Topic No.

01: Introduction to Transportation 21 August 2024

Planning and Engineering

CE 133: PRINCIPLES OF
TRANSPORTATION ENGINEERING

Topic No.1: Introduction to Transportation

Planning & Engineering

Introduction on Transportation

Transportation is essential for a nation’s development and

growth. In both the public and private sector, opportunities for
engineering careers in transportation are exciting and
rewarding. Elements are constantly being added to the world’s
highway, rail, airport, and mass transit systems, and new
techniques are being applied for operating and maintaining the
systems safely and economically. Many organizations and
agencies exist to plan, design, build, operate, and maintain the
nation’s transportation system.

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Topic No.01: Introduction to Transportation 21 August 2024
Planning and Engineering

Transportation
Transportation is the movement of people and/or goods from one place to
another.

Transportation Engineering
Transportation Engineering is the application of technology and scientific
principles to the planning, functional design, operations, and management
of facilities for any mode of transportation in order to provide for the safe,
rapid, comfortable, convenient, economical, and environmentally
compatible movement of people and goods.

-as defined by Institute of Transportation Engineers (ITE)

Transportation Planning
Transportation planning in its very simplest form consist of those activities that collect
information on the performance of the existing transportation system; forecast future
performance levels given expected changes to key factors such as land use, price of
fuel, and growth in employment; and identify possible solutions to expected problems in
system performance. At its most complex, transportation planning can include myriad
activities associated with gaining consensus on recommended actions, undertaking
numerous technical activities at many different scales of analysis to pinpoint expected
problems, and processing large amount of data associated with system performance
and travel behavior.

Transportation planning recognizes the critical links between transportation and other
societal goals. The planning process is more than merely listing highway and transit
capital projects. It requires developing strategies for operating, managing, maintaining,
and financing the area’s transportation system in such a way as to advance the area’s
long-term goals.

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Topic No.01: Introduction to Transportation 21 August 2024
Planning and Engineering

Why Do We Plan Transportation?

Transportation is, for better or worse, a public enterprise with long lasting
consequences for decisions. There exist economies of coordination which
may (but not necessary) be difficult to achieve in the absence of planning.
For instance, we want to ensure that the roads from two different region meet
at the regional line.

What is a Transportation Planning Process?

Transportation planning is a cooperative process designed to foster involvement
by all users of the system, such as the business community, community groups,
environmental organizations, the travelling public, freight operators, and the
general public, through a proactive public participation process.

Transportation planning is primarily a process of producing information that can be

used by decision makers to better understand the consequences of different
courses of action.

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Topic No.01: Introduction to Transportation 21 August 2024
Planning and Engineering

The Basic Elements of Transportation Planning

The transportation planning process comprises seven basic elements, which are
interrelated and not necessarily carried out sequentially. The information acquired in
one phase of the process may be helpful in some earlier or later phase, so there is
a continuity of effort that should eventually result in a decision. The elements in the
process are:
1. Situation definition
2. Problem definition
3. Search for solutions
4. Analysis of performance
5. Evaluation of alternatives
6. Choice of project
7. Specification and construction

1. Situation Definition
The first step in the planning process is situation definition, which involves all of the activities
required to understand the situation that gave rise to the perceived need for a transportation
improvement. In this phase, the basic factors that created the present situation are
described, and the scope of the system to be studied is delineated. The present system is
analyzed and its characteristics are described. Information about the surrounding area, its
people and their habits may be obtained.
2. Problem Definition
The purpose of this step is to describe the problem in terms of the objectives to be
accomplished by the project and to translate those objectives into criteria that can be
quantified. Objectives are statements of purpose, such as to reduce traffic congestion; to
improve safety; to maximize net highway-user benefits; and to reduce noise. Criteria are the
measures of effectiveness that can be used to quantify the extent to which a proposed
transportation project will achieve the stated objectives. For example, the objective “to
reduce traffic congestion” might use “travel time” as the measure of effectiveness.

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Topic No.01: Introduction to Transportation 21 August 2024
Planning and Engineering

3. Search for Solution

In this phase of the planning process, consideration is given to a variety of ideas, designs, locations, and
system configurations that might provide solutions to the problem. This is the brainstorming stage, in which
many options may be proposed for later testing and evaluation. Alternatives can be proposed by any group
or organization. In fact, the planning study may have been originated to determine the feasibility of a
particular project or idea, such as adding bike lanes to reduce traffic volumes.

4. Analysis of Performance
The purpose of performance analysis is to estimate how each of the proposed alternatives would perform
during the present and future conditions. The criteria identified in the previous steps are calculated for each
transportation option. Included in this step is the determination of the investment cost of building the
transportation project as well as annual costs for operation and maintenance. This element also involves
the use of mathematical models for estimating travel demand. The number of persons or vehicles that will
use the system is determined, and these results, expressed in vehicles or person/hour, serve as the basis
for project design. Other information about the use of the system (such as trip length, travel by time of day,
and vehicle occupancy) are also determined and used in calculating user benefits for various criteria or
measures of effectiveness. Environmental effects of the transportation project (such as noise and air
pollution levels and acres of land required) are estimated.

5. Evaluation of Alternatives
The purpose of the evaluation phase is to determine how well each alternatives will achieve the
objectives of the project as defined by the criteria. The performance data produced in the
analysis phase are used to compute the benefits and costs that will result if the project is
selected. In cases where the results cannot be reduced to a single monetary value, a weighted
ranking for each alternative might be produced and compared with other proposed project.
6. Choice of Project
Project selection is made after considering all the factors involved. In a simple situation, for
example, where the project has been authorized and is in the design phase, a single criterion
(such as cost) might be used and the chosen project would be the one with the lowest cost. With
a more complex project, however, many factors have to be considered, and selection is based on
how the results are perceived by those involved in decision-making. If the project involves the
community, it may be necessary to hold additional public hearings or consultations. It is possible
that none of the alternatives will meet the criteria or standards, and additional investigations will
be necessary.

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Topic No.01: Introduction to Transportation 21 August 2024
Planning and Engineering

7. Specification and Construction

Once the transportation project has been selected, the project moves into a detailed design
phase in which each of the components of the facility is specified. For a transportation
facility, this involves it’s physical location, geometric dimensions, and structural configuration.
Design plans are produced that can be used by contractors to estimate the cost of building
the project. When a construction firm is selected, these plans will be the basis on which the
project will be built.

Transportation planning may also include a number of steps:

• Monitoring existing conditions;
• Forecasting future population and employment growth, including assessing
projected land uses in the region and identifying major growth corridors;
• Identifying current and projected future transportation problems and needs and
analyzing, through detailed planning studies, various transportation improvement
strategies to address those needs;
• Developing long-range plans and short-range programs of alternative capital
improvement and operational strategies for moving people and goods;
• Estimating the impact of recommended future improvements to the transportation
system on environmental features, including air quality; and
• Developing a financial plan for securing sufficient revenues to cover the costs of
implementing strategies.

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Topic No.01: Introduction to Transportation 21 August 2024
Planning and Engineering

Transportation Planning Studies

• A transportation planning study is a process that identifies existing and potential
deficiencies. It analyzes and evaluates alternative solutions to these deficiencies in
terms of their social, environmental, economic, and land use impact.
• Planning studies must result in a clear set of decisions to mark the end of the
planning and the beginning of the project development stage. Recommendations are
made to identify which project alternatives need further analysis and which can be
reasonably promoted for more detailed evaluation.

