will be broken as well.
● Set-up and maintenance of this
topology is very difficult. Even TOPIC 2 NETWORK DEVICES AND
administration of the network is MEDIA
tough.
Criteria for Choosing Network Media
Hybrid Topologies
● These topologies use a combination ● Ease of Installation
of any two or more topologies in ○ The difficulty of installing the
such a way that the resulting media–Factors to consider:
network does not exhibit one of the ■ Media’s minimum
standard topologies (e.g. bus, star, bend radius, which
ring, etc.). limits the angle at
which a cable can be
 bent to run around supported by the network
corners. device.
■ Cost and time needed ● Interference and Eavesdropping
to terminate the Susceptibility
medium. ○ Interference to electrical
■ Physical environment signals on copper media
– types of walls and comes in the form of
ceilings, EMI or RFI. electromagnetic interference
● Testability (EMI) and radio frequency
○ A network that “works” might interference (RFI).
be crippled by excessive ○ Motors, Transformers,
errors. fluorescent lights, and other
○ It is important to certify sources of intense electrical
whether the cable meets activity can emit both EMI
requirements for its category. and RFI.
● Total cost ○ RFI can also affect wireless
○ Includes cabling, connectors, networks if the frequencies
termination panels, wall are in the same range.
jacks, termination tools, ○ Another interference found in
testing equipment and time. copper wires is called
● Cable grade crosstalk, which is
○ Building and fire codes interference one wire
include specific cabling generates on another wire
requirements. when both wires are in a
○ Cables run between a false bundle.
ceiling and the true ceiling ○ Copper wire is susceptible to
(plenum) must be electronic eavesdropping.
plenum-rated. ○ Fiber-optic media carries
○ UTP cabling is marked as light signals and is not
communication cable riser susceptible to interference or
(CMR) or communication eavesdropping.
cable plenum (CMP) ● Bandwidth Rating
○ CMR can only be used for ○ Number of bits per second
building risers or in cable that can be transmitted
trays. across a medium.
○ CMP is suitable for use in ○ A factor determining
plenum spaces. bandwidth is how bit signals
● Connection Hardware are represented on the
○ Every type of cable has medium (called encoding).
connectors that influence the ○ When possible, choose a
kinds of hardware the cable cabling category that’s
can connect to. compatible with the standard
○ You must make sure the you want to implement now
media you select can be but will support the next level
 of speed your network is tend to function mainly as
likely to need in the future. clients.
● Maximum Segment Length
○ Maximum length of cable Server/Domain-Based Model
between two network ● A domain is a collection of users and
devices. computers whose accounts are
○ Each cable type can managed by Windows servers called
transport data only so far domain controllers.
before its signals begin to ● Users and computers in the domain
weaken beyond what can be are subject to network access and
read by a receiving device security policies defined by a
(called attenuation). network administrator.
○ The software that manages
Wired Networking this security is referred to as
● Uses tangible physical media called a directory service.
cables ○ On Windows servers, the
● Two broad categories of cables: directory service software is
○ Copper wire Active Directory.
○ Fiber optic ● Server-based networks provide
● The main difference between the centralized control over network
two types are: resources.
○ Composition of signals ● Users log on to the network with a
(electricity or light) single set of credentials maintained
○ Speed at which signals can by one or more servers running a
be sent. server OS.
○ Distance the signals can ● In most cases, servers are dedicated
effectively travel. to running network services and
Network Models should not be used to run user
● A network model defines how and applications.
where resources are shared and ● Easier to expand than peer-to-peer
how access to these resources is ○ Peer-to-peer should be
regulated. Types: limited to 10 or fewer users,
● Peer-to-Peer network but server-based networks
○ Most computers function as can handle up to thousands
clients or servers (no of users.
centralized control over who ● Multiple servers can be configured to
has access to network work together, which can be used to
resources). run a more efficient network or can
● Server-based network provide fault tolerance.
○ Certain computers take on ● Peer-to-peer and server-based
specialized roles and networks both have advantages so
function mainly as servers, using a combination of the two
and ordinary users’ machines models isn’t uncommon.
Peer-to-Peer Workgroup Model Strengths and weaknesses
● Computers on a peer-to-peer
network can take both a client and a
server role.
● Any user can share resources on
his/her computer with any other
user’s computer.
● Every user must act as the
administrator of his/her computer.
○ Can give everyone else
unlimited access to their
resources or grant restricted TOPIC 3 EWAN
access to other users.
○ Usernames and passwords Router
(credentials) are used to ● If two hosts from different networks
control that access. want to communicate, they will need
a router in order to exchange data.
● Problems with Peer-to-Peer ● A router is a network device that
networks: routes packets from one network to
○ Must remember multiple sets another.
of credentials to access ● It is usually connected to two or
resources spread out on more different networks.
several computers. ● An OSI layer 3 device, since its
○ Desktop PCs and the OSs forwarding decision is based on the
installed on them aren’t information of the OSI Layer 3– the
made to provide network destination IP address.
services as efficiently as ● Routers divide broadcast domains,
dedicated network servers. provide full duplex communication,
○ Data organization: If every and have traffic filtering capabilities.
machine can be a server,
how can users keep track of Network Switch
what information is stored on ● A switch with two servers allowing
which machine? simultaneous access to each server.
● Peer-to-Peer networks are well ● A switch is sometimes described as
suited for small organizations that a multiport bridge.
have small networks and small ● Switches use the addressing
operating budgets. information to build forwarding tables
to determine the destination of data
being sent by one computer to
another computer on the network.
● Switches are considered layer 2
devices, using MAC addresses to
forward frames to their proper
destination.
 ● Each port on a switch is a separate Network Hubs
collision domain and can run in a full ● A hub serves as a central point to
duplex mode. which all of the hosts in a network
connect to.
Network Bridge ● It is an OSI Layer 1 device and has
● A device that divides a network into no concept of Ethernet frames or
segments. addressing – it simply receives the
● It connects two LANs that use same signal from one port and sends it out
network, such as two CSMA/CD to all other ports.
LANs ● Hubs are also known as multiport
● A bridge connects networks and repeaters because that is basically
forwards frames from one network to what they do – repeat the electrical
another. signal that comes in one port out of
● A bridge works at the Data Link layer all other ports (except the incoming
(Layer 2) of the OSI model. port).
● Each incoming Ethernet frame is
inspected for the destination host is
on another segment of the network, Network Repeaters
it forwards the frame to that ● Early networks didn’t use
segment. interconnecting devices.
● Network bridges offered substantial ● Severely limited the total cable
improvements over network hubs, length and number of computers.
but are not widely used anymore in ● Some problems were resolved with
modern LANs – switches are a device called a repeater — A
commonly used instead because of repeater receives bit signals
the following reasons: generated by NICs and other
○ Most bridges have only 2 or devices strengthens them, and then
4 ports. A switch can have “repeats” them to other parts of the
tens or even hundreds of network.
ports. ● A repeater enables you to connect
○ Bridges are software based, computers whose distance from one
while switches are another would make communication
hardware-based and use impossible.
chips (ASICs) when making ● A traditional repeater has two ports
forwarding decisions, which or connections that you can use to
makes them much faster extend your network.
than bridges. ● A repeater extends the length of a
○ Switches can have multiple network.
spanning-tree instances,
bridges can have only one. Network Interface Cards (NIC)
○ Switches can have multiple ● NIC provides the physical interface
broadcast domains (one per between computer and cabling.
VLAN). ● NIC is used to connect the host
device to the network medium.
 ● It prepares data, sends data, and ● Entrance Facility
controls the flow of data. It can also ○ The location of the cabling
receive and translate data into bytes and equipment that connects
for the CPU to understand. a corporate network to a
● It has a specific MAC address (48 third-party
bit). telecommunications provider.
● NIC are considered Layer 2 devices. ○ Can also serve as an
● Ethernet is a physical and data link equipment room and the
layer technology for local area main cross-connect for all
networks (LANs). backbone cabling.
Fiber-Optic Cable ○ Where a connection to a
● Optical fibers transmit data in the WAN is made.
form of light signals. The cables ○ Demarcation point: point
have strands of glass surrounded by where corporate LAN
a cladding material. equipment ends and a
● This type of cable can support grater third-party provider’s
cable lengths than any other cabling equipment and cabling
type (up to a couple of miles). begins.
● The cables are also immune to
electromagnetic interference.

