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Introducing philosophy a text with integrated readings
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Author(s): Robert C. Solomon
ISBN(s): 9780199764860, 0199764867
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UNIVERSITY
ou oe
INCFOAUCING
PNATOSODNy
IS IEES aT Welle UN SIE Ge Ag ED SRabe
ee NGS
Tenth Edition
Robert C. Solomon
University of Texas at Austin
Kathleen M. Higgins
University of Texas at Austin
Clancy Martin
University of Missouri-Kansas City
New York Oxford

OXFORD UNIVERSITY PRESS
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Solomon, Robert C.
Introducing philosophy : a text with integrated readings / Robert C. Solomon, Kathleen M. Higgins,
Clancy Martin. — 10th ed.
p. cm.
ISBN 978-0-19-976486-0 (alk. paper)
1. Philosophy—Introductions. I. Higgins, Kathleen Marie. I. Martin, Clancy W. III. Title.
BD21.S629 2012
100—dc23 2011031839
ISBN 978-0-19-976486-0
De 7 ©
Printed in the United States of America

on acid-free paper
For our parents
Vita P. Solomon (1916-2005) and Charles M. Solomon (1914-1986)
Kathryn A. Higgins (1925-2003) and Eugene A. Higgins
Anna Victoria Moody and John William Martin (1941-1997)
Digitized by the Internet Archive
In 2022 with funding from
Kahle/Austin Foundation
httos://archive.org/details/introducingphilo0000solo_u0u7
Contents
In Briel
Philosopher Biographies xv
Preface xvii
History of Philosophy xxiii
INTRODUCTION 1
Part One |The World and Beyond 41

1| RELIGION 43
2|REALITY 105
3|KNOWLEDGE 181
Part Two |Know Thyself 283

4|SELF 285
5|MIND AND BODY 332
6| FREEDOM 381
Part Three |The Good andthe Right 445

7|ETHICS 447
8| JUSTICE 543
Glossary 599
Index 621
a :
olate.
fed P eatue ad — |
7 -
CORMENTS
Philosopher Biographies xv
Preface xvii
History of Philosophy xxiii
INTRODUCTION 1
A. Socrates 1
Aristophanes, from The Clouds 2
Plato, fromthe Apology 2
Plato, from the Crito 4
Plato, fromthe Phaedo 8
Plato, from the Republic 10
B. What Is Philosophy? 10
Plato, fromthe Apology 13
Karl Jaspers, from “The ‘Axial Period’'” 14
Laozi, from Dao De Jing 15
C. A Modern Approach to Philosophy 16

René Descartes, from Discourse on Method 21
D. A Brief Introduction to Logic 23
Key Terms 40
Bibliography and Further Reading 40
Part One |The World and Beyond 41

CHAPTER1|RELIGION 43
A. What Is Religion? 43
John Wisdom, from “Gods” 44
Albert Einstein, On the Design of the Universe 46
Keiji Nishitani, from “What Is Religion?” 47
B. The Western Religions 49
C. Proving God: The Ontological Argument 52

St. Anselm, On the Ontological Argument 52
René Descartes, On the Ontological Argument 55
Immanuel Kant, Against the Ontological Argument 58
Vill | CONTENTS
D. God as Creator: Intelligence and Design 60

St. Thomas Aquinas, On the Cosmological Argument 60
William Paley, “The Watch and the Watchmaker" 63
St. Thomas Aquinas, On the “Fifth Way” 66
David Hume, from Dialogues on Natural Religion 67
E. Religion, Morality, and Evil 69

Immanuel Kant, On God and Morality 70
William James, from “The Will to Believe” 72
St. Augustine, from Confessions 76
From the Bhagavadgita 83
F. Beyond Reason: Faith and Irrationality 85

Mohammad al-Ghazali, from The Deliverance from Error 87
Sgren Kierkegaard, On Subjective Truth 89
Paul Tillich, On the Ultimate Concern 92
G. Doubts about Religion 94

Fyodor Dostoyevsky, from The Brothers Karamazov 95
Karl Marx, from Critique of Hegel's Philosophy of Right 98
Friedrich Nietzsche, from Beyond Good and Evil 99
Friedrich Nietzsche, from The Antichrist 99
Friedrich Nietzsche, from The Gay Science 100
Sigmund Freud, from The Future of an Illusion 101
Summary and Conclusion 102

Chapter Review Questions 103
Key Terms 103
CHAPTER 2| REALITY 105
A. “The Way the World Really Is” 105

Aristotle, from Metaphysics 106
B. The First Greek Philosophers 107

Parmenides, from Fragments 115
C. Ultimate Reality in the East: India, Persia, and China 117

From Upanishads 118
From Zend-Avesta 120
From the Confucian Analects 122
Buddha, from "Fire-Sermon" 125
D. Two Kinds of Metaphysics: Plate and Aristotle 126

Plato, from the Symposium 128
Plato, from the Meno 133
Aristotle, from Physics 141
E. Modern Metaphysics 147

René Descartes, On Substance 149
CONTENTS
| IX
René Descartes, from “Meditation VI" 151

John Locke, from An Essay Concerning Human Understanding 152
Benedictus de Spinoza, from Ethics 158
Gottfried Wilhelm von Leibniz, from Monadology 167
Martin Heidegger, from “The Fundamental Questions of Metaphysics” 176

Key Terms 179
CHAPTER
3 | KNOWLEDGE 181
Bertrand Russell, from The Problems of Philosophy 182

Plato, from Theatetus 185
A. The Rationalist’s Confidence: Descartes 186

René Descartes, from “Meditation |" 187
René Descartes, from ‘Meditation II" 191
B. Innate ideas Concerning Human Understanding: John Locke 197

Gottfried Wilhelm von Leibniz, from New Essays on Human Understanding 199
C. Two Empiricist Theories of Knowledge 201

Bishop George Berkeley, from Treatise Concerning the Principles
of Human Knowledge 209
D. The Congenial Skeptic: David Hume 216

David Hume, from A Treatise of Human Nature 217
David Hume, from An Enquiry Concerning Human Understanding 221
E. Kant’s Revolution 230

Immanuel Kant, from The Critique of Pure Reason 233
Immanuel Kant, from Prolegomena to Any Future Metaphysics 233
F. The Battle in Europe After Kant: Relativism and Absolutism 237

G. W. F. Hegel, from The Phenomenology of Spirit 240
G. W. F. Hegel, from Reason in History 244
Arthur Schopenhauer, from The World as Will and Representation 247
Friedrich Nietzsche, On Truth 249
G. Phenomenology 251
Edmund Husserl, from “Philosophy as Rigorous Science" 251
Edmund Husserl, from the 1929 Paris Lectures 252
H. Hermeneutics and Pragmatism: Relativism Reconsidered 253

Richard Rorty, from “Solidarity or Objectivity?” 255
Isamu Nagami, from “Cultural Gaps: Why Do We Misunderstand?" 259
i. The Analytic Turn 264

Bertrand Russell, from The Problems of Philosophy 265
W. V. O. Quine, from “Epistemology Naturalized" 269
X | CONTENTS
J. Feminist Epistemology 272

Elizabeth Grosz, On Feminist Knowledge 273
Uma Narayan, On Feminist Epistemology 275

Key Terms 280
Part Two | Know Thyself 283

CHAPTER 4|SELF 285
A. Consciousness and the Self: From Descartes to Kant 287

John Locke, On Personal Identity 289
David Hume, On “There Is No Self” 293
Immanuel Kant, Against the Soul 298
Meredith Michaels, On “Personal Identity” 300
B. Existentialism: Self-identity and the Responsibility of Choice 303

Jean-Paul Sartre, On Existentialism 304
Jean-Paul Sartre, On Bad Faith 306
Jean-Paul Sartre, from No Exit 308
C. The Individual and the Community 310

S@ren Kierkegaard, On “The Public” 311
Sgren Kierkegaard, On Self and Passion 312
Martin Heidegger, On “Dasein” and the “They” 312
David Reisman, On Individualism 314
Malcolm X, On Being “African” 314
Malcolm X, from “At the Audubon" 314
Sherry Ortner, from “Is Female to Male as Nature Is to Culture?” 316
Ann Ferguson, On Androgyny 319
D. One Self? Any Self? Questioning the Concept of Personal “Essence” 320
Hermann Hesse, from Steppenwolf 321
Luce Irigaray, from This Sex Which Is Not One 322
Genevieve Lloyd, from “The Man of Reason” 324
From The Dhammapada_ 328

Key Terms 331
CHAPTER 5| MIND AND BODY 332
A. What Is Consciousness? 332

René Descartes, from “Meditation III" 336
CONTENTS | X!
B. The Problem of Dualism 337

René Descartes, from “The Passions of the Soul” 338
C. The Rejection of Dualism 341

Gilbert Ryle, from The Concept of Mind 342
J. J.C. Smart, from “Sensations and Brain Processes" 349
Jerome Shaffer, Against the Identity Theory 352
Paul M. Churchland, On Eliminative Materialism 355
David Braddon-Mitchell and Frank Jackson, from Philosophy of Mind
and Cognition 359
John R. Searle, from “The Myth of the Computer” 363
John R. Searle, from Minds, Brains, and Science 363
D. The Problem of Consciousness 365

Sigmund Freud, On the “Unconscious” 366
Thomas Nagel, from Mortal Questions 367
Colin McGinn, On “The Mystery of Consciousness” 369
Aristotle, from De Anima 372
Galen Strawson, On “Cognitive Experience” 374
William James, from “Does Consciousness Exist?” 377
Friedrich Nietzsche, On the “Genius of the Species” 378

Key Terms 380
CHAPTER 6|FREEDOM 381
A. Fatalism and Karma 381

Sophocles, from Oedipus the King 383
Keiji Nishitani, On Fate 385
B. Predestination 387
St. Augustine, from On Free Choice of the Will 387
Muhammad Iqbal, from The Reconstruction of Religious Thought in Islam 389
Jacqueline Trimier, On the Yoruba Ori 391
Jonathan Edwards, from “Freedom of the Will” 392
C. Determinism 395
Baron Paul Henri d’Holbach, from System of Nature 397
Daniel Dennett, from Elbow Room 399
Robert Kane, On Indeterminism 405
John Stuart Mill, On Causation and Necessity 408
David Hume, On Causation and Character 411
Robert Kane, On “Wiggle Room” 413
Harry Frankfurt, from “Freedom of the Will and the Concept of a Person’ A414
D. Compulsion and Ignorance 418

Aristotle, On Voluntary Action 419
Judith Orr, “Sex, Ignorance, and Freedom" 421
John Hospers, from “What Means This Freedom?" 423
B. F. Skinner, Beyond Freedom 426
XII | CONTENTS
B. F. Skinner, from Walden Two 429

Robert Kane, Beyond Skinner 430
Anthony Burgess, from A Clockwork Orange 431
Catherine MacKinnon, On Coercion of Women's Sexuality 432
E. Freedom in Practice: Kant’s Solution 434
F. Radical Freedom: Existentialism 436

Jean-Paul Sartre, On “Absolute Freedom" 437
Fyodor Dostoyevsky, from “The Most Advantageous Advantage” 440
Thich Nhat Hanh, from "Turning on the Television” 441

Key Terms 443
Part Three |The Good and the Right 445

CHAPTER 7|ETHICS 447
A. Morality 448
B. is Morality Relative? 450

Gilbert Harman, from “Moral Relativism Defended" 451
St. Thomas Aquinas, from the Summa Theologica 455
John Corvino, from Same Sex: Debating the Ethics, Science, and Culture
of Homosexuality 456
C. Egoism and Altruism 459

D. Are We Naturally Selfish? A Debate 462

Mencius, On Human Nature: Man ls Good 462
Xunzi, from “Human Nature Is Evil” 464
Joseph Butler, Against Egoism 467
E. Morality as Virtue: Aristotle 469

Aristotle, from The Nicomachean Ethics 470
F. Morality and Sentiment: Hume and Rousseau 482

David Hume, On “Reason as Slave of the Passions” 483
Jean-Jacques Rousseau, fromEmile 486
G. Morality and Practical Reason: Kant 489

Immanuel Kant, from Fundamental Principles of the Metaphysics of Morals 490
H. Utilitarianism S03
Jeremy Bentham, from An Introduction to the Principles of Morals
and Legislation 503
John Stuart Mill, from Utilitarianism 507
1. The Creation of Morality: Nietzsche and Existentialism 514

Friedrich Nietzsche, On “Morality as Herd-Instinct" 517
CONTENTS | XIll
Friedrich Nietzsche, On “Master and Slave Morality" 518

Jean-Paul Sartre, from Existentialism as aHumanism 521
J. Pragmatism in Ethics 526

John Dewey, from The Quest for Certainty 526
K. Ethics and Gender 534

Virginia Held, On Feminist Ethics 535

Key Terms 541
CHAPTER 8 | JUSTICE 543
A. The Problem of Justice 545
B. Two Ancient Theories of Justice: Plato and Aristotle 546

Aristotle, from The Nicomachean Ethics 548
C. Two Modern Theories of Justice: Hume and Mill on Utility and Rights 552
David Hume, On ‘Justice and Utility” 553
John Stuart Mill, from Utilitarianism 554
D. The Secial Contract 558

Thomas Hobbes, from Leviathan 559
Jean-Jacques Rousseau, from The Social Contract 565
Thomas Jefferson et al., from The Declaration of Independence 569
E. Fairness and Entitlement 570

John Rawls, from ‘Justice as Fairness” 571
Robert Nozick, from Anarchy, State, and Utopia 574
F. Justice or Care: A Feminist Perspective 577

Cheshire Calhoun, from ‘Justice, Care, Gender Bias” 5/77
G. Individual Rights and Freedom 579

John Locke, from The Second Treatise on Government 580
John Stuart Mill, from On Liberty 581
Malcom X, On Civil and Human Rights 585
Amartya Sen, from “Property and Hunger" 587
H. Fighting for Rights and Justice: Civil Disobedience 589

Henry David Thoreau, from “Resistance to Civil Government” (“Civil Disobedience”) 590
Martin Luther King, Jr., from “Letter from Birmingham Jail" 593

Key Terms 598
Glossary 599
index 621
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INTRODUCTION CHAPTER 2
Socrates Thales
Plato Anaximander
Aristotle Anaximenes
Laozi Heraclitus
Isaac Newton Democritus
René Descartes Pythagoras
Bertrand Russell Parmenides
Mary Midgley Zeno of Elea
Ralph Waldo Emerson Zarathustra
Confucius
CHAPTER 1 Buddha
John Wisdom John Locke
Albert Einstein Benedictus de Spinoza
Keiji Nishitani Gottfried Wilhelm von Leibniz
Xenophanes Martin Heidegger
St. Anselm
Emmanuel Kant CHAPTER 3
St. Thomas Aquinas Euclid
William Paley Noam Chomsky
David Hume Johann Gottlieb Fichte
William James Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel
Blaise Pascal Arthur Schopenhauer
St. Augustine Edmund Husserl
Voltaire Hans-Georg Gadamer
Mohammad al-Ghazali Richard Rorty
Soren Kierkegaard Isamu Nagami
Paul Tillich Elizabeth Grosz
Fyodor Dostoyevsky Uma Narayan
Karl Marx
Friedrich Nietzsche
Sigmund Freud
XV
XVI | PHILOSOPHER BIOGRAPHIES
CHAPTER 4 CHAPTER 7
R. D. Laing Gilbert Harman
David Reisman John Corvino
Malcolm X Mencius
Sherry Ortner Xunzi
Ann Ferguson Bishop Joseph Butler
Jacques Derrida Jean-Jacques Rousseau
Hermann Hesse Jeremy Bentham
Luce Irigaray John Dewey
Genevieve Lloyd Virginia Held
CHAPTER 5 CHAPTER 8
B. F. Skinner Thomas Hobbes
Gilbert Ryle John Rawls
Ue aCasinait Robert Nozick
Jerome Shaffer Cheshire Calhoun
Paul Churchland Amartya Sen
David Braddon-Mitchell Henry David Thoreau
Frank Jackson Martin Luther King, Jr.
John Searle
Thomas Nagel
Colin McGinn
Luwig Wittgenstein
Maurice Merleau-Ponty
Galen Strawson
CHAPTER 6
Sophocles
Muhammad Iqbal
Jacqueline Trimier
John Calvin
Jonathan Edwards
Baron Paul Henri d'Holbach
Daniel Dennett
Werner Heisenberg
Robert Kane
John Stuart Mill
Robert Owen
Harry Frankfurt
Albert Camus
David Zimmerman
Judith Orr
Alfred Charles Kinsey
John Hospers
lvan Pavlov
John Burgess Wilson
Catherine MacKinnon
Thich Nhat Hanh
wigeliclas
Introducing Philosophy:A Text with Integrated Readings, Tenth Edition, is a thorough introduc-
tion to the core problems of philosophy. Organized topically, the chapters present alternative
perspectives—including analytic, continental, feminist, and non-Western viewpoints—alongside
the historical works of major philosophers. The text provides the course materials that allow
instructors and students to focus on a variety of philosophical problems and perspectives.
The goal is to present students with alternative views on philosophical issues and let them
arrive at their own conclusions, which should be based on arguments in class and with class-
mates, as well as on the discussions in this book. The book presupposes no background in the
subject and no special abilities. The purpose of philosophy is to encourage each person to
think for himself or herself; no single source of arguments or information can take the place
of personal dialogues and discussions. A textbook is ultimately a sourcebook-everything in it
is to be taken as a cause for further argument, not as a final statement of results.
New to the Tenth Edition

* Chapters 1 and 2 have changed positions, making Chapter 1 on Religion and Chapter 2
on Reality.
* The following readings have been added to the new edition:

* William Paley, “The Watch and the Watchmaker" (Chapter 1)
* John Locke, from An Essay Concerning Human Understanding (Chapter 2)
¢ Bertrand Russell, from The Problems of Philosophy (Chapter 3)
* W. V. O. Quine, from “Epistemology Naturalized” (Chapter 3)
« St. Thomas Aquinas, from Summa Theologica (Chapter 7)
* John Dewey, from The Quest for Certainty (Chapter 7)
¢ Dr. Martin Luther King, Jr., “Letter from Birmingham Jail” (Chapter 8)
* The following readings have been omitted from the new edition:
* Charles Hartshorne, on the Ontological Argument (Chapter 1)
* Paul Davies, from The Mind of God (Chapter 1)
* Cory Juhl, on the “Fine-Tuning” Argument (Chapter 1)
+ Jean-Paul Sartre, from “The Desire to Be God” (Chapter 1)
* Philip Bricker, on David K. Lewis, On the Plurality of Worlds (Chapter 2)
* David Reisman, on Individualism (Chapter 4)
* Friedrich Nietzsche, on Consciousness as Communication (Chapter 4)
* G. W. F. Hegel, on “Spirit” and the Individual (Chapter 4)
* G. W. F. Hegel, from Reason in History (Chapter 4)
Xvil
XVII | PREFACE
* Soren Kierkegaard, “A Retort" from Concluding Unscientific Postscript (Chapter 4)
* Karl Marx, on the Social Self (Chapter 4)

e
Harry Frankfurt, from “Coercion and Moral Responsibility” (Chapter 6)
* Tara Smith, on the Necessity of Egoism (Ayn Rand) (Chapter 7)
* Emma Goldman, from “Anarchism: What It Really Stands For" (Chapter 8)
Key Features
* A second color to visually enhance the text and further engage students and
instructors (NEW)
* More than 230 images that illustrate key concepts and encapsulate famous
philosophical figures (NEW)
More than 100 brief profiles of philosophers interspersed throughout the text (NEW)
* Substantial readings from significant works in the history of philosophy, with helpful
commentary from the authors
* Key terms bolded in the text and collected at the end of each chapter
* Marginal quotations from famous philosophers that keep the student engaged
and focused
* Questions for further consideration at the end of every subsection and additional chapter
review questions at the ends of chapters
¢ Bibliographies and Further Reading at the end of each chapter
* A Glossary of the most important and widely used philosophical terms at the end
of the book
Ancillaries
The Instructor's Manual on CD and a Companion Website for students and instructors (www
.oup.com/us/solomoni0e) that accompany this text have been fully revised according to the
new edition. The Instructor's Manual includes
* Chapter Summaries and Goals
* Section Summaries
* A Test Bank that includes multiple-choice, essay, true/false, and fill-in-the-blank

questions
« Lecture outlines
* Downloadable PowerPoint presentations
The Companion Website includes all the material from the Instructor's Manual, along with the
following resources for students:
* Interactive flash cards with key terms and definitions
* Self-quizzes that give students the opportunity to test what they have learned
* Glossary
PREFACE | XIX
Acknowledgments
From Kathleen M. Higgins and Clancy Martin

For this edition, we want to thank especially our editor, Robert Miller, and his assistant Chris-
tina Mancuso. We also want to thank Megan Rickel, who helped tremendously with permis-
sions, and the readers who advised us in the preparation of this edition: Daniel Campana at
the University of La Verne, Teresa Cantrell at the University of Louisville, Michael Clifford
at Mississippi State University, Christian Coseru at the College of Charleston, Miguel Endara
at Los Angeles Pierce College, Robert S. Gall at West Liberty University, Michael Gendre at
Middlesex Community College, William S. Jamison at the University of Alaska Anchorage,
Andrew Jones-Cathcart at College of the Canyons, Jonathan Scott Lee at Colorado College,
Nancy Matchett at the University of Northern Colorado, Matthew McGrath at the University
of Missouri, Gregory Oakes at Winthrop University, David Scott at Coppin State University,
David Sherman at the University of Montana at Missoula, and Jiyuan Yu at the State Univer-
sity of New York at Buffalo.
From Robert C. Solomon

This book and its previous editions have been made possible through the encouragement
and help of many people, most important of whom are the several thousand introductory
students | have had the pleasure of meeting and teaching. For the ninth edition, | want to
give special thanks to my friend and colleague Clancy Martin. For the original edition, | thank
Susan Zaleski for her very special insights and criticism of the manuscript in its early stages.
| also thank Robert Fogelin, John McDermott, Janet McCracken, Stephen Phillips, Paul Wood-
ruff, Stephanie Lewis, Michael Tye, George Cronk, Roland D. Zimany, Terry Boswell, Lisa Erlich,
David Blumenfeld, Harry O'Hara, Barbara Barratt, Billy Joe Lucas, Cheshire Calhoun, Peter
Hutcheson, Richard Palmer, Norman Thomas, Greta Reed, Edward Johnson, Don Branson,
Hoke Robinson, Meredith Michaels, Bruce Paternoster, Maxine Morphis, Bruce Ballard, Jeffery
Coombs, Timothy Owen Davis, Conrad Gromada, Gregory Landini, Dan Bonevac, Kathleen Hig-
gins, Kristy Bartlett, Marilyn Frye, Jonathan Westphal, David J. Paul, Edward Johnson, Fred
Tabor, Brian Kutin, Karen Mottola, John Rowell, Christopher Melley, John Carvalho, Michael
Clifford, Timothy Davis, Ronald Glass, Isabel Luengo, Thomas Ryckman, William Smith, and
Clancy Martin. At Harcourt College Publishers, my editors-Bill Pullin, Bill McLane, and David
Tatom-were helpful and encouraging for many years and through many editions. Finally, |
would like once again to thank my first philosophy teachers—Robert Hanson, Doris Yokum,
Elizabeth Flower, James Ross, and C. G. Hempel-who provided me with the models and the
materials for an ideal introductory philosophy course-and the many students who still con-
tinue to make the teaching of philosophy one of the more satisfying professions in a not
easily satisfying world.
For the Student: Doing Philosophy

Your attempt to develop your own thoughts-to “do” philosophy, as well as to read what oth-
ers have done-is central to any study of philosophy. Philosophy, more than any other field,
is not so much a subject as it isa way of thinking, one that can be appreciated fully only by
joining in. While reading each section, therefore, do not hesitate to put down the book at any
time and do your own thinking and writing. When reading about metaphysics, for example,
think about how you would develop your own view of reality and how you would answer the
questions raised by the first philosophers of ancient Greece or the Orient. When confronted
XX | PREFACE
by an argument, consider how you might argue for or against a given position. When facing
an idea that seems foreign, try to put it in your own terms and understand the vision that lies
behind it. And when facing a problem, always offer your own answer as well as the answers
offered by earlier thinkers. In philosophy, unlike physics or biology, your own answer may be
just as legitimate as those given by the philosophers of the past, and there may be equally
interesting answers from different traditions. This is what makes philosophy so difficult to
learn at first, but it is also what make it so personally valuable and enjoyable.
Most of the sections and all the chapters are followed immediately by questions for you
to answer, either out loud with other students or in class or in writing, perhaps by way of a
class journal or as an addition to your class notes. Most of the questions are intended simply
to encourage you to articulate the point of what you have just read, putting what you have
just read in (more or less) your own words. All too often when we are reading new or difficult
material, we just allow it to “pass through” on the way to the next reading. We all have had
the experience of reading a long passage, even spending a considerable amount of time on
it, and then afterward finding that we are unable to say anything about it. The aim of the
questions, therefore, is to force you to say or write something. Some of the questions are
thought provoking, but most are aimed simply at providing immediate feedback for you. We
ask, therefore, that you take the questions seriously and consider them an integral part of
your reading assignment.
Writing Philosophy
With the foregoing ideas in mind, it should be obvious why talking about philosophy with
friends and classmates, raising important questions and objections in class, and writing down
ideas are so important. Articulation reinforces comprehension, and arguing against objec-
tions broadens understanding. Writing papers in philosophy is a particularly important part
of any philosophy course, and there are certain general guidelines to keep in mind:
1. Begin your essay with a leading question. “Thinking about” some philosophical issue can
be fun, but too easily loses direction and purpose. For instance, thinking about “freedom”
involves far too many different problems and perspectives. Asking such questions as “Is
freedom of action compatible with scientific determinism?” or “Can there be freedom in a
socialist state?” gives your thinking a specific orientation and way of proceeding.
2. Be clear about the difficulties you face in tackling the question. Are the terms of the ques-
tion clear? It is not always necessary or possible to define terms at the start of your essay.
Indeed, defining the key term may be the basic and most difficult conclusion you reach.
Also, it is often a poor idea to depend on a dictionary (even a good one) for clarifying
your question. Dictionaries are not written by philosophers and generally reflect popular
usage-which may include just such philosophical misunderstandings as you are attempt-
ing to correct.
3. Clarify the position you are arguing. Do not force the reader (your instructor) to guess
where you are going. When you are clear about the question you ask, it will help you clarify
the answer you intend to give, and vice versa. In fact, you may well change your mind-
about both the question and the answer-several times while you are writing; this is the real
danger of attempting a one-draft-the-night-before approach to essay writing.
4. Argue your case. Demonstrate why you hold the position you do. The most frequent criticism
of student papers is “This is your assertion: Where is the argument?” When an exam ques-
tion asks you to discuss an idea or a quotation “critically,” this does not mean that you must
attack it or find fault with it but, rather, that you need to consider the merits and possible
inadequacies, consider the reasons given, and give your own reasons for what you say.
PREFACE | XXI
5. Anticipate objections to your position and to your arguments and take the offensive against
rival positions. If you do not know what your position is opposed to, it is doubtful that you
are clear about what your own position is. If you cannot imagine how anyone could possibly
disagree with you, you probably have not thought through your position carefully.
6. Do not be afraid to be yourself, to be humorous, charming, sincere, or personal. The most