Planning Surveys
The field surveys thus required for collecting the factual data may be called as planning surveys or fact finding surveys. The
planning based on the factual data may be considered scientific and sound. The planning surveys consist of the following
studies:
• Economic Studies – all details of the existing facilities should be available before estimating the requirement such that
economic justification can be made for each plan. The details to be collected include the following: a.) population and its
distribution in each locality with the area classified in groups, b.) trend of population growth, c.) agricultural and industrial
products and their listing in classified groups, area wise d.) industrial and agricultural development and future trends, e.)
existing facilities with regard to communication, recreation and education etc. f.) per capita income
• Financial Studies – essential to study the various financial aspects like sources of income and the manner in which funds for
the project may be mobilized. The details to be collected include: a.) source of income and estimated revenue from taxation
on road transport, b.) living standard c.) resources at local level, toll taxes, vehicle registration and fines d.) future trends in
financial aspects
• Traffic or Road Use Studies – All the details of the existing traffic, their volume and pattern of flow should be known before
any improvement could be planned. Traffic surveys should be carried out in the whole area and on selected routes and
locations in order to collect the following particulars: a.) traffic volume in vehicles per day, annual average daily traffic, peak
and design hourly traffic volume. b.) origin and destination studies c.) traffic flow pattern d.) mass transportation facilities
• Engineering Studies – All details of topography, soil and other problems such as drainage, construction and maintenance
problems should be investigated before a scientific plan or program is suggested. The studies include: a.) topographic
surveys b.) soil surveys c.) location and classification of existing roads d.) estimation of possible developments in all aspect
due to the proposed highway development e.) road life studies f.)traffic studies – origin and destination studies g.) special
problems in drainage, construction and maintenance of roads.

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Topic No.01: Introduction to Transportation 21 August 2024
Planning and Engineering

The Profession of Transportation

For as long as the human race existed, transportation has played a significant role by
facilitating trade, commerce, conquest, and social interaction while consuming a
considerable portion of time and resources. The primary need for transportation has been
economic, involving personal travel in search of food or work and travel for the exchange
of goods and commodities; in addition, travel has been spurred by exploration, a quest for
personal fulfillment, and the desire to improve a society or a nation.

The movement of people or goods, which is the basis of transportation, always has been
undertaken to accomplish this basic objectives or tasks, which require transfer from one
location to another. For example, a farmer must transport produce to the market, a doctor
must see a patient in the office or in the hospital, and a salesperson must visit clients
located throughout a territory. Everyday, millions of people leave their homes and travel to
a workplace – be it factory, office, classroom, or distant city.

5 General Phases in Transportation Engineering

Planning

Maintenance Design

Operations Construction

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Topic No.01: Introduction to Transportation 21 August 2024
Planning and Engineering

Functional Classification of Highways

Highways are classified based upon two

primary functions:
• Mobility – continuous, high-speed travel
• Accessibility – direct access to abutting
property

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Topic No.02: Transportation as a System and 21 August 2024
Philippine Transportation System

CE 133: PRINCIPLES OF
TRANSPORTATION ENGINEERING

Topic No.2: Transportation as a System and

Philippine Transportation System

Transportation as a System and the Philippine Transportation

System

Transportation system is a system that involves facilities that implements,

coordinates, and unifies the means and equipment necessary for the movement of
passenger or goods. Transportation systems seek to reduce transport costs and
improve delivery times through effective timetabling and route management.

Implementing a transportation system can help in the delivery of goods and

personnel to their destinations in a timely manner. This in turn increases the
efficiency of vehicle use, as the same vehicle can be used for “multi-drop” jobs,
such as bus services or home delivery networks, far more effectively when their
routes are planned rather than being generated on the spot. Periodic re-evaluations
and the development of alternative routes allow for timely changes to the
transportation system in order to maintain efficiency.

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Topic No.02: Transportation as a System and 21 August 2024
Philippine Transportation System

Components of a Transportation System

Vehicle
Vehicles are machines that moves objects or traffic (people/goods). They may be used in land, water, air, and even space transportation.

Vehicles used in land transportation may be as small as bicycle and motorcycles, to large busses, cars, trains, and trucks. Even heavy equipment used in
construction like backhoes can be used as a means of transportation. Water and wind transportation use boats, ferries, ships, overseas and moving
cargos, airplanes, helicopters, and jets, which all transfer both human and products for trade. There are also vehicles like blimps or hot air balloons and
yachts, which mainly purposed for leisure.

Guideway
Guideways are an important part of our transportation systems for the reason that these are where vehicles move along. The guideway often performs
two necessary tasks at the same time: directional control for the vehicle; and support to hold the vehicle or material in place. Guideways are often
overlooked because they are everywhere.

Land guideways are fixed system, often relying on rails, concrete paths, conveyors, and shafts to guide and support the vehicles and materials that travel
over, on, or through it. Footpaths, bike paths, hiking trails, and roads are examples of simple guideways. Highways and roadways are the most prevalent
examples of guideways since they can be found almost everywhere. Our highway systems carry enormous amounts of traffic, sometimes beyond their
designed capacity.

Operations Plan
The set of procedures by which traffic and vehicles are moved over the guideway, including schedules or timetables, crew assignments, and control
systems are called operations plans.

Control systems can be in different forms. They can be as small as signs, signals, road markings, barriers, and speed bumps to as big as stations and
tollgates. Air transportation use signals and internal communications from control towers and a systematic and schedule time of departures to avoid
conflict midair. Water transportation has terminals such as ports and harbors, which serves a shelter, and/or loading and unloading spots for shipping
boats. Lighthouses can also be an example of control system as it serves a beacon for navigational aide.

Transportation System in the Philippines

Transportation in the Philippines covers the transportation methods within the archipelagic nation of over
7,600 islands. From a previously underdeveloped state of transportation, the government of the
Philippines has been improving transportation through various direct infrastructure projects, and these
include an increase in air, sea, road, and rail transportation and transport hubs.

 Today, Jeepneys is the most popular and iconic public utility vehicle. They have become a symbol of
the Philippine culture. Another popular mode of public transportation in the country is the motorized
tricycles, especially common in smaller urban and rural areas. The Philippines has four railway
lines: Manila Light Rail Transit System Line 1 (LRT Line 1), LRT Line 2, MRT Line 3, and the PNR Metro
Commuter Line operated by the Philippine National Railways. There are also steam engines found in the
Visayas, mostly Negros Island, which operate sugar mills such as Central
Azucarera. Taxis and buses are also important modes of public transport in urban areas.

 The Philippines has 12 international airports and more than 20 major and minor domestic airports
serving the country. The Ninoy Aquino International Airport is the main international gateway to the
Philippines.

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Topic No.02: Transportation as a System and 21 August 2024
Philippine Transportation System

Philippine Road Infrastructure

Roads
As of October 2018, the Philippines has 217,317 kilometers (135,035 mi) of roads. The road network consists of:
• National roads – 33,018.25 kilometers (20,516.59 mi) (2019)
• Provincial roads – 31,620 kilometers (19,650 mi) (2018)
• City and municipal roads – 31,063 kilometers (19,302 mi) (2018)
• Barangay roads – 121,702 kilometers (75,622 mi) (2018)

In 1940, there were 22,970 kilometers (14,270 mi) of road in the entire country, half of which was in central and southern Luzon. The
roads served 50,000 vehicles.

Road classification is based primarily on administrative responsibilities (with the exception of barangays), i.e., which level of
government built and funded the roads. Most of the barangay roads are unpaved village-access roads built in the past by
the Department of Public Works and Highways (DPWH), but responsibility for maintaining these roads have been devolved to local
government units (LGUs). Farm-to-market roads fall under this category, and a few are financed by the Department of Agrarian
Reform and the Department of Agriculture.

Philippine Road Infrastructure

Highways
Highways in the Philippines include national roads classified into three types:
• National Primary Roads,
• National Secondary Roads, and
• National Tertiary Roads.
The Pan-Philippine Highway is a 3,517 kilometers (2,185 mi) network of roads, bridges, and ferry services that connect the islands
of Luzon, Samar, Leyte, and Mindanao, serving as the Philippines' principal transport backbone. The northern terminus of the highway is in Laoag,
and the southern terminus is at Zamboanga City.
Epifanio de los Santos Avenue (EDSA) is one of the most known highways in the Philippines. The avenue passes through 6 of the 17 settlements
in Metro Manila, namely, the cities of Caloocan, Quezon City, Mandaluyong, San Juan, Makati and Pasay. EDSA is the longest highway in the
metropolis and handles an average of 2.34 million vehicles. Commonwealth Avenue is also an important highway in the metropolis, it serves
the Quezon City area and has a length of 12.4 km (7.7 mi). Other important thoroughfares in Metro Manila that are part of the Philippine highway
network include España Boulevard, Quezon Avenue, Taft Avenue, and the Alabang–Zapote Road.
Outside Metro Manila, the MacArthur Highway links Metro Manila to the provinces in central and northern Luzon. It is a component of both N1 (from
Caloocan to Guiguinto) and N2 (from Guiguinto northwards to Laoag) of the Philippine highway network and Radial Road 9 (R-9) of Metro Manila's
arterial road network. Both Kennon Road and Aspiras–Palispis Highway are major roads leading to and from Baguio. Aguinaldo Highway, Jose P.
Laurel Highway, Manila South Road, and Calamba–Pagsanjan Road (part of Manila East Road) are the major roads in
the Calabarzon region. Andaya Highway (N68) links the province of Quezon to Bicol Region. Located in Cebu City is the Colon Street, considered
the oldest thoroughfare in the country. Among the major highways in Mindanao are Sayre Highway, Butuan–Cagayan de Oro–Iligan Road, Surigao–
Davao Coastal Road, Davao–Cotabato Road, and Maria Clara L. Lobregat Highway.
The Strong Republic Nautical Highway links many of the islands' road networks through a series of roll-on/roll-off ferries, some rather small covering
short distances and some larger vessels that might travel several hours or more.

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Philippine Transportation System

Philippine Road Infrastructure

Expressways
The Philippines has numerous expressways and most of them are located in the main island of the country, Luzon. The first expressway systems in the
country are the North Luzon Expressway formerly known as North Diversion Road and the South Luzon Expressway, formerly known as South Super
Highway. Both were built in the 1970s, during the presidency of Ferdinand Marcos.
The North Luzon Expressway (NLEX) is a 4 to 8-lane limited-access toll expressway that connects Metro Manila to the provinces of the Central Luzon
region. The expressway begins in Quezon City at a cloverleaf interchange with EDSA. It then passes through various cities and municipalities in the
provinces of Bulacan and Pampanga. The expressway ends at Mabalacat and merges with the MacArthur Highway, which continues northward into the
rest of Central and Northern Luzon.
The South Luzon Expressway (SLEX) is another important expressway in the country, it serves the southern part of Luzon. The expressway is a
network of two expressways that connects Metro Manila to the provinces of Calabarzon in the southern part of Luzon. It starts at the Paco
District of Manila then passes through Manila, Makati, Pasay, Paranaque, Taguig and Muntinlupa in Metro Manila; San
Pedro, Biñan in Laguna; Carmona in Cavite, then transverses again to Biñan, Santa Rosa, Cabuyao and Calamba in the province of Laguna and ends
in Santo Tomas, Batangas.
The Subic–Clark–Tarlac Expressway is another expressway that serves the region of Central Luzon, the expressway is linked to the North Luzon
Expressway through the Mabalacat Interchange. Its southern terminus is at the Subic Bay Freeport Zone in Zambales, it passes through the Clark
Freeport Zone and its northern terminus is at Brgy. Amucao in Tarlac City. Construction on the expressway began in April 2005, and opened to the
public three years later.
The Manila–Cavite Expressway (CAVITEX), a 14-km expressway that runs from Paranaque to Kawit, Cavite, also passes through Las
Pinas and Bacoor.
The Southern Tagalog Arterial Road (STAR), a 41-kilometer expressway that runs through the province of Batangas, connecting Santo Tomas
to Batangas City.
The Cavite-Laguna Expressway (CALAX) is an expressway that connects Cavite, Laguna and Metro Manila. As of 2023, it connects Silang and Biñan,
with construction ongoing for the remainder.
The Philippine government and other private sectors are building more plans and proposals to build new expressways through public-private
partnership.

Philippine Road Transportation

As of May 2022, there are over 5.8 million registered motor vehicles in the country:
• Motorcycles and tricycles - 60 percent
• Utility vehicles (UV) - 18 percent,
• Cars and SUVs - 16 percent
• Trucks - 3 percent
PHILIPPINE ROAD TRANSPORTATION
Motorcycles and Tricycles Utility Vehicles SUV Trucks

3%
16%

19%
62%

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Topic No.02: Transportation as a System and 21 August 2024
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Philippine Road Transportation

Automobiles
The Philippines' automobile industry started during the American colonial period from 1898 to 1946, with the introduction of American-made
cars, which have been sold in the Philippines ever since. An import substitution policy was developed for the 1950s, which led to the
prohibition of and then punishingly high tariffs on the import of fully built-up cars (CBUs) from 1951 until 1972. During the 1973 oil
crisis, Philippine president Ferdinand Marcos advised Filipinos to buy smaller, more efficient vehicles with four-cylinder engines. In the early
1970s, the local Volkswagen assembler attempted to build a native national car, the "Volkswagen Sakbayan" (short
for sasakyangkatutubongbayan), to avoid reliance on imported "completely-knocked-down" or "semi-knocked-down" parts, but this did not last
long. In 1972 the government instituted the Progressive Car Manufacturing Program (PCMP), a system with scheduled increases in local parts
content requirement which also allowed program participants to import a certain proportion of CBU vehicles. The original participants
were General Motors, Ford, PAMCOR (a Chrysler/Mitsubishi joint venture), Delta Motors Corporation (Toyota), and Nissan Motor Philippines.
As of May 2022, cars account for 9 percent of all registered motor vehicles in the country, while SUVs account for 7 percent of the total.

Bus
Buses, after ferries and airlines, are the next primary mode of long-distance transportation in the Philippines.
Public bus services in the Philippines are divided into two types:
o Provincial buses - Provincial buses are used for medium to long-haul routes between cities and towns (including those involving ferries).
o City buses - City bus networks exist in the three metropolitan areas (Metro Manila, Metro Cebu, Metro Davao).
Bus services are run by private companies, and routes, operations and fares are regulated by the Land Transportation Franchising and
Regulatory Board (LTFRB).
Bus Rapid Transit (BRT) systems exist in some regions. Extant BRT systems are the EDSA Carousel in Metro Manila and the Clark Loop
in Clark Freeport Zone. A third BRT system is under construction in Cebu City. An integrated bus transit system will also be implemented
in Davao City.

Philippine Road Transportation

Motorcycles
Motorcycles are the most dominant form of private transportation in the country, accounting for 49 percent of all registered motor
vehicles as of May 2022. A Social Weather Stations survey in 2021 also reveals that 36 percent of households nationwide
reported owning a motorcycle, accounting for 50 percent of vehicle owners. They are commonly used for package and food
delivery services to transport goods and are often regarded as a cheaper alternative to buying a private car. Motorcycles are
also regarded for their size which allows them to easily split through lanes in heavily congested traffic corridors and be easily
stored or parked. They have also been used for taxi services, commonly referred to as an ”angkas”.
The use of motorcycles grew in popularity in the country started in the 1990s with motorcycle enthusiasts that went on leisure
rides and delivery companies that sought a cheap, efficient way of moving goods around. Initially limited to American brands, the
entry of Chinese, Japanese, and Taiwanese motorcycle brands disrupted the market throughout the early 2000s and sparked a
growing interest in motorcycle ownership and usage. By 2005, the number of registered motorcycles surpassed that of cars.

Limousines
Limousines are used by the president and vice-president of the Philippines, as well as wedding services for wealthy families.
Otherwise, they are seldom seen on Philippine roads due to considerations like cost and road traffic conditions but if used, they
are utilized for bridal events or limo services. Limousines include the Chrysler 300C, Lincoln Town Car, Mercedes-Benz E-
Class and S-Class, as well as SUV-based limousines such as the Cadillac Escalade and Hummer H2.

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Philippine Road Transportation

Jeepneys
Jeepneys are the most popular means of public transportation in the Philippines. They were originally made from US military jeeps left over
from World War II and are known for their flamboyant decoration and crowded seating. They have become a ubiquitous symbol of Filipino
culture.
Original jeepneys were simply refurbished military jeeps by Willys and Ford, modern jeepneys are now produced by independently owned
workshops and factories in the Philippines with surplus engines and parts coming from Japan. In the central island of Cebu, the bulk of jeepneys
are built from second-hand Japanese trucks, originally intended for cargo. These are euphemistically known as "surplus" trucks.
There are two classes of jeepney builders in the Philippines. The backyard builders produce one to five vehicles a month, source their die-
stamped pieces from one of the larger manufacturers, and work with used engines and chassis from salvage yards (usually the Isuzu 4BA1,
4BC2, 4BE1 series diesel engines or the Mitsubishi Fuso 4D30 diesel engines). The second type is the large volume manufacturer. They have
two subgroups: the PUJ, or "public utility jeep," and the large volume metal-stamping companies that supply parts as well as complete vehicles.
The jeepney builders in the past were mostly based in Cebu City and Las Piñas. The largest manufacturer of vintage-style army jeepneys is MD
Juan. Other makers include Armak Motors (San Pablo, Laguna), Celestial Motors (San Pablo, Laguna), Hebron Motors, LGS Motors, Malagueña
(Imus, Cavite), Mega (Lipa, Batangas), Morales Motors (San Mateo, Rizal), and Sarao Motors (Las Piñas). Another manufacturer, PBJ Motors,
manufactured jeepneys in Pampanga using techniques derived from Sarao Motors. Armak sells remanufactured trucks and vehicles as an
adjunct, alongside its jeepneys.

Motorized tricycles
In the Philippines, motorized tricycles, or simply tricycles (Filipino: traysikel; Cebuano: traysikol), refer to a type of motorized vehicle consisting of
a motorcycle and a passenger cab attached to it. Along with the jeepney, the Philippine tricycle is one of the most common means of public or
private transportation in the country, especially in rural areas. These public utility vehicles either ply a set route or are for-hire, like taxis.
As of May 2022, motorized tricycles account for 11 percent of all registered motor vehicles in the country.

Philippine Road Transportation

Taxi
Taxis are one of the modes of transportation in the country. They are regulated by the Department of Transportation (DOTr),
the Land Transportation Office (LTO), and the Land Transportation Franchising and Regulatory Board (LTFRB). The taxicabs
there vary from models and uses. Most taxicabs have yellow colored license plates, taxi signs, LTFRB Registration number,
and taximeter, which is mandatory in every cab.
Taxis from the Philippines are mostly used in metropolitan areas.

Non-motorized land transport

Human-powered and animal-powered transport exist in the Philippines in the form of walking, cycling, pedicabs (also known
as traysikad or padyak), and horse- or cattle-drawn kalesas. The United Nations and such organizations as Clean Air
Asia support the integration of non-motorized transport as part of a clean and "highly cost-effective transportation strategy" that
"brings about large health, economic and social co-benefits, particularly for the urban poor."
In Marikina, the local government constructed a network of bikeways to help reduce air pollution, greenhouse gas emissions,
fuel consumption, and traffic congestion in the city. The bikeways project was awarded by the World Health Organization in 2008
in the category of climate change and health.
According to a survey conducted by the Social Weather Stations on bicycle ownership in May 2021, over 20 percent of
households nationwide reported owning a bicycle, accounting for 27 percent of vehicle owners.

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Philippine Transportation System

Philippine Rail Transportation

Rail transportation in the Philippines includes services provided by three rapid transit lines and one commuter rail line: the Manila Light Rail
Transit System (Lines 1 and 2), Manila Metro Rail Transit System (Line 3) and the PNR Metro Commuter Line. The government has plans to
expand the country's railway footprint from 77 kilometers as of 2017 to more than 320 kilometers by 2022. These railway lines are currently
operating in Metro Manila, as well as commuter services in Calabarzon and in Bicol Region.
The Manila Light Rail Transit System (LRT) is a rapid transit system serving the Metro Manila area, it is the first metro system in Southeast Asia.
The system served a total 928,000 passengers each day in 2012. Its 31 stations along over 31 kilometers (19 mi) of mostly elevated track form
two lines: the original Line 1, and the more modern Line 2 which passes through the cities of Caloocan, Manila, Marikina, Pasay, San
Juan and Quezon City. Apart from the LRT system, the Manila Metro Rail Transit System (MRT) system also serves Metro Manila. The system is
located along the Epifanio de los Santos Avenue (EDSA), one of Metro Manila's main thoroughfares. It has 13 stations along its 16.95 km track
form a single line which is the Line 3 which passes through the cities of Makati, Mandaluyong, Pasay and Quezon City. Some of the stations of
the system have been retrofitted with escalators and elevators for easier access, and ridership has increased. By 2004, Line 3 had the highest
ridership of the three lines, with 400,000 passengers daily.
The Philippine National Railways (PNR) operates a commuter line that serves a region from Metro Manila south toward Laguna. PNR, a state-
owned railway system of the Philippines, alongside a tramway system in Manila, were established during the Spanish Colonial period. The
intercity rail used to provide services on Luzon, connecting northern and southern Luzon with Manila; on the other hand, the tramway served
what is known today as Metro Manila. In 1988, the railway line to northern Luzon became disused and later the services to Bicol were halted
although plans to revive the southern line are around as of 2017. Panay Railways is a company that ran rail lines on Panay until 1989
and Cebu until World War II.
Future projects in the pipeline, such as the North–South Commuter Railway (NSCR), a 147-km railway connecting Clark
Freeport in Pampanga to Calamba, Laguna, will utilize the old PNR right of way; the Metro Manila Subway, a 36-kilometer underground rapid
transit, will connect from East Valenzuela to NAIA Terminal 3 or Bicutan; the MRT-4, a 12-kilometer elevated railway, will connect Ortigas
Center to Taytay, Rizal; and the MRT-7, a 22-km elevated route, will connect from North EDSA to San Jose Del Monte, Bulacan.

Philippine Water Transportation

Boats
Motorized and non-motorized boats are the primary mode of water transportation between islands and across inland and coastal waters. The
native bangka is also typically used for fishing, transporting goods, and island hopping tours.

River Ferries
The Pasig River Ferry Service is a river ferry service that serves Metro Manila, it is also the only water-based transportation that cruised
the Pasig River. The entire ferry network had 17 stations operational and 2 lines. The first line was the Pasig River Line which stretched
from Plaza Mexico in Intramuros, Manila to Nagpayong station in Pasig. The second line was the Marikina River Line which served the
Guadalupe station in Makati up to Santa Elena station in Marikina.

Ferry Services
Because it is an island nation, ferry services are an important means of transportation. A range of ships are used, from large cargo ships to
small pump boats. Some trips last for a day or two on large overnight ferries. There are numerous shipping companies in the Philippines. Notable
companies include 2GO Travel (the successor to Superferry and Negros Navigation) and Trans-Asia Shipping Lines. Other trips can last for less
than 15 minutes on small, open-air pump boats such as those that cross the Iloilo Strait or between the Caticlan jetty port and Boracay island.

Ports and Harbors

The busiest port is the Port of Manila, especially the Manila International Cargo Terminal and the Eva Macapagal Port Terminal, both in the pier
area of Manila.
Other cities with bustling ports and piers include Bacolod, Batangas City, Cagayan de Oro, Cebu City, Davao City, Butuan, Iligan, Iloilo
City, Jolo, Legazpi City, Lucena City, Puerto Princesa, San Fernando, Subic, Zamboanga City, Cotabato City, General
Santos, Allen, Ormoc, Ozamiz, Surigao and Tagbilaran. Most of these terminals comprise the Strong Republic Nautical Highway, a nautical
system conceptualized under the term of President Gloria Macapagal Arroyo where land vehicles can use the roll-on/roll-off (ro-ro) ferries to
cross between the different islands.

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Philippine Transportation System

Philippine Air Transportation

Airports
Manila, Iloilo, Cebu, Davao, Clark, Subic, Zamboanga, Laoag, Legazpi, and Puerto Princesa are the international gateways to the country,
with Ninoy Aquino International Airport (NAIA) in Manila as the main and premier gateway of the country.
Ninoy Aquino International Airport serves as the primary gateway of the Philippines, it serves the Metro Manila area and its surrounding regions.
It is located in the boundary of Parañaque and Pasay in the National Capital Region. In 2012, NAIA became the 34th busiest airport in the world,
passenger volume increased to about eight percent to a total of 32.1 million passengers, making it one of the busiest airports in Asia.
Clark International Airport is also a major gateway to the country. It was originally planned to replace Ninoy Aquino International Airport as the
country's premier airport, amid the plan to shut down Ninoy Aquino International Airport. The airport mostly serves low-cost carriers that avail
themselves of the lower landing fees than those charged at NAIA.
Other important airports in the Philippines are Mactan–Cebu International Airport in Lapu-Lapu City, Cebu; Iloilo International Airport in Cabatuan,
Iloilo; Francisco Bangoy International Airport in Davao City; Zamboanga International Airport in Zamboanga City; Puerto Princesa International
Airport in Puerto Princesa, Palawan; General Santos International Airport in General Santos; and Bicol International Airport in Legazpi, Albay.

Airlines
Philippine Airlines (PAL) is the national flag carrier of the Philippines and is the first commercial airline in Asia. Philippine Airlines remains as the
country's biggest airline company, it has the largest number of international flights to the Philippines as well as domestic flights. As of
2013, Philippine Airlines flies to 8 domestic and 58 international destinations in 33 countries and territories across Asia, North America, South
America, Africa, Oceania and Europe. The airlines operates hubs in Clark, Manila, Cebu, and Davao.
Cebu Pacific is considered to be the country's low-cost carrier and leading domestic airline, flying to 37 domestic destinations. Since the
launching of its international operations in November 2001, flies to 27 destinations in 15 countries and territories across Asia and Oceania. As of
2013, the airline operates hubs in Manila, Cebu and Davao.
Other low-cost carriers in the country include Cebgo, PAL Express, and Philippines AirAsia. These airlines have routes to several tourist
destinations in the country.

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Planning and Engineering

CE 133: PRINCIPLES OF
TRANSPORTATION ENGINEERING

Topic No.3: Urban Transportation

Planning Concepts

Overview of Transport Planning

The rapid urbanization in the East Asia and Pacific Region requires addressing
urban challenges to sustain economic and social advantage of the region’s cities. Though
current programs mainly address urban challenges in the capital cities, there is a growing
need to address this issues in other large as well as medium size cities, especially, as most
of these cities often do not have well-developed urban transport plans or transport services.
This study is part of an Urban Development Program of middle-income countries like
Indonesia, Philippines, and Thailand that are all dealing with new urban transport
challenges caused by rapid urbanization. The Philippines has one of the highest
urbanization rates in the region. Based on the UN data, 63% of the country’s total
population lives in urban areas in 2005. The rural population continues to decline as the
current trend towards urbanization grows with nearly 70% of the population expected to live
in urban areas by 2015. There are presently 33 highly urbanized cities in the Philippines
and these cities are experiencing worsening urban transport problems.

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Planning and Engineering

Overview of Transport Planning

Transportation problems vary from country to country depending on their social, economic, and political
situation. The current and anticipated problems vary on the historical process of urbanization and it’s present stage
of socio-economic development, the extent of motorization, and other level of transport technology. There is no such
theory of transport planning that can be effectively applied to any transport problem, but there is an outline of
comprehensive urban transport planning based on state-of-the-art practices. Its relevance to the problem of urban
transport in developing countries should be studied based on the situation of a city in question.

Increasing transport demand in developing countries due to a drastic increase in the number of
automobiles like motorcycles in some cases, rapid urbanization and economic development, and delayed investment
in transport facilities particularly for mass transport, are causing serious road congestion problems. Further, in many
cases mixed traffic of various means of transportation ranging from non-motorized transport or NMTs (e.g., carts,
walking, bicycles) to cars, inadequate traffic rules, and poor traffic management have made very inefficient use of the
limited road space, sharing the precious road space with non-transport urban activities.

Urban Transport Challenges

1) Rapid Urbanization
The Philippines is one of the most rapidly growing and urbanizing countries in Asia. The rapid
increase in population puts pressure on existing urban transport infrastructure and services
especially in urban areas. In 1980, the total population of the country was 48.098 million.
Twenty years later, in 2000, the total population of the Philippines become 76.504 million. A
rapid increase in the proportion of population living in urban areas will require high level of
investments in urban transport infrastructure and services. Such investments will also have
to compete with demands for other urban services such as housing, health, and education. If
urban growth is not managed properly, the quantity and quality of urban services will
deteriorate and contribute to a decrease in the overall quality of life.

The Philippines currently has 33 urbanized cities with high population growth. The 16 cities in
Metro Manila are included while the remaining 17 cities are in other regions of the country.
For the period of 2000 to 2007, the average population growth rate in Metro Manila cities is
1.92%. Cities outside Metro Manila are growing more rapidly with an average population
growth rate of 2.55%.

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Planning and Engineering

Urban Transport Challenges

2) Urban Density
An analysis on urban density of cities is very useful since it is considered an important factor in
understanding how cities function. Urban density is a term used in urban planning and urban
design to refer to the number of people inhabiting a given urbanized area. As such, it is to be
distinguished from other measures of population density. Studies like Newman and
Kenworthy (1989) and Kenwothy and Laube (1999) has strongly influenced urban policy that
advocates reduction in automobile use by generating higher population density. The urban
densities of highly urbanized cities in the Philippines vary greatly in magnitude. The basis for
the calculation of the urban density values is the build-up areas of cities as reported in their
respective Comprehensive Land Use Plan (CLUP).

Urban density provides a general measure of the overall demand for urban transport
infrastructure and services, A city with a higher urban core density would have greater urban
transport development needs including pedestrian facilities and mass transport systems
compared to another city with lower urban density but keeping all other factors equal.

Urban Transport Challenges

Motorization
Vehicle registration statistics indicate a national average vehicle registration growth rate of
7.5% annually for the period 2000 to 2008. Vehicle registration in Metro Manila continues to
grow at 3.86% annually. Cities like Makati, Pasay, Caloocan, and Pasig have posted
negative growth rates while cities that are located at the fringes of Metro Manila have very
high vehicle registration growth including Taguig, Valenzuela, and Paranaque. The annual
vehicle registration growth rates in cities outside Metro Manila are higher. Cities like Iligan
and General Santos have doubles their number of registered vehicles in less than 10 years.
Among the cities outside Metro Manila, only Cebu City has experienced negative growth in
annual private vehicle registration.

The largest increase in private vehicle registration in the period 2000 to 2008 is attributed to
the drastic rise in the number of motorcycles. The number of motorcycle registration in Metro
Manila increased at an alarming rate of 27.6% annually while all other cities recorded an
average of 13.8%. The overall growth rate in the number of motorcycles nationwide is 20.3%
annually.

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Urban Transport Challenges

Public Transport Supply

The public transport system in the Philippine cities is road-based except Metro Manila where there
is a network of 3 light rail transit lines and intra-city public transport services are mainly provided
by public utility jeepneys (PUJ) and tricycles. Based on the LTFRB record of franchises in 2007,
there are about 61,800 public utility vehicles operating in Metro manila. For busses, the average
fleet size per operator is about 13.6 while majority of jeepney operators owned only one unit.
There are about 73 intra-city bus routes serving Metro Manila with 33 bus routes serving EDSA
and the rest on non-EDSA including 17 routes linking Metro Manila to Bulacan, Rizal, Cavite,
and Laguna. There are more than 640 intra-city jeepney routes serving the metropolis and about
130 AUV routes serving mainly commercial districts and intermodal transfer points within Metro
Manila. Public transport supply data for cities outside of Metro Manila are not readily available
because the LTFRB regional offices do not regularly produce this. Local governments also do
not produce tricycle statistics. Existing statistics for for-hire vehicle registration, on the other
hand, provide useful information.

Urban Transport Challenges

Road Development
Almost all cities have road densities higher than the 1km per square kilometer threshold that
corresponds to sufficiency of roads. Cities in Metro manila have generally higher road densities
compared to other cities. This also indicates that Metro Manila cities have a comprehensive road
network system.

Traffic Accidents
The Philippines lacks comprehensive accident studies, but it is generally known that cities in the
country face serious challenges in road safety. Metro Manila accounts for one-third of the country’s
recorded number of fatalities from road accidents in 2002. pedestrians, especially those below 15
years old, were found to be the most vulnerable group. This is bound to worsen in the
implementation of traffic management schemes that favor high speed and weaving maneuvers and
poor protection of pedestrians crossing the streets. The state of road safety of the cities can be
evaluated based on road traffic accidents.

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Urban Transport Challenges

Air Pollution
The ambient air quality statistics from the Environmental Management Bureau (EMB)
shows a general decrease in Total Suspended Particulate (TSP) concentration in Metro
Manila from 1998 to 2006. However, the TSP readings in2006 are still above the
guideline value of 90 ug/Ncm for one-year average exposure. Historical ambient air
quality data for cities outside of Metro Manila generally point to decreasing trend in TSP
concentration for selected cities. Several Cities have TSP readings above the guideline
value; however, the cities of Mandaue, Iloilo, General Santos, and Butuan already exhibit
TSP levels that are below the guideline value of 90 micrograms per normal cubic meter.

Urban Transport Challenges

Energy Consumption and Climate Change

Increase in motorization as well as reliance on fossil fuels and inefficient vehicle technologies in the
transport sector has led to increased emission of carbon dioxide (CO2) and other greenhouse gasses
(GHG). The continuous release of CO2 and other GHG to the environment beyond the earth’s natural
absorptive capacity is accountable for global warming. Global trends suggest that the transport sector is
the significant contributor in the overall CO2 and GHG load. There is a clear connection between energy
use and carbon dioxide emissions. The latest GHG emission inventory for the country points to a 22%
share of the transport sector to the annual CO2 load and 30% share to the total GHG emissions. Severe
congestion levels coupled with low fuel efficiency of existing vehicle fleet pose serious GHG emission
situations. Recent studies in the country state that the average fuel efficiency is 4.0km/liter for a PUJ and
3.3km/liter for a PUB compared with around 12km/liter for a private car.

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Planning and Engineering

CE 133: PRINCIPLES OF
TRANSPORTATION ENGINEERING

Topic No.4: Introduction to Travel

Demand Forecasting (Classic Four-Step
Forecasting Model)

Introduction to Travel Demand Forecasting

Travel demand is expressed as the number of

persons or vehicles per unit time that can be expected to travel
a given segment of a transportation system under a set of given
land-use, socioeconomic, and environmental conditions.
Forecasts of travel demand are used to establish the vehicular
volume on future or modified transportation system alternatives.

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Planning and Engineering

Introduction to Travel Demand Forecasting

Traffic volumes change over time in response to change in

economic activity, individual travel patterns and preferences, and traveler’s
social/recreational activities. In addition, traffic volumes are affected by any significant
modification of a highway network, which includes items such as new road
construction or operational changes on existing roads. Analysts therefore must
develop methodological approaches for forecasting changes in traffic volumes. For
new road construction, traffic forecasts are needed to determine an appropriate
pavement design and geometric design that will provide an acceptable level of
service. For operational improvements, traffic forecasts are needed to estimate the
effectiveness of alternate improvement options.

Factors that Affect Travel Demand

a) The location and intensity of land use
b) The socio-economic characteristics of the people living in the area, and
c) The extent, cost, and quality of available transportation services.

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Planning and Engineering

Introduction to Travel Demand Forecasting

Traffic demand and traffic forecasting is a formidable problem because it

requires accurate regional economic forecasts as well as accurate forecasts of
highway users’ social and behavioral attitudes regarding trip-oriented decisions, in
order to predict growth/decline trends and traffic diversion. Virtually everyone is aware
how inaccurate economic forecasts can be, which is testament to the complexity and
uncertainty associated with such forecasts. Similarly, one can readily imagine the
difficulty associated with forecasting individuals’ travel decisions.

Traveler Decisions
Forecasts of highway traffic should, at least in theory, be predicated on some
understanding of traveler decisions, because the various decisions that travelers
make regarding trips will ultimately determine the quantity, spatial distribution (by
route), and temporal distribution of vehicles on a highway network. Within this
context, travelers can be viewed as making four distinct but interrelated
decisions regarding trips:
1.) Temporal decisions – includes the decision to travel and, more importantly,
when to travel.
2.) Destination decisions – concerned with the selection of a specific destination
(shopping center, recreational facility, etc.).
3.) Modal decisions – relates to how the trip is to be made (by automobile, bus,
bicycling, or walking)
4.) Spatial or Route decisions – focus on which route is to be taken from the
traveler’s origin (the traveler's initial location) to the desired destination.

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Planning and Engineering

Scope of the Travel Demand and Traffic Forecasting Problem

Because travel demand and traffic forecasting are predicted on the accurate forecasting of traveler decisions,
two factors must be addressed in the development of an effective travel demand and traffic forecasting
methodology:
1.) The complexity of the traveler decision-making process – traveler socioeconomics and activity patterns
constitute a major driving force in the decision-making process. Socioeconomics, including factors such as
household income, number of household members, and traveler age, affect the types of activities that the
traveler is likely to be involved in (work, yoga classes, shopping, children’s day care, dancing lessons, etc.),
which in turn are primary factors in many travel decisions. For the decision to travel as well as
mode/destination choice, the long term factors of modal availability, residential and commercial distributions,
and modal infrastructure play a significant role. (refer to Fig.1)
2.) System equilibrium – such a reciprocal relationship is most apparent in considering the relationship
between travelers choice and short-term factors. For example, consider a traveler’s choice of highway route.
One would expect that the traveler would be more likely to select a route between origin and destination that
provides a shorter travel time. The travel time on various routes will be a function of route distance (highway
infrastructure, long-term) and route traffic (higher traffic volumes reduce travel speed and increase travel
time). But travelers’ decision to take specific routes ultimately determine the route traffic on which their route
decisions are based. In addition to these short-term effects, persistently high traffic volumes may lead to a
change in the highway infrastructure, again resulting to an interdependence. This interdependence creates
the problem of equilibration, which is common to many modeling applications. Refer to Fig.2 for the
schematic presentation of the interdependence between traveler decisions and modal traffic.

Scope of the Travel Demand and Traffic Forecasting Problem

Fig.1: Overview of the process by which highway traffic is determined. Fig.2: Interdependence of traveler decisions and traffic flow..

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Planning and Engineering

The Classic Four-Step Forecasting Model

1) Trip Generation – The prediction of the number of trips produced by and attracted to
each zone, that is, the number of trip ends “generated” within the urban area. Forecasts
the number of trips that will be made. (e.g. How many trips will begin or end in each
traffic analysis zone?)
2) Trip Distribution – The prediction of origin-destination (O-D) or production-attraction (P-
A) flows, that is, the linking of the trip ends predicted by the trip generation model
together to form trip interchanges or flows. Determine where the trips will go (e.g. How
many trips that at a given origin will end at a given destination?)
3) Mode Choice Analysis (Modal Split) – This predicts the percentages of travel flow that
will use each of the available modes (auto, transit, walk..etc.) between each origin-
destination pair. Predicts how the trips will be divided among the available modes of
travel (e.g. How many travelers will choose each mode of transportation?)
4) Trip Assignment – Predicts the traveler’s route choice. (e.g. What route or path will be
taken by each trip maker?) This places the O-D flows for each mode on specific routes
of travel through the respective modal networks.

The Classic Four-Step Forecasting Model

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The Classic Four-Step Forecasting Model

Fig.3 (a) (Urban) Transportation Planning Process (b) Travel Forecasting Process (Garber & Hoel, 2009)

Traffic Analysis Zones (TAZ)

 Areas in which the land uses and socio-economic profile of residents are
homogenous.
 For rural areas – homogenous use of land for agriculture, forestry, cattle
grazing.
 Usually, natural bodies of water or major roads can serve as boundaries of
TAZs
 Political boundaries may also serve as TAZs
 Provides a hypothetical center (centroid) where all trips emanate and end.
This hypothetical center should be attached to a road.

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Traffic Analysis Zones (TAZ)

Fig.4 Example of Traffic Analysis Zones (Garber & Hoel, 2009).

The Origin-Destination Table (The OD Matrix)

Fig.5 Elements of an Origin-Destination Matrix

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The Origin-Destination Table (The OD Matrix)

The number of trips Oi, generated from zone i (also refereed to as a Trip
Production) is given by

The number of trips Dj attracted to zone j (also referred to as Trip

Attraction) is given by

The Origin-Destination Table (The OD Matrix)

The trip generation is defined by as the sum of trips produced (or
attracted) in each zone. It is estimated based on several factors to satisfy
certain requirements (e.g. predictability and existence of significant
difference between categories).

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Planning and Engineering

CE 133: PRINCIPLES OF
TRANSPORTATION ENGINEERING

Topic No.4.1: Classic Four-Step

Forecasting Model (Trip Generation)

Trip Generation
Trip Generation forecasts the number of trips that will be made. (e.g. How
many trips will begin or end in each traffic analysis zone?). It is defined by as the
sum of trips produced (or attracted) in each zone. It is estimated based on several
factors to satisfy certain requirements (e.g. predictability and existence of
significant difference between categories).

Where:
The number of trips Oi, generated The number of trips Dj attracted
from zone i (also refereed to as a to zone j (also referred to as
Trip Production) is given by: Trip Attraction) is given by:

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Trip Generation
Definition of terms:
a. Home-Based Work (HBW) Trip – a
trip for which the purpose is to go from
home to work or from work to home
b. Home-Based Other (HBO) Trip – a
trip for which the purpose is to go from
home to another location other than
work (e.g. shopping, school, theater) or
from non-work locations to home.
c. Non-Home Based (NHB) Trip – a trip
for which neither trip end is at home

Fig.1 Difference between HBW, HBO, and NHB

Trip Generation
Definition of terms:
d. Production – the ability of a zone to generate trip ends. For all non-home based trips,
productions are synonymous with origins.
e. Attraction – the ability of a zone to attract trip ends. For non-home based trips, attractions in a
zone can be considered synonymous with trip destinations in that zone.
f. Origin – a point at which a trip begins.
g. Destination – a point at which a trip ends.

Fig.2 Trip Production and attractions

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Trip Generation
A. Growth Factor Method
- The number of trips is assumed to be influenced by several variables like population,
car ownership, or income.

Where:
Ti = current trip generation or attraction of zone i
T’i = future trips in zone i
Fi = growth rate of zone i

Pi = population of zone i
Mi = index of activity of zone i (e.g. – car ownership, income)
T’i, P’i, M’i – future values
Ti, Pi, Mi – current/present values

Trip Generation
A. Growth Factor Method
Example: Consider a zone with 250 households with car and 250 households without car. Assuming we
know the average trip generation rates of each group:
Car-owning households produce: 6.0 trips/day
Non-car-owning households produce: 2.5 trips/day
Assume in the future that all households will have a car. Also, assume that income and population
remain constant. Estimate the future number of trips in the zone.

Solution:
1. Determine first the current/present number of trips per day
Ti = (250 x 6.0) + (250 x 2.5) = 2125 trips/day
2. The growth factor can be estimated as:

Fi = 1 / 0.5 = 2
3. Therefore, the number of future trips can be estimated as:
T’i = Ti X Fi = 2125 x 2 = 4250 trips/day

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Trip Generation
B. Category Analysis / Cross-Classification Analysis
- Cross-classification puts households into groups to use important demographic that is
masked when using regression models
- Such socio-economic characteristics are:
⦁ Persons / Households
⦁ Income
⦁ Vehicle Units

Trip Generation
B. Category Analysis / Cross-Classification Analysis
Example: Twenty households in a city were sampled for household income, autos per household,
and trips produced.

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Trip Generation
B. Category Analysis / Cross-Classification Analysis
Solution:
Develop matrices connecting income to automobile (use the table below), and also draw a graph
connecting trips per household to income. How many trips will a household with an income of
10,000 pesos per month owning one auto make per day?

Trip Generation
B. Category Analysis / Cross-Classification Analysis
Solution:
a. Identify the household sample as per cell categories provided in the table:

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Trip Generation
B. Category Analysis / Cross-Classification Analysis
Solution:
b. The average number of trips the household generates in each cell is calculated. For example,
the average trip rate for households with two or more autos and an income between Php. 12,000
and Php. 15,000 is 11.5, because households 16 and 17 together make a total of 33 trips. This
average rates are shown.

Trip Generation
B. Category Analysis / Cross-Classification Analysis
Solution:

c. A household with Php. 10,000 income and one auto per household will make 7.5 trips per day

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Trip Generation
C. Regression Model

where:
Xi = a factor (usually demographic) that explains the level of trip-making
ai = coefficient or constant that converts the factors into number of trips T

Examples:
A small study area represented by six traffic zones has the following characteristics:

Set up a linear regression equation, illustrate the data, calculate R2.

Trip Generation
C. Regression Model
Solution:
The solution to this problem can be done using the MS Excel or any other similar program. Hence
the trip production (T) as a function of the car ownership (CO) is given by the equation
T = 318.56 + 0.883CO, R2 = 0.78

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Trip Generation
C.1 Multiple Regression Analysis
Sample: Develop the multiple linear regression model to estimate the number of trips attracted (y)
to the cities/municipalities in Metro Manila using the available office floor space (X1) and the
number of off-street parking spaces (X2).

Trip Generation
C.1 Multiple Regression Analysis
Solution:
Each of the independent variables can be treated individually. Hence, the correlation between the
trip attractions and the office floor space is

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Trip Generation
C.1 Multiple Regression Analysis
Solution:
For the Off-Street Parking Spaces,

Trip Generation
C.1 Multiple Regression Analysis
Solution:
Using multiple regression, the model gives

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Trip Generation
Kindly watch the video:

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=i6JsaC5Hxuk

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Planning and Engineering

CE 133: PRINCIPLES OF
TRANSPORTATION ENGINEERING

Topic No.4.2: Classic Four-Step

Forecasting Model (Trip Distribution)

Trip Distribution
Trip Distribution involves modelling the distribution of trips generated by
each origin zone attracted to each destination zone. The output of this process will
be a matrix of Trip Distribution for Oi to Destination Dj – i.e.Tij – such that:

Fig.1 The Origin-Destination Table (OD Matrix)

CE 133: Principles of Transportation Engineering 1

Topic No.01: Introduction to Transportation 6 September 2024
Planning and Engineering

Trip Distribution
Trip Distribution Models
1. Growth Factor / Fratar Method – the simplest method to distribute trips in a study
area.
Assumptions:
a. The distribution of future trips from a given origin zone is proportional to the present trip
distribution.
b. This future distribution is modified by the growth factor of the zone to which this trips
are attached.
The Fratar Equation – (*named for Thomas J. Fratar, who develop the method)

Trip Distribution
Trip Distribution Models
1. Growth Factor / Fratar Method
Example1:
An origin zone I with 20 base-year trips going to zones a, b, and c numbering 4, 6, and
10, respectively, has growth rates of 2, 3, 4, and 5 for I, a, b, and c, respectively.
Determine the future trips from I to a, b, and c in the future year.
Given:
tia0 = 4, tib0 = 6, tic0 = 10
growth rates: i = 2, a = 3, b = 4, c = 5

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Topic No.01: Introduction to Transportation 6 September 2024
Planning and Engineering

Trip Distribution
Trip Distribution Models
1. Growth Factor / Fratar Method
Solution:
Future trips:

Trip Distribution
Trip Distribution Models
1. Growth Factor / Fratar Method
Example2:
A 3-by-3 trip table representing a total of 2500 trips is shown in the following table, which is for
the base year.

The next table indicates the origin and destination growth factors for the horizon year.

Use the Fratar technique to distribute the trips in the horizon year.

CE 133: Principles of Transportation Engineering 3

Topic No.01: Introduction to Transportation 6 September 2024
Planning and Engineering

Trip Distribution
Trip Distribution Models
1. Growth Factor / Fratar Method
Solution:
In the horizon year, the desired trip table should resemble the following matrix, where
the row and column total equal to the corresponding base-year totals multiplied by the
origin and destination growth factors.

Trip Distribution
Trip Distribution Models
1. Growth Factor / Fratar Method
Solution:
The next step is to multiply the destination growth factors (DGF) by the cell numbers,
giving the following matrix:

CE 133: Principles of Transportation Engineering 4

Topic No.01: Introduction to Transportation 6 September 2024
Planning and Engineering

Trip Distribution
Trip Distribution Models
1. Growth Factor / Fratar Method
Solution:
However, the actual row total and the desired row total do not match and a set of row
factors to correct them is calculated. Now we multiply the row factors by the cell figures
in the preceding matrix to obtain cell values as follows:

Trip Distribution
Trip Distribution Models
1. Growth Factor / Fratar Method
Solution:
Again, the column totals do not match the desired column totals, and therefore a set of
column factors are derived that will possibly correct the situation. The column factors are
multiplied by the cell figures of matrix, giving us a new matrix:

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Topic No.01: Introduction to Transportation 6 September 2024
Planning and Engineering

Trip Distribution
Trip Distribution Models
1. Growth Factor / Fratar Method
Solution:
Once again, the row totals and column totals are calculated and the process goes
through for a second time, producing a matrix that is good enough for planning
purposes.

Trip Distribution
Trip Distribution Models
1. Growth Factor / Fratar Method
Solution:
Another iteration,

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Topic No.01: Introduction to Transportation 6 September 2024
Planning and Engineering

Trip Distribution
Trip Distribution Models
1. Growth Factor / Fratar Method
Solution:

Therefore, the final O – D table would be

Trip Distribution
Trip Distribution Models
2. Gravity Model
- the most widely used trip distribution model
- the model states that the number of trips between two zones is directly proportional to the number
of trip attractions generated by the zone of destination and inversely proportional to a function of
time of travel between two zones.

CE 133: Principles of Transportation Engineering 7

Topic No.01: Introduction to Transportation 6 September 2024
Planning and Engineering

Trip Distribution
Trip Distribution Models
2. Gravity Model
 Singly Constrained vs. Doubly Constrained Model
a. Singly Constrained Model – when information is available about the expected
growth trips originating in each zone only or the other way, trips attracted to each
zone only.
b. Doubly Constrained Model – when information is available on the future number of
trips originating and terminating in each zone. For a doubly constrained gravity
model, the adjusted attraction factors are computed according to the formula:

Trip Distribution
Trip Distribution Models
2. Gravity Model
Example:
A small town has been divided into three traffic zones. An origin-destination survey was conducted earlier this
year and yielded the number of trips between each zone as shown in the table below. Travel times between zones
were also determined. