Computer science, XI Ch#3: Central Processing Unit

Chapter#3
Central Processing Unit (CPU)
The Central Processing Unit (CPU) is the integral part of any computer system, often referred to as the
brain of the computer. Like the human brain, it manages all operations and is connected to all
components of the computer. The CPU executes instructions, controls data storage, and manages
input/output activities for various devices.

1. Basic Components of CPU:

The CPU consists of several essential components:

1.1 Arithmetic and Logic Unit (ALU): The Arithmetic and Logic Unit (ALU) is the
main processing unit of the CPU. The Arithmetic and Logic Unit (ALU) is a critical component of the CPU
responsible for performing essential calculations and logical operations.
Arithmetic operations:It performs arithmetic operations such as addition, subtraction,
multiplication, and division.`

Logic Operations: Also performs logical operations which are

 Comparisons: Evaluating relationships between values (e.g., greater than, less than, equal to).
 Logical Operations: Performing operations such as AND, OR, NOT on binary data.
Data Processing: The ALU processes input data, executes operations, and returns results to be
stored in registers, which serve as temporary storage locations within the CPU.

Modern ALU Design: Many modern CPUs incorporate multiple ALUs to enhance processing
efficiency, enabling simultaneous calculations and improving overall performance.

1.2 Control Unit (CU):The Control Unit (CU) manages the operations of the CPU and
coordinates the functions of various components.

Functions of the Control Unit

Instruction Fetching: Retrieves program instructions from memory for processing.

Instruction Decoding:Interprets the fetched instructions to understand the required operations.

Execution Coordination:Directs the Arithmetic and Logic Unit (ALU) and other units to perform
the specified tasks.

1
Computer science, XI Ch#3: Central Processing Unit

Flow of Instructions and Data: The CU regulates the movement of instructions and data within
the CPU, ensuring efficient processing.

Timing and Control Signals:Generates necessary timing and control signals to synchronize
operations and maintain orderly execution.

1.3 Registers:Registers are small, highspeed storage locations within the CPU that temporarily
hold data and instructions. Each register is designed for special purpose.
Measurement:Registers are measured by the size of bits they can hold e.g 16bits,32 or 64 bits
registers.
Classification:Processor contains different kinds of registers and is classified according to their
content pr instructions.
Importance of Registers:Registers play a critical role in the CPU’s performance by:

 Reducing the time needed to access data.

 Minimizing the frequency of slower memory accesses.
 Supporting efficient execution of instructions.

1.4 Cache Memory:

Cache memory is a small, high speed type of volatile memory that stores frequently accessed data and
instructions. It improves processor efficiency by providing quick access to commonly used information.
Cache memory is typically divided into different levels:
Level 1 (L1) Cache: Located inside the processor, it provides the fastest access. Directly accessible by
the CPU for the quickest data retrieval.
Level 2 (L2) Cache: Positioned outside the microprocessor, it is slower than L1 but faster than main
memory.
Level 3 (L3) Cache: Found on the motherboard, offering additional storage for data. Shared among
multiple cores of the CPU.

1.5 Internal Buses:Multiple bits simultaneously) or in Internal buses are subsystems that
transfer data between computer components. They connect all components to the motherboard,
facilitating communication between the CPU, memory, and other devices
Functions of Internal Buses
 Data Transfer: Enable the movement of data between the CPU, memory, and other devices.
 Component Connectivity: Connect all components to the motherboard for integrated
functionality.
Modes of Operation
Parallel Operation
 Allows multiple bits to be transferred simultaneously, increasing data transfer rates.
Serial Operation

2
Computer science, XI Ch#3: Central Processing Unit

 Transfers one bit at a time, which can simplify the design but may reduce speed compared to
parallel buses.

Importance of Internal Buses

 Efficiency: Enhance communication speeds between components, contributing to overall
system performance.
 Coordination: Ensure synchronized operation of the CPU, memory, and peripherals.

2 Registers:Registers are small, high speed storage locations within the CPU that temporarily
hold data and instructions.Theseare group of latches that a single memory word. Each register is
designed for special purpose. They are crucial for efficient processing and play a significant role in the
execution of instructions.
Characteristics of Registers:
 Speed: Registers are much faster than RAM, allowing the CPU to access data quickly.
 Size: Typically range from 32 to 64 bits in modern CPUs.
 Functionality: Used to store operands, results of calculations, and control information.

