NUMBER BASES

PADMAPRIYA SHIRALI
 NUMBER BASES
Students learn to count, read and write numbers in the decimal system for the first seven years of
their schooling. They also learn how to read analogue clocks and use Roman numerals, and they may
come across words such as feet, dozen and pound.

If they are to gain a good understanding and appreciation of the decimal base system, it is desirable
that they are exposed to other number base systems like binary and hexadecimal, and do some
operations in non-positional systems like the Roman system.

Through this exercise, students begin to understand the underlying structure of the positional system
and its usage in other number bases. It helps them realise that the decimal base system is only one
amongst other possible number systems. My experience of teaching number bases to students of
class 6 has always been very rewarding, and I recommend it to all maths teachers of classes 6 and 7.

The Mohenjo-Daro culture of the Indus Valley was using a form of decimal numbering some 5,000
years ago as weights: 1/20, 1/10, 1/5, 1/2. The poet-mathematician Pingala (3rd/2nd century BCE)
developed the binary number system for Sanskrit prosody, with a clear mapping to the base ten
decimal system.

It is, of course, well known that the invention of zero as a number happened later in India. (The
notion of zero did arise in some earlier cultures, but it served only as a placeholder, and it never
entered into any arithmetical operations.)

The Roman system, which is not a positional system with its many symbols (I, V, X, L, C, D and M), is
cumbersome and difficult to use as the numbers begin to grow in size. To write a million, one would
have to use a thousand M’s! Creating more and more symbols poses its own difficulties. Another
major difficulty with the Roman system is the complexity of doing number operations. Try adding
CLMDV to LDVXC, and you will see this for yourself!

Historically, vocations like carpentry and masonry needed facility with fractions. Wrenches are made
in inches with half, quarter, eighth and sixteenths as their measures. Working with these measures
and performing mathematical operations can be difficult, e.g., when fractions have to be multiplied.
Yet, in many areas we continue to use fractions. Usage of fractions is evident in pizzas: a pizza is
generally divided into 8 pieces. It would be difficult to divide a pizza into ten equal pieces!

In measurement of weight and volume, base 16 has often been used. An ounce equals 16 drams, a
pound is 16 ounces, a cup equals 16 tablespoons, and a gallon is 16 cups.

Base 12 is familiar to us in the measurement of time, in cooking, etc. We often count items such
as fruits and eggs in dozens. A dozen dozens is called a gross. And there are 12 months in a year.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Duodecimal

In today’s world, computers use the binary system as binary systems can be easily represented as on/
off in electrical circuits. The input is either a zero or a one. This simplifies the information as there
are only two states of representation. Computers also use groups of four digits, eight digits, and
sixteen digits. Easy conversions between binary systems and octal or hexadecimal systems aid in the
computations. However, we will not discuss this connection in this article.

While we have used varied systems through history, for everyday purposes we generally use the
decimal system. One must see, however, that each system has its advantages and disadvantages. In
some systems, the number representations may be very long (as there are too few symbols), while in
some other systems, there may be too many symbols.

Azim Premji University At Right Angles, March 2022 3

 HOW DOES THE DECIMAL SYSTEM COMPARE
WITH OTHER NUMBER BASED SYSTEMS?

Finger counting: The fact that human beings had to make a choice today, perhaps the decimal
have ten fingers makes counting in tens easier. system will continue to be an obvious choice.
Counting in other bases using the fingers can
However, the binary, hexadecimal, and
prove to be difficult.
duodecimal systems have their rightful place in
Length of representation: A binary number many areas.
system leads to long representations of numbers.
In this article, we will explore the binary,
For instance, the base 10 number 365 is written
hexadecimal and duodecimal (base twelve)
in base two as 101101101. The same number in
systems.
the hexadecimal system is written as 16D. These
systems are explained further down in the article.
Comment
Number of symbols: If the number of symbols is I prefer to help students discover the underlying
large as in the case of the hexadecimal system (0 common structure by playing with and
to 9, A, B, C, D, E, F), then one has to commit to manipulating the numbers. As a second step I
memory several symbols and learn to handle many connect it with their understanding of writing
more operations. For example, we must know the numbers in exponential form and discovering the
values of C + F, D × E, and so on. common structure. Others might prefer to explain
In daily life, one needs to choose a base for which the underlying common structure that holds for all
representations are not too long, and at the same number bases at the beginning and then develop
time the number of symbols is manageable. If we the topic. I will leave this choice to the reader.

BASE 2: BINARY SYSTEM

The binary system has been used in different forms • Obviously, 1 (base ten) gets represented by 1,
in the distant past, in ancient civilisations like Egypt, and a zero by 0.
China and India. In the recent past, it was Leibniz • To represent 2 (base ten), a new place is needed;
and George Boole who studied these systems and 2 is represented by 10.
worked on them.
The teacher can bring in the connection with the
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Binary_number
bundling idea that students have learnt in their
The word ‘Bi’ means two. It is a system with two early years. Ten units are bundled to make one
digits. Each digit is referred to as a bit (from ten which is represented in a new place as 10. Ten
binary and digit). tens are bundled to make one hundred which is
represented as 100.
A single binary digit is called a ‘bit’. 1001 is read as
Similarly, in the binary system, a set of two is
‘one, zero, zero, one’. It is four bits long.
bundled to make 10. Since 3 (base ten) is one more
Binary system or base two system implies the than 2 (base ten), 3 (base ten) is represented by 11.
usage of two digits 1 and 0 in the framework of a 4 (base ten) which is two sets of two is bundled to
positional system. make a 100.
How do we represent different numbers in this 5 (base ten) is one more than 4 (base ten), hence is
system? represented in base two by 101.

Decimal
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12
number
Binary
0 1 10 11 100 101 110 111 1000 1001 1010 1011 1100
number

4 Azim Premji University At Right Angles, March 2022

The sequence would begin to look like this: (i.e. 10 bundles of ten units). Similarly, to write a
thousand (103), we require a new place yet again
Students should be encouraged to build a table
(i.e. 10 bundles of hundred units).
like this, in sequence, till 25 (base ten).
Students can contrast the positional system of the
Also, they need to maintain the sequence; that
Binary and Decimal numbers.
is, after reaching (say) 1000, the whole process
begins again, starting from the rightmost place: Students need to observe the similarities to
1001, 1010, 1011, etc. Do the students see the understand the underlying structure of different
similarity between this and the way decimal based systems by studying the figure below. In a
numbers increase: 101, 102, 103, 104…? decimal system what would replace the numbers
from 27 to 20?
After writing numbers till 25 in binary form, the
students should answer these questions: What digits may appear instead of just 0 and 1?

At which points did we have to create a new Here is a decimal number: 59012.
place? What would be the next number that
Note: The word coefficient will need to be
requires a new place? Check and see. It turns out
explained.
to be 32.
59012 = 5 × 104 + 9 ×103 + 0 × 102 + 1 × 101 + 2 ×100
Observe the pattern and determine what would
be the next number after 32 that requires a new Look at the coefficients in this expansion. What
place. It is 64. are they? They are the digits 0, 1, 2, 5, 9. In a
decimal number the coefficient can be any digit
What can you say about these numbers?
from 0 to 9.
2, 4, 8, 16, 32, 64, …
Here is a binary number: 10110011.
They are powers of 2. Each power of 2 becomes a
10110011 = 1 × 27 + 0 × 26 + 1 × 25 + 1 × 24 + 0 × 23
transition point to a new place. Notice that in the
+ 0 × 22 + 1 × 21 + 1 × 20
decimal system too, each power of 10 becomes a
transition point. Look at the coefficients in this expansion. What
are they? They are the digits 0, 1. In a binary
After 9, to write ten (10 ), we require the tens
1
number the coefficients can be either 0 or 1.
place (which is a bundle of 10 units). To write
a hundred (102), we again require a new place What is common to the two expansions?

Azim Premji University At Right Angles, March 2022 5

 DRAWING PATTERNS WITH BINARY NUMBERS

Build up a table of binary numbers. Shade all the

1’s. Does it give rise to a nice pattern?

Thumb down, pointer finger down, middle up,

ring finger up, little finger up. What number is
that? 7.

Fun activity
How many numbers can you count using your
fingers? Most students will answer ‘ten’ as we
have ten fingers.

Show the students how we can use our fingers

to count till 31 using just one hand, and till 1023
using both hands!

Use the fingers as binary digits starting from the

little finger. If the finger is down, it is a 0. If it is Thumb down, pointer finger up, middle finger up,
up, it is a 1. Each finger represents a power of 2 if ring finger up, little finger down. What number is
it is up. that? 14.

With ten fingers, it is possible to show all the

numbers from 0 to 1023.

6 Azim Premji University At Right Angles, March 2022

BINARY CONVERSIONS

Can the students now convert a binary number to a decimal number? Their facility in doing this conversion
will reveal their understanding of the structure. In the process of converting binary to decimal, they will use
powers of 2 and expanded notation.

Would they be able to convert a decimal number to a binary number?

Figuring out the process of converting decimal to binary is an interesting investigation to try in the class.
Will the students use the highest power of 2 less than the given number and work out the answer, step-by-
step? Example: Take 1050. The power of 2 closest to and less than 1050 is 1024. When that is removed, the
remainder is 1050 – 1024 = 26. The power of 2 closest to and less than 26 is 16. When that is removed, the
remainder is 26 – 16 = 10. Then we have 8, leaving remainder 2. So the number 1050 in binary form is

1 × 210 + 1 × 24 + 1 × 23 + 1 × 21.

Therefore, 1050 (base ten) is 10000011010 in base two.

By writing a number as sum of powers of 2, students can study the polynomial structure of base two:

25 = 16 + 8 + 1 = 1 × 24 + 1 × 23 + 0 × 22 + 0 × 21 + 1 × 20.

This can be connected to the division approach and the usage of the remainder at each stage.
25 = (2 × 12) + 1
= 2 × (2 × 6) + 1
= 2 × (2 × (2 × 3)) + 1
= 23 × (2 + 1) + 1
= 24 + 23 + 20

Ex. To convert 25 (base ten) to binary, divide repeatedly by 2 and note the remainders.

Write the result bottom up. We get 11001:

Azim Premji University At Right Angles, March 2022 7

 OPERATIONS IN THE BINARY SYSTEM

Students can explore addition and subtraction in the binary system to understand the usage of carry over,
exchange with fours, twos, etc.

What is of interest is to see the same mechanism at work as in the familiar decimal system.

This can be demonstrated through a few problems requiring addition and subtraction operations.

What is 0 + 1? What does 1 + 1 become? What digit goes as a carry over?

In the subtraction problem, why has a 10 replaced the zero in the right most place?

Are these addition and subtraction methods similar to the methods of the decimal system?

Do commutativity, associativity, transitivity and distributivity laws hold for binary numbers?

8 Azim Premji University At Right Angles, March 2022

MULTIPLICATION

How does multiplication work out in the binary

system? Is there an identity element in binary
numbers?

Here is a sample multiplication problem in the

binary system.

Just as the numbers to the left of a decimal point

in the decimal system are whole numbers, the
numbers to the left of a decimal point in the
binary system too represent whole numbers.
What are the possible multiplications that can
As we move to the left, with each step, place
arise in a binary system?
values get doubled (i.e., they are twice as big). As
0 × 0 = 0
we move to the right, with each step, place values
0 × 1 = 0 get halved (i.e., they are half as big). Hence the
1 × 1 = 1 first digit on the right (.1) means ‘half’, and .01
So much simpler to memorise these tables! means ‘quarter’.

Here is a sample binary division problem. In How does one identify a number as binary? In
decimal terms, it would be the same as 45 divided order to indicate the base, the practice followed
by 5 which equals 9. is to show the base as a subscript. For example,
10112
Does the usual division method work in the binary
system? Explore and see. Investigation
Are there fractional numbers in the binary system? Do the binary representations of all rational
What would .1 mean in the binary system? numbers terminate? Or do some recur?

Binary positional system

Azim Premji University At Right Angles, March 2022 9

 BASE 16: HEXADECIMAL NUMBERS

The word ‘Hexadecimal’ means ‘based on 16.’ The value of the base in the hexadecimal system is 16.

What are the basic digits in the hexadecimal system?

Apart from 0 to 9, 10 is represented by A, 11 by B, 12 by C, 13 by D, 14 by E, and 15 by F.

Decimal
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16
number
Hexadecimal
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 A B C D E F 10
number

Decimal
17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33
number
Hexadecimal
11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 1A 1B 1C 1D 1E 1F 20 21
number

Let students experiment with hexadecimal numbers by converting hexadecimal numbers to decimal
numbers, and decimal numbers to hexadecimal numbers.

Let them build the positional table for a hexadecimal system and use it for conversions.

163 162 161 160

1 B 7 E
4096 + 2816 + 112 + 14 = 7038
1 × 16 3
11 × 16 2
7 × 16 1
14 × 16 0

4096 2816 112 14

What would the value of .1 be in the hexadecimal Division Quotient Remainder

system?
447 ÷ 16 27 15 = F
In the hexadecimal system, as we move left, each 27 ÷ 16 1 11 = B
place is 16 times bigger. The first number to the 1 ÷ 16 0 1=1
right of the point is one-sixteenth. As we move
right, each place is 16 times smaller. Here are sample addition and subtraction problems
for hexadecimal numbers. (The digits shown in red
How would fractional numbers like 1/2 or 1/4 get are the ‘carry-overs’.)
represented in this system?
Sample addition Sample subtraction
How would negative numbers get represented? problem problem
1
1 E 21 6 26
Students can check whether the procedures used
7 F B 3 3 F 5 7 A
for the binary system conversions work in this
+ 1 B 6 2 1 – C 8 5 E
setting. How will they adapt the procedures to 2 3 5 D 4 3 2 D 1 C
suit this system?

Here is a sample division procedure to generate What does a carry-over of 1 represent in this system?
the hexadecimal number for 447. The result is In the subtraction problem, why is there a 26 over A?
read bottom up as 1BF. (Remember that the
symbols in this system are the digits 0 to 9 and A, Are these addition and subtraction methods similar
B, C, D, E, F.) to the methods of the decimal system? In what way
are they similar? In what way are they different?

10 Azim Premji University At Right Angles, March 2022

BASE 12: DUODECIMAL SYSTEM

Humankind has had a strong connection since ancient times with base
12, and it would be a pity if students do not get to study it.

The analogue clock has twelve hours displayed on its face. The number
of hours in a day (24) is a multiple of 12. An hour has sixty minutes
which is a multiple of 12. The number of degrees in a circle is 360 which
again is a multiple of 12.

The segments on the four fingers are 12 in number, and can be used to
count in base 12. It is said that the Babylonians used to count the three
segments of their four fingers to get 12. They marked that 12 by raising
a finger on the other hand. This way they could count up to 60 (twelve
times five fingers being 60). Now 60 has excellent properties, being
divisible by 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 10, 12, 15, 20, 30 and 60 itself. This means that
fractions will not pose too many difficulties!

https://www.earthdate.org/how-10-fingers-became-12-hours

Decimal
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20
number
Duodecimal
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 A B 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18
number

Students can create a table of addition facts for base 12 as an extension in their study of operations in base 12.

Azim Premji University At Right Angles, March 2022 11

 Multiplication in base 12 produces nice patterns and makes for an interesting project.

To study and contrast different number systems is enjoyable and stimulating for the students of an upper
primary school.

CLOSING REMARK

In comparing base ten with other bases, there are two other factors which we did not consider earlier.

• Tests of divisibility: In base ten, divisions by 2 and 5 are very easy to carry out. This is because both 2 and
5 are divisors of 10. For the same reason, the tests for divisibility by 2 and by 5 are easy to understand and
carry out in base ten. In general, for a given base b, the tests of divisibility by different numbers are easy
to carry out when the numbers are divisors of b (or divisors of powers of b). Base 12 (duodecimal system)
scores well in this sense, as 12 has many divisors (proper divisors: 2, 3, 4 and 6).
• Terminating decimals: In base ten, the decimal form of a fraction terminates when the denominator of
the fraction is a product of powers of 2 and 5. If not, the decimal form is non-terminating (it recurs). One
disadvantage of the binary system is that comparatively few fractions (those whose denominators are
powers of 2) terminate. E.g., 1/10 does not have a terminating binary representation.

PADMAPRIYA SHIRALI is part of the Community Math Centre based in Sahyadri

School (Pune) and Rishi Valley (AP), where she has worked since 1983, teaching a
variety of subjects – mathematics, computer applications, geography, economics,
environmental studies and Telugu. In the 1990s, she worked closely with the
late Shri P K Srinivasan. She was part of the team that created the multigrade
elementary learning programme of the Rishi Valley Rural Centre, known as ‘School
in a Box.’ Padmapriya may be contacted at [email protected].

PADMAPRIYA SHIRALI