powerful philosophical writings, those that have endured for centuries, often reflect the
author's deepest concerns and attitudes toward life. However, remember that no philo-
sophical writing can be just humorous, charming, sincere, or personal. Make sure that ev-
erything you write-including a joke-is relevant to the topic at hand. What makes your
writing philosophical is that it involves general concerns and careful arguments while at-
tempting to prove an important point and answer one of the age-old questions.
SS
= satiny empeT ago asezon
7 = mite : - a iid
; eQrely ==
= : | ote IVS
- ie ta? @&
‘ ]
‘ °° AP a
nO) Ob ei@s@elgy
3000 B.C.E.
The Epic of Gilgamesh (2700 B.C.E.)
2000 B.C.E.
Abraham (ca. 1900)
1500 B.C.E. Hindu Vedas (ca. 1500)
Moses (ff. 1220-1200)
Trojan War (1185 B.C.E.)
1000 B.C.E. Chinese develop gunpowder (1000 B.C.E.)
Homer (9th-8th century)
First Olympic Games 776 B.C.E.
Rome is founded 753 B.C.E.
Pythagoras ca. 581-507 B.C.E.
Laozi 570-510 B.C.E.
Buddha (Siddhartha Gautama) 566-486 B.C.E.
500 B.C.E.
Aesop's Fables ca. 550 B.C.E.
Confucius 551-479 B.C.E.
Heraclitus ca. 535-470 B.C.E.
Confucian Analects compiled ca. 475-221 B.C.E.
Socrates 469-399 B.C.E.
Parthenon is completed 433 B.C.E.
Plato 427-347 B.C.E.
400 B.C.E. Job ca. 400 B.C.E.
Pentateuch established ca. 400 B.C.E.
Plato's The Symposium ca. 385-380 B.C.E.
Aristotle 384-322 B.C.E.
Plato's The Republic ca. 380 B.C.E.
Mencius 372-289 B.C.E.
Alexander the Great conquers Egypt 332 B.C.E.
300 B.C.E.
Julius Caesar assassinated 44 B.C.E.
Jesus Christ ca. 5 B.C.E.-30 C.E.
1 B.C.E.
St. Paul ca. 10-65
St. Augustine 354-430
St. Augustine's Confessions 397-398
Xxill
XXIV | HISTORY OF PHILOSOPHY
C.E. 500
Muhammad ca. 570-632
1000 Beowulf ca. 1000
St. Anselm ca. 1033-1109
Al-Ghazali 1058-1111
The first crusade captures Jerusalem 1099
1100
Oxford University founded 1149
1200
The Magna Carta is signed 1215
St. Thomas Aquinas 1225-1274
Aquinas’ Summa Theologica 1265-1274
Marco Polo returns from China 1275
Farsighted eyeglasses are invented 1285
1300 Gunpowder used for the first time in Europe 1300
Dante’s Divine Comedy 1310
The Bubonic Plague 1348-1375
Chaucer's Canterbury Tales 1386
1400
First documented black slaves arrive in Europe 1441
Christian Constantinople falls to the Muslims 1453
Johannes Gutenberg invents the printing press 1455
Columbus and Spanish exploration and colonization of the Americas
and Caribbean 1492-1520
1500 Northern European Renaissance begins 1500
High Renaissance in Italy 1500-1530
Niccolo Machiavelli's The Prince 1513
Copernican Revolution 1514
Martin Luther's 95 Theses 1517
Protestant Reformation 1517-1541
830,000 killed in massive earthquake in China 1556
Thomas Hobbes 1588-1679
René Descartes 1596-1650
1600
Shakespeare’s Hamlet 1601
Miguel de Cervantes Saavedra’s Don Quixote 1605
King James Bible 1611
Thirty Years War 1618-1648
Pilgrims arrive at Plymouth 1620
Blaise Pascal 1623-1662
Benedictus de Spinoza 1632-1677
John Locke 1632-1704
Descartes’ Discourse on Method 1637
Descartes’ Meditations on First Philosophy 1641
Isaac Newton 1642-1727
Gottfried Wilhelm von Leibniz 1646-1716
1650
Hobbes’ Leviathan 1651
John Milton's Paradise Lost 1667
HISTORY OF PHILOSOPHY | XXV
Pascal's Pensées 1670

Spinoza's Ethics 1677
Bishop George Berkeley 1685-1753
Newton's Principles of Mathematics 1687
Locke’s An Essay Concerning Human Understanding 1690
1700
Berkeley's A Treatise Concerning the Principles of Human Knowledge 1710
David Hume 1711-1776
Jean-Jacques Rousseau 1712-1778
Leibniz's The Monadology 1714
Immanuel Kant 1724-1804
Agricultural revolution in Western Europe 1730-1850
Benjamin Franklin's Poor Richard’s Almanac 1732
Hume's A Treatise of Human Nature 1739
Jeremy Bentham 1748-1832
Hume's An Enquiry Concerning Human Understanding 1748
Voltaire's Candide 1759
Rousseau's Emile 1762
Rousseau’s The Social Contract 1762
Leibniz's New Essays on Human Understanding 1765
Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel 1770-1831
Boston Tea Party 1773
The American colonies declare independence 1776
Adam Smith's Wealth of Nations 1776
Kant's Critique of Pure Reason 1781
Kant’s Prolegomena to any Future Metaphysics 1783
Arthur Schopenhauer 1788-1860
Kant's Critique of Practical Reason 1788
French Revolution begins 1789
Mary Wollstonecraft's A Vindication of the Rights of Women 1792
Reign of Terror in France 1793
Kant’s Metaphysics of Morals 1797
1800
Napoleon crowned emperor of France 1804
John Stuart Mill 1806-1873
Harriet Taylor 1807-1858
Hegel's Phemonenology of Spirit 1807
Charles Darwin 1809-1882
S@ren Kierkegaard 1813-1855
The Battle at Waterloo 1815
Frederick Douglass 1817-1895
Henry David Thoreau 1817-1862
Karl Marx 1818-1883
Schopenhauer's The World as Will and Representation 1818
Mary Shelley's Frankenstein 1818
Fyodor Dostoyevsky 1821-1881
England outlaws slavery 1833
Ralph Waldo Emerson's “Nature” 1836
William James 1842-1910
XXVI | HISTORY OF PHILOSOPHY
Friedrich Nietzsche 1844-1900

The Potato Famine 1845-1848
Karl Marx and Friedrich Engel’s The Communist Manifesto 1848
1850
Herman:-Melville’s Moby Dick 1851
Thoreau's Walden 1854
Sigmund Freud 1856-1939
Edmund Husser! 1859-1938
John Dewey 1859-1952
Darwin's Origin of Species 1859
Mill's Utilitarianism 1863
Emancipation Proclamation 1863
Lewis Carroll's Alice’s Adventures in Wonderland 1865
Telegraph cable connects the United States and Europe 1866
Mahatma Gandhi 1868-1948
Louisa May Alcott’s Little Women 1868
Bertrand Russell 1872-1970
Global economic depression 1873-1877
Leo Tolstoy’s Anna Karenina 1875
Albert Einstein 1879-1955
Dostoyevsky's The Brother's Karamazov 1880
Karl Jaspers 1883-1969
Ludwig Wittgenstein 1889-1951
Martin Heidegger 1889-1976
1900 Gilbert Ryle 1900-1976
Keiji Nishitani 1900-1990
W. E. B. DuBois's The Souls of Black Folks 1903
John Wisdom 1904-1993
Jean-Paul Sartre 1905-1980
Upton Sinclair's The Jungle 1906
Maurice Merleau-Ponty 1908-1961
Simone de Beauvoir 1908-1986
NCAAP established 1909
1910
Nationalist Revolution in China 1911
Russell's The Problems of Philosophy 1912
Titanic sinks 1912
Albert Camus 1913-1960
World War | 1914-1918
Russian Revolution 1917
Influenza epidemic kills 20 million people 1918
John Rawls 1921-2002

James Joyce’s.Ulysses 1922
John Scopes indicted for teaching evolution 1925
Malcolm X 1925-1965
Kafka’s The Trial 1925
Michel Foucault 1926-1984
Virginia Woolf's To the Lighthouse 1927
HISTORY OF PHILOSOPHY | XXVII
U.S. stock market crash 1929

William Faulkner's The Sound and the Fury 1929
Worldwide economic depression 1929-1939
Martin Luther King, Jr. 1929-1968
1930 Rise of Nazis in Germany 1930
Jacques Derrida 1930-2004
Richard Rorty 1931-2007
Zora Neale Hurston's Their Eyes Were Watching God 1937
John Steinbeck’s Grapes of Wrath 1939
World War Il 1939-1945
1940
The Japanese attack Pearl Harbor 1941
Merleau-Ponty's The Structure of Behavior 1942
Camus's The Stranger 1942
The Shoah (Holocaust) 1942-1945
Sartre's Being and Nothingness 1943
Formation of the United Nations 1945
George Orwell's Animal Farm 1945
The atomic bomb attack on Hiroshima 1945
India gains independence from Britain; Pakistan is created 1947
Israel is created 1948
Marshall Plan 1948
Arthur Miller's Death of a Salesman 1949
Beauvoir's The Second Sex 1949
Communist victory in China, Mao Tse-tung 1949
1950
J. D. Salinger’s Catcher in the Rye 1951
Samuel Beckett's Waiting for Godot 1952
Ralph Ellison’s Invisible Man 1952
Brown v Board of Education 1954
The Vietnam War 1955-1975
1960 Harper Lee’s To Kill a Mockingbird 1960
Cuban Missile Crisis 1962
Betty Friedan’s The Feminine Mystique 1963
John Fitzgerald Kennedy is assassinated 1963
The Civil Rights Act is passed in the United States 1964
Cultural Revolution in China 1965-1973
Gabriel Garcia Marquez's One Hundred Years of Solitude 1967
Dr. Martin Luther King, Jr., is assassinated 1968
Woodstock Music Festival 1969
1970
Rawls's Theory of Justice 1971
Robert Nozick's Anarchy, State, and Utopia 1974
Lebanese Civil War 1975
Ronald Dworkin's Taking Rights Seriously 1977
Rorty’s Philosophy and the Mirror of Nature 1979
Thomas Nagel's Mortal Questions 1979
1980 Rise of Ronald Reagan and conservatism in the United States 1980
Jacques Derrida’s Margins of Philosophy 1982
XXVIII | HISTORY OF PHILOSOPHY
Apple’s Macintosh computers are released 1984

Glasnost (openness) and perestroika (restructuring) policies
in Soviet Union 1985
Toni Morrison's Beloved 1987
Berlin Wall falls 1989
1990 Internet introduced to the general public 1990
Soviet Union dissolved 1991
Hilary Putnam's Renewing Philosophy 1992
First democratic elections in South Africa 1994
Charles Taylor's Multiculturalism: Examining the Politics
of Recognition 1994
Genocide in Rwanda 1995
2000
September 11, 2001
Iraq War begins 2003
Barack Obama becomes president of the Unites States 2009
INtrOdUCTION
The unexamined life is not worth living.
SOCRATES
A. Socrates
He was not the first philosopher, but he was, and is
still, the ideal of philosophers. Once assured by the An Athenian philosopher with a gift
oracle at Delphi that he was the wisest man in Ath- for rhetoric and debating. He had a
notoriously poor marriage, had sev-
ens, Socrates (470-399 s.c.£.) borrowed his view of
eral children, and lived in poverty
life from the inscription at Delphi, “Know Thyself."
most of his life. Socrates began his
Mixing humility with arrogance, he boasted that his studies in the physical sciences but
superiority lay in his awareness of his own igno- soon turned to the study of human
rance, and he spent the rest of his life making fools FIG. 1.1 A traditional nature, morality, and politics. He be-
image of Socrates (Image came famous debating with the many
of the self-proclaimed “wise men” of Athens.
© kmiragaya, 2011. Used under “sophists” who wandered about giv-
In the opinion of Socrates and other critics of
license from Shutterstock.com) ing practical training in argument and
the time, the government of Athens was corrupt persuasion (the ancient equivalent
and notoriously bumbling, in marked contrast to the of law school). Socrates found their general skepticism intolerable and
“Golden Age” of Pericles a few years before. Philo- urged a return to the absolute ideals of wisdom, virtue, justice, and the
good life. In his philosophy, he approached these questions as matters of
sophical arguments had become all cleverness and
finding the exact definitions of these concepts in order to clarify our pur-
demagoguery, rhetorical tricks to win arguments
suit of them. In doing so, he developed a brilliant technique of dialogue
and legal cases; political ambition replaced justice or “dialectic” in which he would discover these definitions by constant
and the search for the good life. Socrates believed debating, forcing his opponents or students to advance various theories,
that the people of Athens held their principles glibly, which he, in turn, would knock down. In the process, the correct definition
like banners at a football game, but rarely lived up to would slowly emerge. In his not always tactful search for truth, however,
Socrates made many enemies, who eventually had him condemned to
them and even more rarely examined them. Against
death, a cruel and unfair verdict that he accepted with dignity.
this, he developed a technique of asking seemingly
innocent questions, trapping his audience in their
own confusions and hypocrisies, exploding the pretensions of his times. And against their
easy certainties, he taught that “the unexamined life is not worth living.” He referred to him-
self as a “gadfly” (an obnoxious insect with a painful bite), keeping his fellow citizens from
ever becoming as smug and self-righteous as they would like to have been. Accordingly, he
made many enemies and was satirized by Aristophanes in his play The Clouds.
2 | INTRODUCTION
From The Clouds

spy Aristophanes'
STUDENT OF SOCRATES: Socrates asked Chaerephon how many of its own

feet a flea could jump—one had bitten Chaerephon’s brow and then jumped to Soc-
rates’ head.
STREPSIADES: And how did he measure the jump?
STUDENT: Most ingeniously. He melted wax, caught the flea, dipped its feet, and
the hardened wax made Persian slippers. Unfastening these, he found their size.
STREPSIADES: Royal Zeus! What an acute intellect!
STUDENT: But yesterday a high thought was lost through a lizard.
STREPSIADES: How so? Tell me.
STUDENT: As he gaped up at the moon, investigating her paths and turnings, from
off the roofa lizard befouled him.
In the play, Aristophanes made Socrates and his students look utterly ridiculous, and the
Athenian public enjoyed Aristophanes’ sarcasm as a mild form of vengeance for Socrates’
constant criticisms. Aristophanes’ “clouds” refer to that confusion which we mean when we
talk of someone “having his head in the clouds.” Aristophanes probably expressed the gen-
eral public opinion when he described Socrates as “‘shiftless” and merely a master at verbal
trickery.
Socrates’ students, however, virtually worshiped him. They described him as “the bravest,
most wise and most upright man of our times” and perceived him as a martyr for the truth
in a corrupted society. The price of his criticism was not merely the satire of the playwrights.
Because he had been such a continual nuisance, the government arranged to have Socrates
brought to trial for “corrupting the youth of Athens” and “not believing in the gods of the city.”
And for these trumped-up “crimes,” Socrates was condemned to death. But at his trial, he once
again became a gadfly to those who condemned him.
FROM The Apology

By Plato?
He assesses the penalty at death. So be it. What counterassessment should I propose

to you, gentlemen of the jury? Clearly it should be a penalty I deserve, and what
do I deserve to suffer or to pay because I have deliberately not led a quiet life but
have neglected what occupies most people: wealth, household affairs, the position of
general or public orator or the other offices, the political clubs and factions that exist
in the city? I thought myself too honest to survive if Ioccupied myself with those
things. I did not follow that path that would have made me of no use either to you
or to myself, but I went to each ofyou privately and conferred upon him what I say
is the greatest benefit, by persuading him not to care for any of his belongings before
‘Excerpt from The Clouds, in The Complete Plays of Aristophanes, ed. Moses Hadas. Copyright © 1962 by Bantam Books,
a division of Random House, Inc.
2 Plato, The Apology, in The Trial and Death of Socrates, 2nd ed., trans. G. M. A. Grube. Copyright © 1975 by Hackett
Publishing Company, Inc. Reprinted with permission. All rights reserved.
NeSOGCRATES 153
caring that he himself should be as good and as wise as possible, not to care forthe Jt is not difficult
city’s possessions more than for the city itself, and to care for other things in the same to avoid death,
way. What do I deserve for being such a man? Some good, gentlemen of the jury, if I
gentlemen of the
must truly make an assessment according to my deserts, and something suitable.
jury, it is much
Socrates here suggests that the state should give him a pension, rather than a punishment,
i 2 5 more difficult to
for being a public benefactor and urging his students to be virtuous.
avoid wickedness,
It is for the sake of a short time, gentlemen of the jury, that you will acquire the for it runs faster
reputation and the guilt, in the eyes of those who want to denigrate the city, of hav-
than death.”
ing killed Socrates, a wise man, for they will say that I am wise even if I am not. If
you had waited but a little while, this would have happened of its own accord. You — PLATO'S SOCRATES
see my age, that I am already advanced in years and close to death. I am saying this
not to all of you but to those who condemned me to death, and to these same jurors
I say: Perhaps you think that I was convicted for lack of such words as might have
convinced you, if Ithought I should say or do all I could to avoid my sentence. Far
from it. 1 was convicted because I lacked not words but boldness and shamelessness
and the willingness to say to you what you would most gladly have heard from me,
lamentations and tears and my saying and doing many things that I say are unworthy
of me but that you are accustomed to hear from others. I did not think then that the
danger I ran should make me do anything mean, nor do I now regret the nature of
my defense. I would much rather die after this kind of defense than live after mak-
ing the other kind. Neither I nor any other man should, on trial or in war, contrive
to avoid death at any cost. Indeed it is often obvious in battle that one could escape
death by throwing away one’s weapons and by turning to supplicate one’s pursuers,
and there are many ways to avoid death in every kind of danger if one will venture
to do or say anything to avoid it. It is not difficult to avoid death, gentlemen of the
jury, it is much more difficult to avoid wickedness, for it runs faster than death. Slow
and elderly as I am, I have been caught by the slower pursuer, whereas my accusers,
being clever and sharp, have been caught by the quicker, wickedness. I leave you now,
condemned to death by you, but they are condemned by truth to wickedness and
injustice. So I maintain my assessment, and they maintain theirs. This perhaps had to
happen, and I think it is as it should be.
Now I want to prophesy to those who convicted me, for I am at the point when
men prophesy most, when they are about to die. I say gentlemen, to those who voted
to kill me, that vengeance will come upon you immediately after my death, a ven-
geance much harder to bear than that which you took in killing me. You did this in
the belief that you would avoid giving an account of your life, but I maintain that
quite the opposite will happen to you. There will be more people to test you, whom
I now held back, but you did not notice it. They will be more difficult to deal with
as they will be younger and you will resent them more. You are wrong if you believe
that by killing people you will prevent anyone from reproaching you for not living
in the right way. To escape such tests is neither possible nor good, but it is best and
easiest not to discredit others but to prepare oneself to be as good as possible. With
this prophecy to you who convicted me, I part from you.
In prison, he was given the opportunity to escape. He refused it. He had always taught
that “the really important thing is not to live, but to live well.” And to “live well” meant, along
with the more enjoyable things in life, to live according to your principles. When his friend
4 | INTRODUCTION
Crito tried to persuade him otherwise, Socrates countered his pleas and arguments with
powerful arguments of his own. Look carefully at the structure of these arguments and judge
for yourself their soundness.
From The Crito

By Plato?
SOCRATES: My good Crito, why should we care so much for what the majority
think? The most reasonable people, to whom one should pay more attention, will
believe that things were done as they were done.
CRITO: You see, Socrates, that one must also pay attention to the opinion of the
majority. Your present situation makes clear that the majority can inflict not the least
but pretty well the greatest evils if one is slandered among them.
SOCRATES: Would that the majority could inflict the greatest evils, for they would
then be capable of the greatest good, and that would be fine, but now they cannot
do either. They cannot make a man either wise or foolish, but they inflict things
haphazardly.
CRITO: That may be so. But tell me this, Socrates, are you anticipating that I and
your other friends would have trouble with the informers if you escape from here, as
having stolen you away, and that we should be compelled to lose all our property or
pay heavy fines and suffer other punishment besides? If you have any such fear, forget
it. We would be justified in running this risk to save you, and worse, if necessary. Do
follow my advice, and do not act differently.
SOCRATES: I do have these things in mind, Crito, and also many others.
CRITO: Have no such fear. It is not much money that some people require to save
you and get you out of here....
Besides, Socrates, I do not think that what you are doing is right, to give up your
life when you can save it, and to hasten your fate as your enemies would hasten it,
and indeed have hastened it in their wish to destroy you.
SOCRATES: My dear Crito, your eagerness is worth much if it should have some
right aim; if not, then the greater your keenness the more difficult it is to deal with.
We must therefore examine whether we should act in this way or not, as not only
now but at all times I am the kind of man who listens only to the argument that on
reflection seems best to me. I cannot, now that this fate has come upon me, discard
the arguments I used; they seem to me much the same. I value and respect the same
principles as before, and if we have no better arguments to bring up at this moment,
be sure that I shall not agree with you, not even if the power of the majority were to
frighten us with more bogeys, as if we were children, with threats of incarcerations
and executions and confiscation of property. How should we examine this matter
more reasonably? Would it be by taking up first your argument about the opinions
of men, whether it is sound in every case that one should pay attention to some
opinions, but not to others? Or was that well-spoken before the necessity to die
came upon me, but now it is clear that this was said in vain for the sake of argument,
3 Plato, The Crito, in The Trial and Death of Socrates, 2nd ed., trans. G. M. A. Grube. Copyright © 1975 by Hackett Publish-
ing Company. Reprinted with permission.
A. SOCRATES [5
that it was in truth play and nonsense? I am

eager to examine together with you, Crito, Plato (427-347 B.c.£.)
whether this argument will appear in any way Plato was born into a family of wealth
different to me in my present circumstances, and political power. But in Athens, he
or whether it remains the same, whether we fell under the influence of Socrates and
are to abandon it or believe it. It was said on turned his talents to philosophy. He
conceived of a “philosopher-king,” the
every occasion that one should greatly value
ideal wise ruler, who certainly did not
some opinions, but not others. Does that seem
exist in Athens. He was disillusioned by
to you a sound statement? ... Examine the Socrates’ execution and devoted his
following statement in turn as to whether it life to continuing Socrates’ work. Plato
stays the same or not, that the most important set up the Academy for this purpose
thing is not life, but the good life. and spent the rest of his life teach-
ing there. He first set down his remi-
CRITO: It stays the same. niscences of Socrates’ life and death,
and, using the dialogue form with Soc-
SOCRATES: And that the good life, the rates as his mouthpiece, he extended
beautiful life, and the just life are the same; | Socrates’ thought into entirely new ar-
FIG. 1.2 Thename }
does that still hold, or not? | eas, notably, metaphysics and the the-
“Plato” literally means
ory of knowledge. Plato incorporated a
CRITO: It does hold. “broad shoulders.” (Image
theory of morality into his metaphys-
© pseudolongino, 2011.
SOCRATES: As we have agreed so far, we Used under license from
ics and politics, particularly in The Re-
public. Like all Greeks, he saw ethics
must examine next whether it is right for me Shutterstock.com)
as part of politics and the good life for
to try to get out of here when the Athenians the individual in terms of the strength
have not acquitted me. Ifit is seen to be right, and harmony of the society. In The Republic, accordingly, Socrates argues
we will try to do so; if it is not, we will aban- against the various views of selfishness and hedonism that would interfere
don the idea. As for those questions you raise with such a conception. Virtue, he argues, is the harmony of the individual
soul as well as the harmony of the individual within the society. It is still
about money, reputation, the upbringing of
difficult to know, since we have nothing from Socrates himself, how much
children, Crito, those considerations in truth
is original Plato and how much is transcribed Socrates.
belong to those people who easily put men
to death and would bring them to life again
if they could, without thinking; I mean the majority of men. For us, however, since
our argument leads to this, the only valid consideration, as we were saying just now,
is whether we should be acting rightly in giving money and gratitude to those
who will lead me out of here, and ourselves helping with the escape, or whether
in truth we shall do wrong in doing all this. If it appears that we shall be acting
unjustly, then we have no need at all to take into account whether we shall have to
die, if we stay here and keep quiet, or suffer in another way, rather than do wrong.
CRITO: I think you put that beautifully, Socrates, but see what we should do.
SOCRATES: Let us examine the question together, my dear friend, and if you can
make any objection while I am speaking, make it and I will listen to you, but if you
have no objection to make, my dear Crito, then stop now from saying the same thing
so often, that I must leave here against the will of the Athenians. I think it important
to persuade you before I act, and not to act against your wishes... .
SOCRATES: Then ...I ask you: when one has come to an agreement that is just
with someone, should one fulfill it or cheat on it?
CRITO: One should fulfill it.
SOCRATES: See what follows from this: If we leave here without the city’s per-
mission, are we injuring people whom we should least injure? And are we sticking to
a just agreement, or not?
6 | INTRODUCTION
“Not only now but CRITO: I cannot answer your question, Socrates, I do not know.
at all times I am SOCRATES: Look at it this way. If, as we were planning to run away from here,
the kind of man or whatever one should call it, the laws and the state came and confronted us and
who listens only asked: “Tell me, Socrates, what are you intending to do? Do you not by this action
you are attempting intend to destroy us, the laws, and indeed the whole city, as far
to the argument
]
as you are concerned? Or do you think it possible for a city not to be destroyed if the
that on renection
verdicts of its courts have no force but are nullified and set at naught by private in-
seems pest to me. dividuals?” What shall we answer to this and other such arguments? For many things
- PLATO'S SOCRATES
could be said, especially by an orator on behalf of this law we are destroying, which
orders that the judgments of the courts shall be carried out. Shall we say in answer,
“The city wronged me, and its decision was not right.” Shall we say that, or what?
CRITO: Yes, by Zeus, Socrates, that is our answer.
SOCRATES: Then what if the laws said, “Was that the agreement between us,
Socrates, or was it to respect the judgments that the city came to?” And if we won-
dered at their words, they would perhaps add: “Socrates, do not wonder at what
we say but answer, since you are accustomed to proceed by question and answer.
Come now, what accusation do you bring against us and the city, that you should
try to destroy us? Did we not, first, bring you to birth, and was it not through us
that your father married your mother and begat you? Tell us, do you find any-
thing to criticize in those of us who are concerned with marriage?” And I would
say that I do not criticize them. “Or in those of us concerned with the nurture
of babies and the education that you too received? Were those assigned to that
subject not right to instruct your father to educate you in the arts and in physical
culture?” And I would say that they were right. “Very well,” they would continue,
“and after you were born and nurtured and educated, could you, in the first place,
deny that you are our offspring and servant, both you and your forefathers? Ifthat
is so, do you think that we are on an equal footing as regards the right, and that
whatever we do to you it is right for you to do to us? You were not on an equal
footing with your father as regards the right, nor with your master if you had one,
so as to retaliate for anything they did to you, to revile them if they reviled you,
to beat them if they beat you, and so with many other things. Do you think you
have this right to retaliation against your country and its laws? That if we under-
take to destroy you and think it right to do so, you can undertake to destroy us,
as far as you can, in return? And will you say that you are right to do so, you who
truly care for virtue? Is your wisdom such as not to realize that your country is to
be honoured more than your mother, your father, and all your ancestors, that it is
more to be revered and more sacred, and that it counts for more among the gods
and sensible men, that you must worship it, yield to it and placate its anger more
than your father’s? You must either persuade it or obey its orders, and endure in
silence whatever it instructs you to endure, whether blows or bonds, and if it leads
you into war to be wounded or killed, you must obey. To do so is right, and one
must not give way or retreat or leave one’s post, but both in war and in courts and
everywhere else, one must obey the commands of one’s city and country, or per-
suade it as to the nature ofjustice. It is impious to bring violence to bear against
your mother or father, it is much more so to use it against your country.” What
shall we say in reply, Crito, that the laws speak the truth, or not?
CRITO: I think they do.
ASO CRATES! 31 /7/
SOCRATES: “Reflect now, Socrates,” the laws might say, “that if what we say is
true, you are not treating us rightly by planning to do what you are planning. ...
“So decisively did you choose us and agree to be a citizen under us. Also, you
have had children in this city, thus showing that it was congenial to you.Then at your
trial you could have assessed your penalty at exile if you wished, and you are now
attempting to do against the city’s wishes what you could then have done with her
consent. Then you prided yourself that you did not resent death, but you chose, as
you said, death in preference to exile. Now, however, those words do not make you
ashamed, and you pay no heed to us, the laws, as you plan to destroy us, and you act
like the meanest type of slave by trying to run away, contrary to your undertakings
and your agreement to live as a citizen under us. First then, answer us on this very
point, whether we speak the truth when we say that you agreed, not only in words
but by your deeds, to live in accordance with us.” What are we to say to that, Crito?
Must we not agree?
CRITO: We must, Socrates.
SOCRATES: “Surely,” they might say, “you are breaking the undertakings and agree-
ments that you made with us without compulsion or deceit, and under no pressure
of time for deliberation. You have had seventy
years during which you could have gone away
if you did not like us, and if you thought our
agreements unjust. You did not choose to go to
Sparta or to Crete, which you are always saying
are well governed, nor to any other city, Greek
or foreign. You have been away from Athens
less than the lame or the blind or other handi-
capped people. It is clear that the city has been
outstandingly more congenial to you than to
other Athenians, and so have we, the laws, for
what city can please if its laws do not? Will you
then not now stick to our agreements? You will,
Socrates, if we can persuade you, and not make
yourselfa laughingstock by leaving the city.
“Be persuaded by us who have brought
you up, Socrates. Do not value either your chil-
dren or your life or anything else more than
goodness, in order that you may have all this
as your defense before rulers there. If you do
this deed, you will not think it better or more
just or more pious, nor will any one of your
friends, nor will it be better for you when you
arrive yonder. As it is, you depart, if you depart,
after being wronged not by us, the laws, but
by men; but if you depart after shamefully re-
turning wrong for wrong and injury for injury,
after breaking your agreement and contract
with us, after injuring those you should injure
FIG. 1.3 Socrates in Prison (1785) by Johann Heinrich Tischbein the Elder
least—yourself, your friends, your country and (Bildarchiv Preussischer Kulturbesitz / Art Resource, NY)
us—we shall be angry with you while you are
8 | INTRODUCTION
still alive, and our brothers, the laws of the underworld, will not receive [you] kindly,
knowing that you tried to destroy us as far as you could. Do not let Crito persuade
you, rather than we, to do what he says.”
CRITO: I have nothing to say, Socrates.

SOCRATES: Let it be then, Crito, and let us act in this way, since this is the way
the god is leading us.
* By choosing to go on living in the city, Socrates has agreed with Athens to obey its laws.
Therefore, even if he is wrongly condemned by the same laws, he has the duty to stay
and accept his punishment. Do you agree that he has made such a tacit agreement? Do
you agree that he has the duty to stay and accept punishment even if he was wrongly
condemned? Have you entered into such an agreement with your community? Your
country? What would you do if you were Socrates?
Socrates believed that the good of his “soul” was far more important than the transient plea-
sures of life. Accordingly, he preferred to die for his ideas than live as a hypocrite. An idea
worth living for may be an idea worth dying for as well.
FRomM The Phaedo

By Plato’
And while he was saying this, he was holding the cup, and then drained it calmly and
easily. Most of us had been able to hold back our tears reasonably well up till then,
but when we saw him drinking it and after he drank it, we could hold them back
no longer; my own tears came in floods against my will. So I covered my face. I was
weeping for myself—not for him, but for my misfortune in being deprived of such
a comrade. Even before me, Crito was unable to restrain his tears and got up. Apol-
lodorus had not ceased from weeping before, and at this moment his noisy tears and
anger made everybody present break down, except Socrates, “What is this,” he said,
“you strange fellows. It is mainly for this reason that I sent the women away, to avoid
such unseemliness, for I am told one should die in good omened silence. So keep
quiet and control yourselves...’ >
Such was the end of our comrade, Echecrates, a man who, we would say, was of
all those we have known the best, and also the wisest and the most upright.
Is there anything that you believe so passionately that you would die for it? Is there
anything that you believe so passionately that it really makes your life worth living? For most
people, now as always, life is rather a matter of “getting by.” One of the more popular phrases
of self-praise these days is “I'm a survivor.” But, ironically, a person who is not willing to die
for anything (for example, his or her own freedom) is thereby more vulnerable to threats and
corruption. To be willing to die-as Socrates was-is to have a considerable advantage over
someone for whom “life is everything.”
4 Plato, The Phaedo, in The Trial and Death of Socrates, 2nd ed., trans. G. M. A. Grube. Copyright © 1975 by Hackett Pub-
lishing Company, Inc. Reprinted by permission. All rights reserved.
A. SOCRATES ine
FIG. 1.4 The Death of Socrates (1787) by Jacques Louis David (Image copyright © The Metropolitan
Museum of Art / Art Resource, NY)
If you look closely at your life, not only at your proclaimed ideals and principles but
your desires and ambitions as well, do the facts of your life add up to its best intentions?
Or are you too just drifting with the times, dissatisfied with ultimately meaningless jobs
and mindless joyless entertainments, concerned with the price of tuition and some recent
stupidity of your government, the petty competitions of school and society, the hassles of
chores and assignments, car troubles and occasional social embarrassments, interrupted
only by all too rare and too quickly passing pleasures and distractions? What we learn from
Socrates is how to rise above all of this. Not that we should give up worldly pleasures-
good food and fun, sex, sports and entertainment-and put our heads in the “clouds”; but
we should see them in perspective and examine for ourselves that jungle of confused re-
actions and conditioned responses that we have unthinkingly inherited from our parents
and borrowed from our peers. The point is not to give up what we have learned or to turn
against our culture. Rather, the lesson to be learned from Socrates is that thinking about
our lives and clarifying our ideals can turn it from a dreary series of tasks and distrac-
tions into a self-conscious adventure, one even worth dying for and certainly worth living
for. It is a special kind of abstract thinking, rising above petty concerns and transform-
ing our existence into a bold experiment in living. This special kind of thinking is called
philosophy.
10 | INTRODUCTION
We shall rightly rrom The Republic

call a philosoph« sy Plato®
the man who 1s SOCRATES: Do you agree, or not, that when we say that a man has a passion for
easily willing to something, we shall say that he desires that whole kind of thing, not just one part of
learn every kind it and not the other?
f knowledeg GLAUCON: Yes, the whole ofit.
SOCRATES: The lover of wisdom, we shall say, has a passion for wisdom, not for
this kind of wisdom and not that, but for every kind of wisdom?
GLAUCON: True.
SOCRATES: As for one who is choosy about what he learns, especially if he is

young and cannot yet give a reasoned account of what is useful and what is not, we
shall not call him a lover of learning or a philosopher,
just as we shall not say that a
man who is difficult about his food is hungry or has an appetite for food.We shall
not call him a lover of food but a bad feeder.
GLAUCON: And we should be right.
SOCRATES: But we shall rightly call a philosopher the man who 1s easily willing
to learn every kind of knowledge, gladly turns to learning things, and is unsatiable in
this respect. Is that not so?
B. What Is Philosophy?
Philosophy is not like any other academic subject; rather it is a critical approach to all sub-
jects, the comprehensive vision within which all other subjects are contained. Philosophy
is a style of life, a life of ideas or the life of reason, which a person like Socrates lives all
of the time, which many of us live only a few hours a week. It is thinking, about everything
and anything. But mainly, it is living thoughtfully. Aristotle, the student of Plato, who was
the student of Socrates, called this “contemplative” or philosophical life the ideal life for
humankind. He did not mean, however, that one should sit and think all of the time with-
out doing anything. Aristotle, like the other Greek philosophers, was not one to abstain
from pleasure or from political and social involvement for the sake of isolated thinking.
Philosophy need not, as commonly believed, put our heads in the clouds, out of touch with
everyday reality. Quite to the contrary, philosophy takes our heads out of the clouds, en-
larging our view of ourselves and our knowledge of the world, allowing us to break out of
prejudices and harmful habits that we have held since we were too young or too naive to
know better. To say that philosophy is “critical” is not to say that it is negative or nihilistic;
it is only to say that it is reflective. It looks at and thinks about ideas carefully, instead of
unthinkingly accepting them.
Philosophy puts our lives and our beliefs in perspective by enabling us to see afresh the
ways In which we view the world, to see what we assume, what we infer, and what we know
for certain. It also allows us to appreciate other views of the world. It encourages us to see
the consequences of our views and sometimes their hopeless inconsistencies. It allows us to
see the justification (or lack of it) for our most treasured beliefs, and to separate what we will
5 Plato, The Republic, Bk. V, trans. G. M. A. Grube, Indianapolis, IN: Hackett, 1974.
B. WHAT IS PHILOSOPHY? | 11
continue to believe with confidence from what we

should consider doubtful or reject. It allows us the Aristotle (384-322 B.c.E.)
option of considering alternatives. Philosophy gives
One of the greatest Western philosophers,
us the intellectual strength to defend what we do Aristotle was born in northern Greece
and what we believe to others and to ourselves. It (Stagira). His father was the physician to
forces us to be clear about the limits as well as the Philip, king of Macedonia, and he himself
was to become the tutor to Philip's son,
warrants for our acts and beliefs. Consequently, it
Alexander the Great. For eighteen years,
gives us the intellectual strength to understand, tol-
Aristotle was a student in Plato's Acad-
erate, and even sympathize with or adopt views very emy in Athens, where he learned and
different from our own. parted from Plato's views. After Plato's
Philosophy is first and foremost a discipline that death, he turned to the study of biology,
teaches us how to articulate, hold, and defend beliefs and many of his theories ruled Western
science until the Renaissance. Aristotle
that, perhaps, we have always held, but without having
was with Alexander until 335 8.c.e., when
spelled them out and argued for them. For example, FIG. 1.5 Aristotle is
he returned to Athens to set up his own
_ sometimes referred to
Suppose you have been brought up in a deeply reli- school, the Lyceum. After Alexander's
| as “The Philosopher.”
gious home; you have been taught respect for God and death, the anti-Macedonian sentiment in
(Image © Dhoxax, 2011.
church, but you have never had to learn to justify or Athens forced Aristotle to flee (comment-
| Used under license from
ing that the Athenians would not sin twice
argue for your beliefs. You know that, although there | Shutterstock.com)
against philosophy). In addition to his bio-
are people who would disagree with you, your belief
logical studies, Aristotle virtually created
is a righteous and necessary one, but you have never the sciences of logic and linguistics; developed extravagant theories in
had to explain this to anyone, nor have you tried to physics and astronomy; and made significant contributions to metaphys-
explain it to yourself. But now you enter college and ics, ethics, politics, and aesthetics. His Metaphysics is still a basic text on
the subject, and Nicomachean Ethics codified ancient Greek morality. This
immediately you are confronted by fellow students,
latter work stresses individual virtue and excellence for a small elite of
some of whom you consider close friends and admire
Greek citizens. The best life of all, according to Aristotle, is the life of
in many ways, who are openly skeptical about religion. contemplation, that is, the life of a phil osopher, for it is the most self-
Others accept very different doctrines and beliefs, and contained and the “closest to the gods.” But such contemplation must be
vociferously defend these. Your first reactions may be together with the pleasures of life, honor, wealth, and virtuous action.
almost physical; you feel weak, flushed, and anxious.

You refuse to listen, and if you respond at all, it is with
a tinge of hysteria. You may get into fights as well as arguments. You feel as if some foundation
of your life, one of its main supports, is slipping away. But slowly you gain some confidence; you
begin to listen. You give yourself enough distance so that you will consider arguments about
religion in just the same way you would consider arguments about some scientific or political
dispute. You ask yourself why your friends don’t believe what you believe. Are their arguments
persuasive, their reasons good reasons? You begin asking yourself how you came to believe in
your religion in the first place, and you may well come up with the answer (many freshmen do) that
you were “conditioned” by your parents and by society in general. Consequently, you may, perhaps
for a time, perhaps for a lifetime, question or reject the ideas you had once “naturally” accepted.
Or you may reaffirm your faith with new commitment, determined that, whatever the source, your
beliefs are right or, at least, right for you. But after further consideration and argument, perhaps
with some new religious experience, you come to see both sides of the arguments. For the first
time, you can weigh their merits and demerits against each other without defensively holding
onto one and attacking the other. You may remain a believer; you may become an atheist or an
agnostic (a person who admits not knowing whether there is a God or not). Some people convert
to another faith. Or one can adopt’a position in which he or she gives all religions (and nonre-
ligion) equal weight, continuing to believe but not insisting that one belief is the only correct
one or that a person is necessarily superior because of it. But whatever you decide, your posi-
tion will no longer be naive and unthinking. You know the arguments, both for and against. You
know how to defend yourself. And, most importantly, you have confidence that your position is
12 | INTRODUCTION
secure, that you have considered its objections, and

that you have mastered its strengths. So it is with
_ "Philosophy is to be studied, not for the sake of any definite an- all philosophical problems and positions. Philosophy
swers to its questions, since no definite answers can, as a rule,
does not pull us away from our lives; it clarifies them.
be known to be true, but rather for the sake of the questions
| It secures them on intellectual ground in place of the
themselves; because these questions enlarge our conception of
_ what is possible, enrich our intellectual imagination and diminish | fragile supports provided by inherited prejudices,
| the dogmatic assurance which closes the mind against specula- _ fragments of parental advice, and mindless slogans
tion; but above all because through the greatness of the universe =— borrowed from television commercials.
which philosophy contemplates, the mind also is rendered great, “Philosophy” sounds like a new and mysterious
and becomes capable of that union with the universe which con- discipline, unlike anything you have ever encountered.
stitutes its highest good.”
But the basic ideas of philosophy are familiar to all of
Bertrand Russell, from The Problems of Philosophy us, even if we have not yet formally confronted the
—— - problems. In this sense, we are all philosophers al-

ready. Watch yourself in a crisis, or listen to yourself in an argument with a friend. Notice how
quickly abstract concepts like “freedom,” “mankind,” “self-identity,” “nature” and “natural,”
“relative,” “reality,” “illusion,” and “truth” enter our thoughts and our conversations. Notice
how certain basic philosophical principles-whether conservative or radical, pragmatic or ide-
alistic, confident or skeptical, pedestrian or heroic—enter into our arguments and our thinking
as well as our actions. We all have some opinions about God, about morality and its principles,
about the nature of man and the nature of the universe. But because we haven't questioned
them, they are merely the assumptions of our thinking. We believe many things without hav-
ing thought about them, merely assuming them, sometimes without evidence or good rea-
sons. What the study of philosophy does for us is to make our ideas explicit, to give us the
means of defending our presuppositions, and to make alternative suppositions available to us
as well. Where once we merely assumed a point of view, passively and for lack of alternatives,
we now Can argue for it with confidence, knowing that our acceptance is active and critical,
systematic rather than merely a collection of borrowed beliefs (who knows from where). To be
critical means to examine carefully and cautiously, willing, if necessary, to change one’s own
beliefs. It does not need to be nasty or destructive. There is “constructive criticism” as well.
And to “argue” does not mean to “have a fight”; an argument is nothing less than an attempt
to justify our beliefs, to back them up with good reasons.
So what is philosophy? Literally, from the Greek (philein, sophia), it is “the love of wisdom.'’®
It is an attitude of critical and systematic thoughtfulness rather than a particular subject mat-
ter. This makes matters very difficult for the beginner, who would like a definition of philosophy
of the same kind received when he or she began biology, as “the study of living organisms." But
the nature of philosophy is itself among the most bitter disputes in philosophy. Many philoso-
phers say that it is a science, in fact, the “queen of the sciences,” the womb in which physics,
chemistry, mathematics, astronomy, biology, and psychology began their development before
being born into their own distinguished worlds and separate university departments. Histori-
cally, this is certainly true. (Thus, in almost any scientific field, the highest degree is “doctor of
philosophy” [Ph.D."].) Insofar as one says that philosophy is the road to reality and that the
goal of philosophy is truth, that would seem to make it the ultimate science as well.
But it has also been argued, as far back as Socrates, that the main business of phi-
losophy is a matter of definitions-finding clear meanings for such important ideas as truth,
justice, wisdom, knowledge, and happiness. Accordingly, many philosophers have taken ad-
vantage of the increasingly sophisticated tools of logic and linguistics in their attempts to
6 The word was invented by Pythagoras. When he was asked if he was already a wise man, he answered, “No, | am not
wise, but | am a /over of wisdom.”
find such definitions. Other philosophers, however, would insist that philosophy is rather
closer to morality and religion, its purpose to give meaning to our lives and lead us down “the
right path” to “the good life.” Still others insist that philosophy is an art, the art of criticism
and argumentation as well as the art of conceptual system building or, perhaps, the art of
creating comprehensive and edifying visions, dazzling metaphors, new ways of thinking. So
considered, philosophy may be akin to storytelling or mythology. Some philosophers place
strong emphasis upon proof and argument; others place their trust in intuition and insight.
Some philosophers reduce all philosophizing to the study of experience; other philosophers
take it as a matter of principle not to trust experience. Also, some philosophers insist on be-
ing practical, in fact, insist that there are no other considerations but practicality; and then
there are others who insist on the purity of the life of ideas, divorced from any practical con-
siderations. But philosophy cannot, without distortion, be reduced to any one of these prefer-
ences. All enter into that constantly redefined critical and creative life of ideas that Socrates
was willing to die for. In fact, Socrates himself insisted that it is the seeking of wisdom that is
the essence of philosophy and that anyone who is sure that he or she has wisdom already is
undoubtedly wrong. In The Apology, for example, he makes this famous disclaimer:
From The Apology

By Plato’
The effect of these investigations of mine, gentlemen, has been to arouse against me a
great deal of hostility, and hostility of a particularly bitter and persistent kind, which
has resulted in various malicious suggestions, including the description of me as a
professor of wisdom. This is due to the fact that whenever I succeed in disproving
another person’s claim to wisdom in a given subject, the bystanders assume that I
know everything about that subject myself. But the truth of the matter, gentlemen,
is pretty certainly this: that real wisdom is the property of God, and this oracle is his
way of telling us that human wisdom has little or no value. It seems to me that he is
not referring literally to Socrates, but has merely taken my name as an example, as if
he would say to us “The wisest of you men is he who has realized, like Socrates, that
in respect of wisdom he 1s really worthless.”
That is why I still go about seeking and searching in obedience to the divine
command, if I think that anyone is wise, whether citizen or stranger; and when I
think that any person is not wise, I try to help the cause of God by proving that he
is not. This occupation has kept me too busy to do much either in politics or in my
own affairs; in fact, my service to God has reduced me to extreme poverty.
In the West (that is, Europe, North America, and those parts of the world most influenced
by them), Socrates remains a pivotal figure. But philosophy did not begin in Greece. It is a
three-thousand-year-old conversation, or, rather, many conversations, that began in many
different places, all around the globe.
The oldest philosophical texts we know are from South Asia, in what is now India, dating
from more than a thousand years before Socrates-three thousand years ago. A remarkable
series of texts, the Vedas, became a source for many of the great religions of the world,
beginning with what came to be called Hinduism (which for many centuries referred only to
7 Plato, The Last Days of Socrates, trans. Hugh Tredennick, Harmondsworth, Middlesex: Penguin, 1954.
14 | INTRODUCTION
a very loose collection of local religious beliefs and practices) and then providing the philo-
sophical foundations for Buddhism. Before Socrates, too, in China, a modest teacher named
Kong Fuzi (“Confucius”) started a very different philosophical tradition, in parallel with an-
other Chinese philosophy called Daoism (sometimes spelled “Taoism”). And in the Middle
East, of course, there was a great deal of philosophical activity, in ancient Persia as well as
in the religious cauldron of Jerusalem. Moreover, there had been philosophers in Greece for
several centuries by the time Socrates came on the scene, so that the world was already
steeped in philosophy. The twentieth-century philosopher Karl Jaspers describes this as “The
Axial Period,” and says that it was the turning point of civilization.
FROM “The ‘Axial Period’”

spy Karl Jaspers®
It would seem that this axis of history is to be found in the period around 500 B.CE.,
in the spiritual process that occurred between 800 and 200 B.C.E. It is there that we
meet with the most deep-cut dividing line in history. Man, as we know him today,
came into being. For short we may style this the “Axial Period.”
The most extraordinary events are concentrated in this period. Confucius and
Lao-Tzu were living in China, all the directions of Chinese philosophy came into
being, including those of Mo-ti, Chuang-tse, Lieh-tsu, and a host of others; India
produced the Upanishads and Buddha, and, like China, ran the whole gamut of
philosophical possibilities down to skepticism, to materialism, sophism and _nihil-
ism; in Iran Zarathustra taught the challenging view of the world as a struggle be-
tween good and evil; in Palestine the prophets made their appearance, from Elyah,
by way of Isaiah and Jeremiah, to Deutero-Isaiah; Greece witnessed the appearance
of Homer, of the philosophers—Parmenides, Heraclitus, and Plato—of the tragedi-
ans, of Thucydides, and of Archimedes. Everything that is merely intimated by these
names developed during these few centuries almost simultaneously in China, India,
and the Occident without any one of these knowing of the others.
What is new about this age, in all three of these worlds, is that man becomes
aware of Being as a whole, of himself and his limitations. He experiences the terrible
nature of the world and his own impotence. He asks radical questions. Face to face
with the void he strives for liberation and redemption. By consciously recognizing
his limits he sets himself the highest goals. He experiences unconditionality in the
depth of selfhood and in the clarity of transcendence.
* Why might it be a good thing to have one’s head in “the clouds"?

* Why does Socrates think it is more difficult to avoid wickedness than death? Why does
he think that one shouldn't avoid death at any cost?
* How does Socrates respond to Crito’s attempt to persuade him to escape? What are his
reasons and arguments for staying in jail? What would you do?
* What makes reason a good reason?
* Is philosophy more like an art or a science?
+ Which requires explanation: the fact that things change (like your body) or the fact that
some things seem eternal (like 2+2 = 4)?
8 From Karl Jaspers, Basic Philosophical Writings—Selections, edited, translated, and with introductions by Edith Ehrlich,
Leonard H. Ehrlich, and George B. Pepper, Athens, OH: Ohio University Press, 1986, pp. 382-387.
Although this book is grounded in the Western tradition since Socrates, it is important
to keep in mind the traditions from Asia as well. It would be utterly foolish to try to summa-
rize the differences between “East and West,” as too many commentators try to do, espe-
cially since the Western tradition is thought to include both the reason-oriented legacy of the
Greeks and the faith-oriented religions of the Hebrews and Christians, and eventually Islam,
too. Furthermore, the diversity of ideas in Asia is colossal, between the “all is One” philosophy
of the ancient Vedas to the world- and self-as-illusion philosophy of Buddhism and the Dao-
(“the Way-") oriented philosophy of the Chinese. But it might be worth making a few rather
simplified comments about similarities and differences. The first concerns the remarkable
affinities between the philosophies that arose in Greece and the Middle East (“Asia minor”)
and the ancient Vedic philosophies, particularly in their mutual fascination with unified expla-
nation. (Think of the “unity of science,” evident even in the earliest Greek philosophies, and
monotheism, which pretty much defined the three great “Western” religions.)
Second, there is a dramatic contrast between the Greek notion of logos, suggesting
“logic” and eternal truth (it also serves a central function in Christianity, as in “in the begin-
ning was the /ogos"), and the Chinese conception of the Dao, which is more oriented toward
change, movement, and process. Closely related to this is the Western affection for polarities
and oppositions (good versus evil, reality versus appearance, the sacred versus the secu-
lar) and the Chinese insistence on yin/yang, the interrelatedness of such seeming opposites.
Of equal importance, Western thought over the past two thousand years has been pretty
much defined by its attempts to come to grips with the idea of the One God. (Atheists, too,
are caught up in the arguments concerning God's nature and existence.) Much of Eastern
thought, by contrast, has no such concern, or it is a very different kind of concern, although
the notion of spirituality plays a central role in many Asian religions.
But while admitting that these very general characterizations brush over a wealth of
interesting differences, it is worth insisting that the inclusion of Asian and other voices in the
text that follows should not be treated as exotic spice added to the substance of philosophy,
nor should it be thought of as mere echoes of Western ideas. Rather, it is an attempt to open
windows to anumber of very different perspectives, sometimes in contrast, sometimes as un-
expected support. But philosophy has many faces and voices, and as one learns to appreciate
the profundity of philosophical inquiries it is necessary to appreciate its diversity as well.
With diversity in mind, we can bring this section to a close with a very different descrip-
tion of philosophy from the ancient Chinese Daoist philosopher Laozi in the texts of the Dao
De Jing.’
oC FRoM Dao De Jing

ANSN By Laozi'°
14
Look for it, and it can’t be seen.
Listen for it, and it can’t be heard.
Grasp for it, and it can’t be caught.
These three cannot be further described,
so we treat them as The One.
9 The philosopher and his text are sometimes referred to in the classic Wade-Giles transliteration as Lao-Tzu and the Tao
Te Ching. The modern pinyin style is now much preferred, and we use it throughout this edition to refer to all Chinese
names.
10 From Lao-Tzu, Tao Te Ching, trans. J. H. McDonald, 1996 (for the public domain).
Exploring the Variety of Random
Documents with Different Content
unmerciful was the treatment of lunatics: and how free was the
consumption of ale, on the smallest possible provocation, at the
parish’s expense; these, and a thousand other minutiæ, all of them
possessing some point of interest, can be gleaned from these annals
of a parish, to say nothing of the perfect genealogy of nearly every
family, together with an account of their varying circumstances, that
might be constructed by their aid.”
The fullest and best information respecting the parish as a unit of the
national life, with much that pertains to the history of its various
officers from the earliest times, will be found in Toulmin Smith’s “The
Parish; its powers and obligations.” The second and best edition was
published in 1857 by H. Sweet, Chancery Lane.
The history of the village and village officers have not hitherto
received the attention they deserve, for all our municipalities have
developed out of village communities, and their various officials are
but those of the petty rural parish adapted to the needs of an urban
population. It will be well on this point to refer to the useful “Index of
Municipal Offices,” with an historical introduction, recently published
by G. Laurence Gomme.
Lists of parochial Charities are sometimes found in the parish
chest, and more frequently on bequest boards in the church; but the
local annotator should not consider that he has got a perfect or
correct list until the elaborate reports of the Charity Commissioners,
compiled some fifty years ago, have been consulted. In 1843, a most
useful Blue Book was published for each county, being an analytical
digest of the voluminous reports arranged under parishes.
Topographical booksellers can generally procure copies of these, by
which a great saving of time will be effected. There are later Reports
with regard to Endowed Schools.
History of the Church.
The Anglo-Saxon Chronicle, or pre-Norman charters, occasionally
give definite information of a church in a particular parish or district,
but as a rule the earliest mention of the parish church will be found in
the previously described Domesday Book. But the Commissioners,
not being specially instructed to make returns of churches, acted on
their own judgment, and in some counties omitted them partially, and
in others altogether.
Taxatio Ecclesiastica P. Nicholai IV.—Pope Nicholas IV. (to
whose predecessors in the See of Rome the first-fruits and tenths of
all ecclesiastical benefices had for a long time been paid) granted
the tenths, in 1288, to Edward I. for six years, towards defraying the
expenses of a Crusade; and that they might be collected to their full
value, the King caused a valuation roll to be drawn up, which was
completed in 1291, under the direction of John, Bishop of
Winchester, and Oliver, Bishop of Lincoln. There are two copies of
this Roll at the P. R. O., both of which appear to have been written in
the reign of Henry IV., and there is a third, which is by far the oldest,
among the Cottonian MSS. of the B. M. These three copies were
collated and printed in a folio volume by the Record Commission in
1802. There are one or two other old copies of this Roll in private
libraries; one in the Chapter Library, Lichfield; and another, in
excellent condition, in the muniment room of Lincoln Cathedral.
Valor Ecclesiasticus. The taxation of 1291 held good, and all the
taxes from the benefices, as well to our Kings as to the Popes, were
regulated by it until 27 Henry VIII., when a new survey was
completed. Henceforth the first-fruits and tenths ceased to be
forwarded to Rome, and were transferred to the Crown. In 1703 the
receipts were appropriated, under the title of Queen Anne’s Bounty,
to the augmentation of the smaller livings. The original returns of the
King’s Valor are at the P. R. O. They were officially published in six
folio volumes between the years 1811 and 1834. In the latter year an
“Introduction” of no little value, was also published in an 8vo. volume,
written by the Rev. Joseph Hunter.
Certificates of Colleges and Chantries. About ten years after
the completion of his ecclesiastical survey, Henry VIII. decided on
appropriating the revenues belonging to Collegiate Churches and
Chantries. As a preliminary measure to their sale, he appointed a
commission, in the 37th year of his reign, to re-value this property,
and to take an inventory of the chattels. The whole subject of the
suppression of the Chantries, as conceived by Henry VIII. and finally
carried out by Edward VI., is ably and exhaustively treated in the
introduction to the volumes of the Cheetham Society, which treat of
the Lancashire Chantries. The reports, or “Certificates,” furnished by
Henry’s Commission with respect to the different chantries, are
preserved at the P. R. O., and are entered on rolls arranged in eight
parallel columns, in answer to a like number of queries. There are
also abridged rolls on paper of some counties. Further information
about chantries may be sometimes gleaned from certain MS.
volumes at the P. R. O., entitled “Particulars for the Sale of Colleges
and Chantries.” In the B. M. (Add. MSS. 8,102) is a valuable roll of
Fees, Corrodies, and Pensions, paid to members of the suppressed
chantries and religious houses, out of the Exchequer, 2 and 3 Philip
and Mary. The pensions for the different counties are on separate
skins, so that it is easy of reference.
Inventories of Church Goods. There are various Inventories of
Church Goods in the P. R. O., taken by Commission at the beginning
of the reign of Edward VI., some on detached slips of parchment,
others in paper books. The inventories are not absolutely perfect for
all parishes in any one county; in several counties the churches of
one or more Hundreds are missing; for others, such as Somerset,
Sussex, and the North Riding of Yorkshire, there are none extant.
Nor are there any for Lincolnshire; but there is a MS. return of
Church Furniture and Ornaments of 150 churches of that county,
taken in 1566, in the Episcopal Registry at Lincoln. This was
published in 1866, by Edward Peacock, F.S.A. There are also some
special Inventories connected with other dioceses, which space
forbids us to mention.
Guilds and Fraternities. Guilds and Fraternities of a more or less
religious character, and usually directly connected with a special
altar at the parish church, will naturally come under the history of the
Church, provided any can be detected in connection with the
particular parish. It used to be supposed that these guilds were only
found in cities or boroughs, but later researches show that they also
occasionally existed in quite small villages. The Parliament of 1381
directed writs to be sent to the sheriffs of each county, calling upon
them to see that the Master and Wardens of all Guilds and
Brotherhoods made returns to the King’s Council in Chancery of all
details pertaining to the foundation, statutes, and property of their
guilds. A large number of the original returns (549) still remain in the
P. R. O., where they are known as “Miscellaneous Rolls, Tower
Records, Bundles cccviii. ix. x.” For some counties there are none
extant, and for others only those from a single Hundred. More than
one hundred of these returns have recently been printed or
analysed, by Toulmin Smith, in a volume of the Early English Text
Society, entitled “English Gilds.”
Heraldic Church Notes. In the different heraldic visitation books,
especially those temp. Elizabeth, which have been previously
described, there often occur interesting church notes, which not only
detail heraldic glass in the windows and arms on the monuments,
but also occasionally give inscriptions that have long since
disappeared. These can only be found by a careful inspection of the
heralds’ register books of the county in which the parish is situated.
Commonwealth Survey. In pursuance of various ordinances of the
Parliament, a complete survey of the possessions of Bishops,
Deans, and Chapters, and of all benefices, was made in 1650, by
specially appointed Commissioners. These interesting returns, filling
twenty-one large folio volumes, are in the library of Lambeth Palace,
and numbered in the catalogue of MSS. from 902 to 922. These
surveys have hitherto been singularly overlooked by county
historians and ecclesiologists, though occasional extracts have been
published from a much-abbreviated and inaccurate summary, based
on these documents, which forms No. 459 of the Lansdowne MSS.
in the B. M.
The Record Books of the Commonwealth Commissioners for
augmenting Rectories and Vicarages (MSS. 966-1,021); the original
Presentations to various benefices from 1652 to 1659 (MSS. 944-7);
and Counterparts of leases of Church Lands, made by authority of
Parliament from 1652 to 1658 (MSS. 948-50), are also in Lambeth
Library.
Briefs. Royal Letters Patent, authorising collections for charitable
purposes within churches, were termed “Briefs.” Lists of them, from
the time of Elizabeth downwards, are often to be found on the fly-
leaves of old register books, or in churchwardens’ accounts. The
repair or rebuilding of churches in post-Reformation days, until
nearly the beginning of the Catholic Revival, was almost invariably
effected by this method. About the middle of last century, owing to
the growing frequency of Briefs, it was ordered that they should only
be granted on the formal application of Quarter Sessions. Much
information as to the condition of the fabrics and other particulars
relative to churches can be gathered from the petitions to Quarter
Sessions, in those counties where the documents are accessible.
The Briefs themselves were issued from the Court of Chancery, so
we suppose they would be attainable at the P. R. O. At the B. M. is a
large collection of original Briefs, from 1754 down to their abolition in
1828. They were presented to the Museum in 1829, by Mr. J.
Stevenson Salt.
Advowson. The history of the advowson, if the living remained a
rectory, was almost invariably intermixed with that of the manor or
the moieties of the manor. Consequently it will be found, that, in the
case of rectories, various particulars as to the owners of the
advowson, and its value, at different periods, can be gleaned from
the Inquisitions, and from the Patent and Close Rolls to which
references have already been made; or, in the case of litigation, from
the Plea Rolls and Year Books. If the living became at any time a
Vicarage, care should be taken to look through the particulars given
by Dugdale and Tanner, of the religious house to which the big tithes
were appropriated, and more especially to carefully search the
chartularies of that establishment, if any are extant. There is an
excellent list of the various monastic Chartularies, i.e., ancient
parchment books, containing transcripts or abstracts of the charters
of the different houses, in the first two volumes of Nichols’
“Collectanea Topographica et Genealogica,” and a shorter one in
Sims’ “Manual.”
The Ordination of a Vicarage, i.e., the official appropriation of certain
parts of the endowment for the sustentation of a vicar, required
episcopal confirmation; and these ordinations will usually be found in
the Episcopal Registers, if they are extant for the date when the
rectory was formally appropriated. These ordinations often contain
information of great interest, and have hitherto been very rarely
searched for, and still more rarely printed.
The terms used in these documents for different sorts of tithes, for
the various produce of the soil, etc., etc., will be sought for in vain in
any ordinary Latin Dictionary; for their explanation it will be
necessary to consult a Glossary of mediæval or monastic terms. The
most handy and accurate is the abridged edition of the Glossaries of
Du Cange, Du Fresne, etc., in six vols. 8vo., published at Halle,
between 1722-1784. Some such work will also be found
indispensable in consulting the monastic Chartularies and many of
the Records and Rolls. The majority of the terms will be found in the
last two editions of Cowel’s “Interpreter,” 1708, and 1737, which can
much more readily be met with than the larger glossaries; but there
is great need for a one volume compendious glossary, and it is
hoped that such a work may shortly be published.
Lists of Incumbents. Lists of rectors and vicars, giving the date of
their institution, and the names of their respective patrons, are
indispensable to a complete parochial history. They are, for the most
part, to be obtained from the diocesan registers. This work, in
several dioceses, will be found to involve no small labour, for
Bishop’s registrars were not always particular to separate institutions
from other Episcopal acts, and occasionally placed them in precise
chronological order for the whole diocese, without any regard to
archdeaconries and other minor divisions. But the trouble will be
amply repaid by the numerous quaint and interesting little details that
the searcher will be almost sure to discover. Many of our episcopal
registers, or act books, are of supreme interest, and yet they are
perhaps less known than any class of original documents. The dates
at which these registers begin average about the year 1300. We
give, for the first time in any manual, their respective initial years:—
Canterbury, 1279; London, 1306; Winchester, 1282; Ely 1336;
Lincoln, 1217; Lichfield, 1296; Wells, 1309; Salisbury, 1296; Exeter,
1257; Norwich, 1299; Worcester, 1268; Hereford, 1275; Chichester,
1397; Rochester, 1319; York, 1214; and Carlisle, 1292. The old
registers of Durham are mostly lost, that of Bishop Kellaw, 1311-18,
being the oldest. None of the Welsh Cathedrals have any registers
older than the 16th century.
Gaps are not unusual in the episcopal registers for some time
subsequent to the Reformation, when the books were often kept in a
slovenly fashion. These deficiencies can be generally supplied from
the lists of institutions in the Augmentation Books at the P. R. O.
It is scarcely necessary to say that no list of incumbents should be
considered complete, until it has been carefully collated with the
parish registers.
Catalogues of all the English Bishops are to be found in Canon
Stubbs’s “Registrum Sacrum Anglicanum;” and similar lists of Deans,
Prebendaries, and minor dignitaries, in Hardy’s edition of Le Neve’s
“Fasti Ecclesiæ Anglicanæ.” Both of these works may probably be
useful when drawing up the list of parish priests.
Lists of priests appointed to the more important chantries can usually
also be extracted from the diocesan registers, for, except in peculiar
circumstances, they required episcopal institution.
Any facts of interest or importance that can be ascertained
respecting the successive incumbents should be chronicled. For the
time of the Commonwealth, Walker’s “Sufferings of the Clergy” on
the one hand, and Calamy’s “Ejected Ministers” on the other, should
be consulted. They both make mention of a very great number of the
clergy.
Dedication. The dedication of the church should never be taken for
granted from county gazetteers or directories. Dedications to All
Saints, and to the Blessed Virgin, should be viewed with some
suspicion until firmly established, for in the time of Henry VIII. the
dedication festivals, or “wakes,” were often transferred to All Saints’
Day, or Lady Day, in order to avoid a multiplicity of holidays, and
hence by degrees the real dedication became forgotten. Ecton’s
“Thesaurus Rerum Ecclesiasticarum” (1742), and Bacon’s “Liber
Regis” (1786), should be consulted for dedications. Occasionally the
patron saints of the different churches are mentioned in the
institutions in the episcopal registers, and more often in monastic
chartularies; but the surest of all references, in the case of a doubtful
dedication, is to look up the pre-Reformation wills of the lords of the
manor or other chief people of the parish. These wills almost
invariably contain an early clause to this effect:—“I leave my body to
be buried within the church of St. ——.” The time of the wakes or
village feast is a good guide to the dedication, but one which, from
the reason stated above, as well as from other causes, must not be
implicitly relied upon.
Another point worth remembering with regard to dedications, is that
re-consecration was not of unfrequent occurrence. Murder and some
other crimes within the church, as well as special violations of the
altar, rendered re-consecration imperative; and it was also often
resorted to when the fabric was altogether or considerably rebuilt, or
even when a new chancel was added. At the time of these re-
consecrations, it occasionally happened that the name of the patron
saint was changed, not from mere caprice or love of novelty, but
because relics of that particular saint were obtained for inclosure in
the chief or high altar. This should be borne in mind when a
discrepancy is found in the name of the patron saint of the same
church at different epochs.
The chapter of Parker’s “Calendar of the Anglican Church,” entitled
“A few remarks on the dedication of English Churches,” is worth
reading. This book is also valuable for the brief account of the saints
most frequently met with in England, both in dedications and
otherwise. The first half of the book has been re-published once or
twice, under the title of “Calendar of the Prayer Book,” but it leaves
out the chapters here mentioned, and is comparatively valueless as
compared with the edition of 1851. Harington “On the Consecration
of Churches,” published by Rivington in 1844, should also be read.
Description of the Church.
Having finished the history of the Church, it will be best to follow it up
by a description of the fabric of the Church, and of all its details.
Styles of Architecture. In deciding as to the different “periods”
under which to classify the various styles into which almost every
parish church is more or less divided, it is perhaps wisest to confine
oneself to the simple and generally accepted divisions of English
architecture, originally adopted by Mr. Rickman, viz. (1) the Saxon,
from 800 to 1066; (2) the Norman, from 1066 to 1145; (3) the Early
English, from 1145 to 1272; (4) the Decorated, from 1272 to 1377;
and (5) the Perpendicular, from 1377 to 1509. Some competent
writers always speak of three periods of Transition, covering the
reigns of Henry II., Edward I., and Richard II.; whilst others, and this
may be well adopted, speak of only one regular “Transition,”
meaning by that term the period between the Early English and
Decorated, or the reign of Edward I. (1272-1307).
These divisions are generally accepted as sufficing for popular
purposes; but of the more detailed and technical divisions of later
writers, there are none so correct in nomenclature, and so accurate
in separation of style, as the seven periods of Mr. Edmund Sharpe.
The first and second of his periods are the same as given above, but
the third is styled the Transitional, from 1145 to 1190; the fourth, the
Lancet, from 1190 to 1245; the fifth, the Geometrical, from 1245 to
1315; the sixth, the Curvilinear, from 1315 to 1360; and the seventh,
the Rectilinear, from 1360 to 1550. See Sharpe’s “Seven Periods of
English Architecture,” with its excellent series of plates.
There are numerous architectural manuals, but Parker’s “Glossary of
Gothic Architecture” has not been surpassed, and is very
comprehensive. The best edition is the fourth, with the two additional
volumes of plates.
Before classifying the different parts of the building according to the
various periods, a most careful inspection should be made of both
inner and outer walls, when fragments of mouldings, pertaining
possibly to an earlier church than any now standing, may not
unfrequently be detected.
Monuments. Inscriptions on monuments now missing, or partly
obliterated, may sometimes be recovered from the Church Notes of
Heraldic Visitations, or other MS. note books of ecclesiologists of
past generations, in which some counties are peculiarly fortunate.
For a list of MSS. of this description, that may be found in our public
libraries, arranged under counties, see Sims’ “Manual.” It may also
be useful to refer to two printed works—Le Neve’s “Monumenta
Anglicana,” 5 vols. 8vo. (1717-1719), and Weever’s “Ancient
Funerall Monuments,” the latest edition of which, with additions, is a
4to. vol. of 1767. The former gives inscriptions on monuments of
eminent persons who deceased between 1600 and 1718, the latter
treats generally of all monuments in the dioceses of Canterbury,
Rochester, London, and Norwich. Bloxam, on “Monumental
Architecture” (1834), is a useful handbook on the general subject of
monuments.
Cutts’ “Manual of Sepulchral Slabs and Crosses” is the only book
dealing with the interesting subject of early incised slabs. It is well
done, but much more has come to light on the subject since it was
written (1849), and a new manual is much wanted. In some counties,
where stone abounds, remains of this description are found in most
churches. If any part of the church is being rebuilt, the debris should
be most carefully looked over; and a minute inspection of the
existing masonry will often detect more or less perfect specimens of
incised crosses that have been utilised in the masonry by the church
restorers of past generations. The lintels of the windows (especially
of the clerestory and of the tower), the inner side of the parapets or
battlements, the stone seats of the porch, and of course the whole of
the flooring, should be critically scanned for these relics. See also
Boutell’s “Christian Monuments.”
Haines’ “Manual of Monumental Brasses” (2 vols. 8vo., 1861) is the
best book on that class of memorials. The second volume consists of
a fairly exhaustive list of brasses throughout the kingdom.
There is no good handbook dealing exclusively with stone effigies,
a great desideratum; the big illustrated folios of Gough’s “Sepulchral
Monuments,” and Stothard’s “Monumental Effigies,” may be
consulted with advantage. For the details of armour, Hewitt’s
“Ancient Armour and Weapons in Europe” (3 vols) is the most
exhaustive work; for the details of costume there are several
expensive works, but the best handbook is Fairholt’s “Costume in
England,” to which is appended an illustrated glossary of terms.
In connection with stained or painted Glass, Winston’s “Hints on
Glass Painting” (2nd edition, 1867) should be read, wherein the
different styles of successive periods are critically distinguished and
illustrated.
For the important item of Heraldry, both in glass and on
monuments, the best of the numerous manuals (and there are
several very trashy) is Cussan’s “Handbook of Heraldry.” Burke’s
“General Armoury,” of which a new and extended edition was
published in 1878, is a dictionary of arms classified under families.
Papworth’s “Dictionary of British Armorials” is arranged on the
opposite principle, viz., the blazonry or description of the arms is
given first, and the name of the family or families to which it pertains
follows. It is an expensive work, but indispensable in the
identification of arms. It will also be found to be far more accurate
than Burke, and gives references to the various rolls and other MSS.
from which the arms are cited.
Fonts are almost a speciality in themselves. Simpson’s “Series of
Ancient Baptismal Fonts,” 1825, has a large number of beautifully
finished plates of the more remarkable examples. Paley’s “Baptismal
Font,” 1844, has illustrations and critical descriptions of a great
number, arranged alphabetically. See also the “Archæologia,” vols. x.
and xi.
Bells have now a literature of their own. Ellacombe’s “Bells of the
Church,” and Fowler’s “Bells and Bell-ringing” are admirable works.
The inscriptions, etc., on the church bells of the majority of English
counties have already been published, and most of the remainder
are now in progress. North’s “Bells of Leicestershire,” and “Bells of
Northamptonshire,” are the best books of their class, but the “Bells of
Derbyshire,” now in course of publication in the “Reliquary,” and
chiefly contributed by St. John Hope, are being yet more thoroughly
treated, both in description and illustration.
Church Plate should always be inspected, and the date, character,
inscription, or arms on each piece carefully recorded. Chaffers’ “Hall
Marks on Plate” gives the fullest description of the different marks,
and how the precise date can be thereby ascertained. The fifth
edition, published in 1875, is a considerable improvement on its
predecessors.
Inventories of Church Goods often need explanation, or remains
of various ancient church furniture may make some description
necessary. There is no one book that can be thoroughly
recommended on this subject; but, perhaps, the most satisfactory in
some respects is Walcott’s “Sacred Archæology,” a popular
dictionary of ecclesiastical art and institutions. Jules Corblet’s
“Manuel Elémentaire d’Archéologie Nationale” may be consulted
with advantage; it is a better done work than anything of the size and
scope in English, and is well illustrated. For the various details of
Church worship and ceremonies, reference should be made to
Rock’s “Church of our Fathers,” and to Chambers’ valuable work,
“Divine Worship in England in the Thirteenth and Fourteenth
Centuries, contrasted with and adapted to that in the Nineteenth.”
Before beginning the description of the Church, it will be well, in the
first place, in order to ensure clearness and accuracy, that some
general plan of procedure should be adopted. We give the
following skeleton of a suggested outline, that has been proved to be
useful and orderly, but it can, of course, be altered or expanded or
re-arranged in any direction.
1. Enumeration of component parts of structure, remarks as to its
general or special characteristics.
2 Ground plan, i.e., dimensions of area of chancel, nave, etc.,
different levels, and number of chancel and altar steps.
3. Description of parts of the permanent structure that are (a) Saxon,
(b) Norman, (c) Early English, (d) Transition, (e) Decorated, (f)
Perpendicular, (g) Debased, (h) Churchwarden, and (i) Restored.
Some definite order should be observed under each head, otherwise
it is likely that some details may escape, e.g. doorways, windows,
piers, arches, etc., of chancel, nave, aisles, porches, transepts,
tower, and chapels.
4. External details—parapets, gurgoyles, niches, stoup, arms,
inscriptions, “low side windows.”
5. Internal details—[Stone] altar or altar stone, piscina, almery,
hagioscope, Easter or sepulchral recess, niches, brackets, roof-
corbels, and sedilia of (a) chancel, (b) south aisle, (c) north aisle,
and (d) chapels or transepts; also groined roofs, doorway or steps to
roodloft, and stone screens—[Wood] altar table, altar rails, reading
desk, lectern, pulpit, pews, benches, poppy-heads, panelling, roofs,
doors, galleries, rood or chancel screen, other screens or parcloses,
parish or vestment chests, alms boxes—[Iron or other metal]—any
old details.
6. Font—(a) position, (b) description, (c) measurements, (d) cover.
7. Monuments—beginning with early incised stones, and carefully
following them down in chronological order, an order which should
not be broken except for the purpose of keeping a family group
together. Arms should be correctly blazoned, and inscriptions
faithfully copied.
8. Stained glass, according to age.
9. Encaustic tiles—pavement generally.
10. Fresco paintings, black-letter texts, patterns on roof or
elsewhere, royal arms, charity bequest boards.
11. Bells—(a) number, (b) inscription and marks, (c) frame, (d)
remarkable peals, or bell-ringers rhymes, (e) legends; also sanctus
bell, or bell cote on nave gable.
12. Parish registers and other documents; church books, or library.
13. Church plate.
14. Church yard, (a) cross, (b) remarkable monuments or epitaphs,
(c) yew tree, (d) lychgate, (e) sundial.
15. More recent fittings or ornaments, such as altar appurtenances,
organ, etc.; the previous headings being supposed to be confined to
older details possessing some historic value. But if the date, or
probable date, is given of each particular, it might perhaps be as well
to describe everything (if a complete account up to date is desired)
under its proper head; thus a modern altar cross and candlesticks
might be mentioned under the 5th head.
A few words on church “Restoration” may be here introduced; for it
cannot surely be inappropriate to include a sentence or two in these
pages (whose object it is to further the preservation of local records),
that may possibly have some small influence in preventing the
needless destruction of any part of those noble buildings round
which the history of each English parish so closely clusters. From the
standpoint of a local annalist nothing has been more painful in the
“restorations” of the past forty years than the wanton way in which
monuments, and more especially flat tombstones, of all ages, have
been often treated.
It is necessary to enter a warm protest against the notion that any
honour can be paid to God, or respect to the memory of those that
He created in His own image, by burying inscribed gravestones
beneath many inches of concrete in order to stick therein the glossy
tiles of recent manufacture. The effacing or removal (wherever it can
be avoided) of the memorials of the dead should in all cases be
strongly resisted, no matter what be the eminence of the architect
that recommends it. There are not many unrestored churches left in
the country, but there are some of much value and interest for whose
fate we tremble. When a “restoration” (the term is a necessity for the
lack of a better) is contemplated, let it be recollected that all work—
beyond the removal of galleries, and modern fittings, the opening out
of flat plaster ceilings, above which good timber roofs often lie
concealed, the scraping off the accumulated layers of whitewash and
paint, the letting in of light through blocked-up windows, the allowing
of feet to pass through doorways closed in recent days by the mason
or bricklayer, and the making strong of really perishing parts—all
work beyond this is in great danger of destroying the traces of the
historic continuity of our Church, and of doing a damage that can
never be repaired. And in preserving this historic continuity, let it not
be thought that any service is being rendered to history or religion by
sweeping clean out of the church all fittings of a post-Reformation
date. The sturdy Elizabethan benches, the well-carved Jacobean
pulpit, or the altar rails of beaten iron of last century, should all be
preserved as memorials of their respective periods; in short,
everything that our forefathers gave to God’s service that was costly
and good, should be by us preserved, provided that it does not mar
the devout ritual ordered by the Common Prayer, or in other respects
interfere with the Church’s due proclaiming of her Divine mission to
the nineteenth century. The reaction against over-restoration is now
happily setting in, but a word of caution is also necessary lest that
cry should be adopted as the cloak of a lazy indifferentism, or be
used as an excuse for regarding the parish church as a local
museum illustrative of byegone times, to be carefully dusted and
nothing more. Where much new work, or any considerable extent of
refitting, seem absolutely necessary, it is best to hasten slowly, and
to do a little well rather than to aim at a speedy general effect. Thus,
if one of our old grey churches requires fresh seating, how much
better to fill a single aisle or one bay of the nave with sound and
effectively carved oak, and only repair the remainder, rather than to
accomplish the whole in sticky pine. The best material and the best
art should surely be used in God’s service, and not reserved to feed
our pride or minister to our comfort in private dwellings. It has often
been noticed how far better the work of redeeming the interior of our
churches from that state of dirt and neglect that had degraded some
at least below the level of the very barns upon the glebe, has been
carried out where money has come in slowly, and at intervals, rather
than where some munificent patron has readily found the funds to
enter upon a big contract.
Religious Houses.
If the parish includes within its boundaries the remains or the site of
any abbey, priory, hospital, monastic cell, or other religious building
otherwise than the parish church, the history and description of such
places must of course be separately undertaken. And let not the
local historian consider it is needless for him to explore into a subject
that has probably been treated of with greater or less detail in the
original edition of Dugdale’s “Monasticon,” or with more precision in
the expanded English edition. The English abbeys or priories, whose
history can be said to have been exhaustively written, could certainly
be counted on the fingers of both hands.
Should any one desire to thoroughly search into the history of a
religious house, it will be best in the first place to ascertain whether
there is any chartulary or chartularies extant (to printed lists of which
we have previously referred) for Dugdale and subsequent writers
have often only quoted some two or three out of a hundred charters,
or ignored them altogether. Secondly, the numerous references to
national records, all now to be found at the P. R. O., which are given
in Tanner’s “Notitia,” or in the big Dugdale, should be referred to
seriatim. Thirdly, the indexes and calendars to the various Rolls, etc.,
at the P. R. O., which have been mentioned under the manorial
history, should be looked through for those more or less frequent
references that are almost certain to have been omitted by Tanner.
Fourthly, the Augmentation Books, and other likely documents of the
time of the Suppression of the Monasteries, should be overhauled.
Fifthly, special MSS. dealing with the order to which the house
pertains, should be sought after; e.g., if of the Premonstratensian
order, a store of unpublished matter is almost certain to be found in
the Peck MSS. of the B. M., and in the Visitation Book of the B.,
numbered Ashmole MSS. 1519. Sixthly, search should also be made
through the indexes of the various Blue Book Reports of the
Historical Manuscript Commission, and inquiries set on foot as to
local private libraries. Seventhly, and though last, this suggestion will
often be found to be of great value, questions should be asked
through the pages of that invaluable medium between literary men—
Notes and Queries.
It may also be found of use to study the precise statutes and
regulations of the particular order. They will be found in full in the
bulky folios of Holstein’s “Codex Regularum Monasticarum et
Canonicarum,” 1759. Dugdale only gives an abstract of the majority
of them.
General Topics.
Under this head we may classify the more general and modern
subjects that should not be left out of any complete parochial history,
but which it is sufficient just to indicate without further comment, only
premising that the annalist should keep constantly before him that it
is the history of a parish, and not of a county or country, on which he
is engaged, and that the more sparing he is of general disquisitions
the more likely he is to please his readers.
The value of a thorough study of the field-names, of which we spoke
in the first section of this manual, will now also become apparent.
Some names will tell of a change of physical features, of swamps
and islands, where all is now dry and far removed from water, or of
forests and underwood, where the blade of corn is now the highest
vegetation; whilst others will point to the previous existence of the
vast common fields, and their peculiar cultivation (concerning which
Maine’s “Village Communities” should be read). Some will indicate
the foolish ways in which special crops were attempted to be forced
by law upon the people, for it is few parishes that have not a “Flax
Piece” as a witness to the futile legislation of 24 Henry VIII.; whilst
others tell of trades now extinct, or metals long since worked out.
Some speak of those early days when the wolf or the bear roamed
the woods and fields, the beaver dammed up the streams, or the
eagle swooped down upon its prey; whilst others tell of the weapons
whereby these fauna were rendered extinct, for scarcely a township
can be found where some field is not termed “the Butts,” names that
certainly date back as far as Edward IV., when it was enacted that
every Englishman should have a bow of his own height, and that
butts for the practice of archery should be erected near every village,
where the inhabitants were obliged to shoot up and down on every
feast day under penalty of being mulcted a halfpenny.
It will, of course, be a matter of taste whether the topics here
enumerated should precede or follow the manorial and ecclesiastical
history.
I. Situation—extent—hill and river—caverns and springs—scenic
character—climate and temperature.
II. Geology—mineral workings—quarries.
III. Special vegetable productions, past and present.
IV. Special Fauna—mammalia—birds—fish—reptiles—insects.
V. Agriculture, past and present. Inclosures of different dates—
Inclosure Acts; for the mostly sad effects of these most selfish Acts,
which profited the rich at the expense of the poor, for lists of
inclosures from time of Queen Anne, and for other valuable
information on this topic, see “General Report on Enclosures,” drawn
up by the Board of Agriculture in 1808. The Board of Agriculture, in
the first quarter of this century, drew up most valuable Surveys of
Agriculture for the different counties, many of which are replete with
varied and interesting information. On the economic and antiquarian
side of this question, read Professor Rogers’s “History of Agriculture
and Prices in England.”
VI. Trades and manufactures, past and present.
VII. Fairs and markets.
VIII. Roads, canals, railways, and bridges—past and present. Care
should be taken in tracing out disused roads, bridle paths, or pack-
horse tracks.
IX. Folk-lore. Under this head will come customs and ceremonies
relating to childbearing, churching, christening, courtship, betrothal,
marriage, death, and burial—public-house signs and their meaning—
customs and superstitious pertaining to wells and streams—used
and disused sports and games—obsolete punishments, such as
ducking-stool or stocks—omens—witchcraft—ghosts—charms—
divinations—and other quaint or original customs. Several books
have lately been published on this subject, but they are mostly
instances of book-making, and none come up to or surpass Ellis’s
edition of “Brand’s Popular Antiquities.” A most useful publication
society has been recently started, termed “The Folk Lore Society,”

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Part One |The World and Beyond 41

Part Two |Know Thyself 283

5|MIND AND BODY 332

Part Three |The Good andthe Right 445

C. A Modern Approach to Philosophy 16

D. A Brief Introduction to Logic 23

Part One |The World and Beyond 41

B. The Western Religions 49

C. Proving God: The Ontological Argument 52

D. God as Creator: Intelligence and Design 60

E. Religion, Morality, and Evil 69

F. Beyond Reason: Faith and Irrationality 85

G. Doubts about Religion 94

Summary and Conclusion 102

CHAPTER 2| REALITY 105

A. “The Way the World Really Is” 105

B. The First Greek Philosophers 107

C. Ultimate Reality in the East: India, Persia, and China 117

D. Two Kinds of Metaphysics: Plate and Aristotle 126

E. Modern Metaphysics 147

René Descartes, from “Meditation VI" 151

Summary and Conclusion 178

Bertrand Russell, from The Problems of Philosophy 182

A. The Rationalist’s Confidence: Descartes 186

B. Innate ideas Concerning Human Understanding: John Locke 197

C. Two Empiricist Theories of Knowledge 201

D. The Congenial Skeptic: David Hume 216

E. Kant’s Revolution 230

F. The Battle in Europe After Kant: Relativism and Absolutism 237

H. Hermeneutics and Pragmatism: Relativism Reconsidered 253

i. The Analytic Turn 264

J. Feminist Epistemology 272

Summary and Conclusion 279

Part Two | Know Thyself 283

A. Consciousness and the Self: From Descartes to Kant 287

B. Existentialism: Self-identity and the Responsibility of Choice 303

C. The Individual and the Community 310

Summary and Conclusion 330

CHAPTER 5| MIND AND BODY 332