Types of Fiber-Optic cable

Single-mode fiber (SMF)

● Uses only a single ray of light to
carry data.
● Used for larger distances.
Multi-mode fiber (MMF)
● Uses multiple rays of light to carry ● Horizontal Wiring
data. ○ Runs from the work area’s
● Less Expensive than SMF wall jack to the
telecommunication closet
Structured Cabling and is usually terminated at a
● Specifies how cabling should be patch panel.
organized, regardless of the media ○ Horizontal wiring from the
type or network architecture. wall jack to the patch panel
● Large networks typically use most or should be no longer than 90
all of these components: meters to allow for up to 10
○ Work Area meters for patch cables.
○ Horizontal wiring ● Telecommunications Closet
○ Telecommunication closets ○ TC provides connectivity to
○ Equipment rooms computer equipment in the
○ Backbone or vertical wiring nearby work area.
○ Entrance facilities
 ○ Typical equipment includes closet (where the switches
patch panels to terminate and hubs are).
horizontal wiring runs, hubs,
and switches.
○ In smaller installations,
network servers can be
housed in the TC.
● Work Area
○ Where workstations and ● RJ-45 Connectors
other user devices are
located.
○ Faceplates and wall jacks
are installed in the work area.
○ Patch cables connect
computers and printers to
wall jacks. ● RJ-45 Jacks

Twisted-Pair Cable Plant Components

● Distribution racks
○ Hold network equipment
such as routers and
● Patch Cable
switches, plus patch panels
and rack-mounted servers
(also called 19” racks
because the upright rails are
19” apart).

Shielded Twisted Pair

● Includes shielding to reduce
crosstalk and interference.
● Has a wire braid inside the sheath
material or a foil wrap.
● Best to use in electrically noisy
environments or very
high-bandwidth applications.

● Patch Panels
○ Used to terminate long runs
of cable from where the
computers are to the wiring
Straight Through, Crossover, and Rollover cable
Rollover Cables Usage:
● Primarily used to connect a
Crossover cables computer to a router’s console port
Usage: for configuration.
● Connects similar devices directly Wiring Configuration:
(e.g., computer to computer or ● The order of the wires is reversed
switch to switch). from one end to the other. Pin 1 of
Wiring Configuration: one end is connected to Pin 8 of the
● The Tx (Transmit) and Rx (Receive) other end, Pin 2 to Pin 7, and so on.
pins are crossed between Physical Appearance:
connectors on either end. Typically, ● Often has a light blue color to
the green and orange pairs are distinguish it from other cables.
swapped.
Common Scenario:
● Useful for direct device-to-device
network testing or setup without
intermediary equipment.

Straight-through cable
Usage:
● Connects different types of devices
(e.g., computer to switch or router)
Wiring Configuration:
● Both ends of the cable have the
same wiring order.
Common Scenario:
● Used to connect a computer’s NIC
(Network Interface Card) to a
switch’s port.