Types of Registers
General Purpose Registers
These registers are versatile and used in various arithmetic and data movement operations. They are
used to save data as well as their addresses. These are 8-64bits registers.

The AX, BX, CX, and DX registers are key general-purpose registers.

AX Register (Accumulator Register):

 Function: Primarily used for arithmetic operations, input/output operations, and as the default
register for many instructions.AX can hold a 16-bit value, with its lower 8 bits referred to as AL
(low byte) and the upper 8 bits as AH (high byte).
 Usage: Often used to store results of arithmetic operations or data that is frequently accessed.It
is included in a CPU and act as a temporary storage location.The results of an operation are
written to Accumulator ,overwriting the previous values,

BX Register (Base Register):

Function: It can perform Arithmetic and data movement and it has some special addressing abilities.
Serves as a pointer to data in memory, especially useful for addressing modes that require base

3
Computer science, XI Ch#3: Central Processing Unit

addresses. The BX register also has two sub-registers: BL (the lower 8 bits) and BH (the upper 8 bits),
enabling operations on individual bytes.

 Usage: Frequently used in data manipulation and memory addressing.

Counter register(CX):

A counter register is a special type of register in a computer's CPU that keeps track of how many times a
certain operation has occurred, often used in loops or repetitive tasks. . When the operation is
performed, the count decreases until it reaches zero, signaling that the loop should stop. This helps
manage control flow in programs efficiently.

Usage
 Counts how many times a loop should run, decreasing with each iteration.
 Tells the program how many characters to copy or process in string operations.
 Tracks the number of times something happens, like counting items.
 Counts down time for delays or triggers events.

 Keeps track of specific events, such as button presses

Data Register(DX)
It has a special role in multiply and divide operations. It works as a buffer and holds anything
that is copied from memory ready for the processor to use it.

Special Purpose Registers:

These registers hold the state of a program. They include program counter, instruction register. memory
address register and memory buffer registers. These are used by control unit to control the operations
of CPU and by the operating system programs to control the execution of the programs. Following are
the special purpose registers;
1. Instruction register(IR): is a part of control unit, which stores the instructions currently being
executed. Each instruction to be executed is loaded into the instruction register.

current instruction register (CIR):It is also known as current instruction register (CIR) because it holds
the current instruction being executed.

Memory Address Register (MAR): Memory Address Register holds the memory address, the
memory address from which data will be provided to the CPU or will have the address to which data will
be sent and then stored.

parallel load register:MAR is a parallel load register containing the next memory address to be
manipulated.

4
Computer science, XI Ch#3: Central Processing Unit

For example: The next address to be read or written. It basically holds the memory location of data
that needs to be accessed. When reading from memory, the data addressed by MAR is fed into the MDR
(Memory Data Register) and then is used by the CPU. When writing to memory, the CPU writes data
from Data Register to the memory location whose address is stored in MAR. So, in both reading and
writing, it is holding the address of the memory location where the data is to be read or stored.

Memory Buffer Register (MBR):The Memory Buffer Register actually holds the contents of the
memory which are to be moved from memory to other components or from components to the other
memory. In order to store a word, it must be transferred to the MBR and then from here it will go to the
specific memory location. It must be allow the processor and memory units to act independently.

Program Counter (PC):Program Counter is also known as Instruction counter. It is a register in a

computer processor that contains the address (location) of the instruction being executed at the current
time. As each instruction gets fetched, the program counter increases in stored value by 1 After each
instruction is fetched, the program counter points to the next instruction in the sequence.

2.5 Internal Buses Types

Buses can be classified into:
Parallel Buses: Allow simultaneous data transfer across multiple wires.
Serial Buses: Transfer data one bit at a time, which can be more efficient for long distances.

System Bus and CPU Operations

1. Introduction to System Bus:
Definition:
“A system bus is a communication pathway over which information is transferred ,a byte or
a word at a time.”
It connects the central processing unit (CPU) to the main memory on the motherboard.
Composition: It consists of cables and connectors that transport data, control signals, and addresses
between major components of a computer system.
Types:The system bus typically consists of three types of buses: Data Bus, Address Bus, and Control
Bus.

1.1 Types of System Buses

(a) Data Bus:Data bus is the bidirectional bus. It can communicate in two ways, but in one
direction at a time. It handles the transfer of data and instructions. The data bus is used to transfer
instructions and data from memory to the CPU for execution and vice versa. It is also used to transfer
data between memory and 1/O devices during input output operations.

5
Computer science, XI Ch#3: Central Processing Unit

Size: A typical data bus is 32-bits wide. This means that up to 32-bits of data can travel through a data
bus every unit of time. New computers have 64-bit data buses and even more.

(b) Address Bus:

Address bus carries addresses not data. An address is defined as a label, symbol, or other set of
characters lused to designate a location or register where information is stored. Before data or
instructions can be written into or read from memory by the CPU or I/O sections, an address must be
transmitted to memory over the address bus. The number of lines on the bus determines the number of
addressable memory elements.
For example: an 8-bit bus can represent 2' i.e., 256 unique addresses. A 16-bit bus can address uted.
Ea 65536 unique addresses.

(c) Control Bus:The control bus is used by the CPU to direct and monitor the actions of other
functional areas of computer. It is used to transmit a variety of individual signals (read, write, interrupt,
acknowledge) necessary to control and coordinate the operations of the computer.
Size:The size of control bus is from 8 to 16 bits
CPU Operations
The fundamental operation of a CPU is executing programs represented by a series of instructions
stored in memory.
Program: The CPU follows a cycle to fetch, decode, and execute these instructions. There are four
steps that CPUs use in their operation, these stored instructions called a program. The program is
represented by a series of fetch, decode, execute and store.

2.1 Instruction and their Types

An instruction (or instruction code) is a group of bits that tells the computer to perform a specific
operations. Instruction is an elementary operation that the processor can accomplish. Instructions are
stored in the main memory, waiting to be processed by the processor.
Fields:An instruction has two fields:
Operation code:which represents the action that the processor will execute
Operand: which defines the parameters of the action. The operand code depends on the operation can
be data or a memory address.
Types of instructions:
Data transfer Instruction:These instructions are used when the data needs to be moved from
memory location to register. These instructions transfer data from one location in the computer to a
another location without changing the content. The most common transfers are between:
registers and memory registers and I/O registers to registers.
Examples of some common data transfer instructions are MOVE, LOAD and STORE.

6
Computer science, XI Ch#3: Central Processing Unit

MOVE (MOV): instruction transfers data from a memory location to a register, register to memory
and register to register. This is also used to obtain the data to perform a computation on it later, or to
store the result of a computation.

Example: MOVA, B (Move the contents of register A to B)

LOAD (LD): instruction loads particular register contents from memory.

Example: LDA (Load the data to register A from memory)

STORE (STO) instruction stores information from register to memory location.

(b) Data Processing Instructions:These instructions are related to the arithmetic and logic
operations. The arithmetic or logic operations are performed on the values of two registers and the
result is also placed in a register.
Types:
Data manipulation instructions can be divided into three basic types:
arithmetic, logical and shift instructions.
1. Arithmetic Instructions:The four basic operations are ADD, SUB, MUL and DIV. An arithmetic
instruction may operate on fixed- point data, binary or decimal data .The other possible operations
include a variety of instructions .
Example: ABSOLUTE,NEGATE,INCREMENT,DECREMENT.

ii. Logical Instructions:AND, OR, NOT, XOR operate on binary data stored in registers. iii. Shift
Instructions
Shift Instructions: is used for transfer of bits either to the left or to the right of an operand.
Program Control Instructions:These instructions specify conditions for altering the sequence of
program execution or in other words the content of PC (program counter) register. Program control or
transfer of control is a way of altering the order in which statements are executed. There are a number
of instructions used like JMP (Jump) and
LOOP.
The JMP instruction jumps to begin the execution at another location.
The LOOP instruction is used when number of statements are to be repeated.

Instruction Format
An instruction format defines the layout of an instruction. An instruction format must include an Op-
code (Operation-Code) and zero or more Operands. The Op-code will always be present.

1.Op-Code 2. Operand

7
Computer science, XI Ch#3: Central Processing Unit

Different instruction formats are used. A few of them are explained below.

a) Zero Address instruction:Zero Address instruction format requires only Op-Code, having no
operand to work with. Example: of the Zero Address instruction format is HALT, STOP, which do not
have any address.

b) One-Address Instruction:One Address instruction format requires one Op-Code and one
operand. Example: of the one address instruction format is LDA (Load Accumulator), JMP (Jump) etc.
These instructions require one address to do the operation. Like JMP requires one address in order to
jump to that specific address location.

(c) Two-Address Instruction:Two Address instruction format requires one Op-Code and two
operands. Example:of such instruction format is the MOV (Move), which moves data from the
memory location to the register and vice versa.

4. Instruction Cycle
The instruction cycle is the process by which a computer retrieves, decodes, and executes instructions
from memory. It typically consists of several stages, often summarized as:

Fetch
Instruction

Execute Decode
Instruction Instruction

1. Fetch: The CPU retrieves an instruction from memory, using the program counter (PC) to
determine the address of the next instruction.

2. Decode: The fetched instruction is interpreted by the CPU to understand what actions are
required. This often involves determining the operation code (opcode) and the operands .

3. Execute: The CPU performs the operation specified by the instruction, which may involve
arithmetic calculations, logic operations, or data transfer.

4. Store: If the instruction produces a result that needs to be saved, this stage writes the result
back to memory or a register.

8
Computer science, XI Ch#3: Central Processing Unit

CISC and RISC Architecture

CPUs can be categorized based on their instruction set architectures (ISAs), which define the set of
instructions the CPU can execute. Here are some common types of CPU architectures based on their
instruction sets:
1. RISC (Reduced Instruction Set Computer) 2. RISC (Reduced Instruction Set Computing)

1. RISC (Reduced Instruction Set Computer

The instructions which the processor could execute were built into the chip. In common CISC chips are
relatively slow per instruction. CISC have a large amount of different and complex instructions. CISC
architecture was a bit complex because of the instructions used at the hardware level. The more
complex the instruction set, the greater the overhead of decoding an instruction. CISC emphasizes on
hardware. Examples of CISC processors are the Motorola 680x0 families and Intel x86, AMD, VAX, and
the System/360.

Advantage:
The advantage of CISC processor is that the compiler requires little effort to translate high-level
programs or statement languages into assembly or machine language in CISC processors. The
disadvantage is that CISC chips are slower than RISC chips to execute per cycle instruction of each
program.

Characteristics:
Following are the main characteristics of the CISC processor:
1. The length of the code is short, so it requires very little RAM.
2. CISC or complex instructions may take longer than a single clock cycle to execute the code
3. Less instruction is needed to write an application.
4. It provides easier programming in assembly language.
5. Support for complex data structure and easy compilation of high-level languages.
6. It is composed of fewer registers and more addressing nodes, typically 5 to 20.
7. Instructions can be larger than a single word.
8. It emphasizes the building of instruction on hardware because it is faster to create than the software.

(b) RISC (Reduced Instruction Set Computer)

RISC is a microprocessor architecture that is designed to perform a smaller number of instructions. The
simplicity of RISC allows more freedom to choose how to use the space on a microprocessor. It is built to
minimize the instruction execution time by optimizing and limiting the number of instructions. It means
each instruction cycle requires only one clock cycle, and each cycle contains three parameters: fetch,
decode and execute. The RISC processor is also used to perform various complex instructions by
combining them into simpler ones. RISC chips require several transistors, making it cheaper to design
and reduce the execution time for instruction. RISC architecture was developed around mid 1980 as a
reaction to the CISC chips. It is designed to perform smaller number of instructions in order to operate
on a higher speed.

9
Computer science, XI Ch#3: Central Processing Unit

Larger set of instructions make the microprocessor more complicated and slower in operation.
Operating System and application programmers will find it easier to work with smaller instruction set.
One of the drawbacks of the RISC is that it puts a lot of burden on software due to its smaller size of
instruction set.
RISC emphasizes on software. Examples of RISC processor are IBM PowerPC, Sun SPARC, Microchip PIC
processors, RISC-V.Features of RISC Processor.

Characteristics:
Following are the main characteristics of the RISC processor:
1. One cycle execution time: For executing each instruction in a computer, the RISC processors require
one CPI (Clock per cycle).
2. Pipelining technique: The pipelining technique is used in the RISC processors to execute multiple
parts or stages of instructions to perform more efficiently.
3. A large number of registers: RISC processors are optimized with multiple registers that can be used to
store instruction and quickly respond to the computer andminimize interaction with computer memory.
4. It supports a simple addressing mode and fixed length of instruction for executing the pipeline.
5. It uses LOAD and STORE instruction to access thememory location.
6. Simple and limited instruction reduces the execution time of a process in a RISC.

Intel and AMD Processor: are the two major players in the CPU market, each offering a
range of processors for different needs Intel and AMD (Advanced Micro Devices) are the primary
manufacturers of processors. They make processors for desktop computers, laptops, notebooks and
mobile devices. Each type of processor has different functionality, but similarities do exist among various
types Both Intel and AMD make processors for a variety of systems. Intel makes the Core, Pentium and
Celeron families of processors, matched by the Phenom, Athlon and Sempron processors from AMD..
Here’s a brief overview of both:

Intel Processors
1. Architecture: Intel’s current architecture, known as "Alder Lake" and "Raptor Lake," combines
performance and efficiency cores for better multitasking and energy efficiency.

2. Performance: Generally, Intel processors have been known for strong single-core performance,
making them excellent for gaming and applications that rely heavily on single-threaded
performance.

3. Integrated Graphics: Most Intel CPUs come with integrated graphics, which can be a good
option for users who don’t need a dedicated GPU.

4. Platforms: Intel has several chipsets, with the most recent being the Z690 and Z790 for high-end
desktops. Their compatibility can vary, so it's essential to check motherboard support.

10
Computer science, XI Ch#3: Central Processing Unit

5. Price: Typically, Intel CPUs are priced at a premium, especially their high-end offerings.

AMD Processors
1. Architecture: AMD’s latest architecture, "Zen 3" and "Zen 4," offers strong multi-core
performance, making them ideal for tasks like content creation, video editing, and gaming.

2. Performance: AMD processors have gained ground in single-core performance and often lead in
multi-core scenarios due to higher core and thread counts in many models.

3. Integrated Graphics: AMD's Ryzen series also features models with integrated graphics (APUs),
providing a good balance for budget builds without a dedicated GPU.

4. Platforms: AMD's AM4 socket has supported multiple generations of Ryzen processors, making
upgrades easier for users. The new AM5 platform introduces support for next-gen features like
DDR5 RAM.

5. Price: AMD often provides better value for performance, especially in mid-range and budget
segments.

Choosing Between Them

 Gaming: Intel often has a slight edge in gaming due to higher clock speeds, but AMD offers
strong performance as well, especially in budget builds.
 Content Creation: AMD tends to perform better in multi-threaded tasks, making it a popular
choice for creators.
 Budget: AMD generally offers better performance for the price in the mid-range segment, while
Intel might be preferred for higher-end gaming rigs.

Difference between Intel P4 and AMD Athlon

Intel P4:The Pentium 4 brand refers to Intel's line of CPUs introduced in November 20,
2000. The first Pentium 4 processor cores were capable of speeds from 1.3 to 2 GHz. Pentium
technology was succeeded by Intel's core technology e.g., Core i3, Core i5, Core i7, Core i9 etc.

AMD Athlon:Athlon is the brand name applied to a series of x86-compatible

microprocessors designed and manufacturedby AMD. Typical speed for these processors ranges
from 1333 MHz to 2.33 GHz and their bus speed lies in between 100 and 200 MHz. The original
Athlon processors were 32 bit and the later Athlon64 are 64 bit processors. Latest AMD
processor include Ryzen3, Ryzen5, Ryzen7 and Ryzen threadripper.

11
Computer science, XI Ch#3: Central Processing Unit

MCQS:
1. What is the primary function of the data bus in a computer system?
a) Carrying addresses to memory
b) Carrying control signals
c) Transferring data and instructions between memory, CPU, and I/O devices
d) Managing program execution flow

2. What does an address bus carry?

a) Data and instructions
b) Control signals
c) Memory addresses
d) Register values

3. The number of lines in the address bus determines:

a) The amount of data that can be transferred
b) The number of addressable memory elements
c) The clock speed of the CPU
d) The number of instructions executed

4. Which of the following is used by the CPU to monitor and control other functional areas of the
computer?
a) Data bus
b) Address bus
c) Control bus
d) Power bus

5. In which step of the CPU operation does the processor fetch an instruction from memory?
a) Decode
b) Execute
c) Fetch
d) Store

6. What is the purpose of the operand in an instruction?

a) It defines the action to be executed
b) It specifies the CPU’s internal register
c) It defines the parameters or location for the action
d) It indicates the memory address of the instruction

7. Which instruction type is used to move data from one memory location to another?
a) Data Processing Instruction
b) Data Transfer Instruction
c) Program Control Instruction
d) Logical Instruction

8. Which of the following is an example of a data transfer instruction?

a) ADD
b) MOV

12
Computer science, XI Ch#3: Central Processing Unit

c) AND
d) JMP

9. What does the MOV instruction do?

a) Performs arithmetic operations
b) Loads data into a register
c) Moves data between memory locations or registers
d) Changes the program flow

10. Which type of instruction performs logical operations on binary data?

a) Data Transfer Instruction
b) Arithmetic Instruction
c) Logical Instruction
d) Shift Instruction

11. The shift instruction is used to:

a) Perform arithmetic operations
b) Move data between memory and registers
c) Perform bitwise operations
d) Shift bits in a register either left or right

12. Which of the following is an example of a program control instruction?

a) MOV
b) LDA
c) JMP
d) ADD

13. The instruction format that includes both an Op-code and a single operand is known as:
a) Zero Address Instruction
b) One-Address Instruction
c) Two-Address Instruction
d) Three-Address Instruction

14. In a two-address instruction format, the instruction typically:

a) Includes only the Op-code
b) Includes two operands
c) Moves data between registers only
d) Does not require an operand

15. What is the purpose of the instruction cycle in a CPU?

a) To transfer data between memory and the CPU
b) To fetch, decode, and execute instructions from memory
c) To store data into memory
d) To manage the clock cycle of the CPU

16. Which stage of the instruction cycle retrieves an instruction from memory?
a) Decode
b) Fetch

13
Computer science, XI Ch#3: Central Processing Unit

c) Execute
d) Store

17. Which CPU architecture emphasizes on having a smaller number of instructions to simplify the
execution process?
a) CISC
b) RISC
c) Harvard
d) VLIW

18. In which of the following architectures are instructions typically more complex and can take multiple
clock cycles to execute?
a) RISC
b) CISC
c) SIMD
d) VLIW

19. Which of the following is NOT a characteristic of CISC architecture?

a) Short code length
b) More addressing modes
c) Single clock cycle execution
d) Complex instructions

20. Which of the following is true for RISC processors?

a) They have more complex instructions
b) Each instruction takes more than one clock cycle
c) They use pipelining to execute instructions more efficiently
d) They rely heavily on complex software for performance

21. The major difference between Intel and AMD processors in terms of multi-core performance is that:
a) Intel generally leads in multi-core performance
b) AMD generally has better multi-core performance due to higher core/thread count
c) Intel processors are typically better for content creation
d) AMD processors are slower in multi-core tasks

22. Which of the following processors is more likely to be integrated into budget builds with integrated
graphics?
a) Intel Core i7
b) Intel Pentium
c) AMD Ryzen APUs
d) Intel Xeon

23. Intel’s architecture that combines performance and efficiency cores for better multitasking is known
as:
a) Zen 4
b) Alder Lake
c) PowerPC
d) ARM Cortex

14
Computer science, XI Ch#3: Central Processing Unit

24. What is one of the advantages of RISC processors?

a) They require more complex instruction sets
b) They are optimized for high single-core performance
c) They provide faster execution with simpler instructions
d) They support a wide variety of data types

25. In the comparison between Intel Pentium 4 and AMD Athlon, which is true?
a) AMD Athlon processors typically run at higher clock speeds than Intel Pentium 4
b) Intel Pentium 4 uses a 64-bit architecture
c) AMD Athlon processors support faster memory speeds than Pentium 4
d) Intel Pentium 4 was released later than AMD Athlo n processors

15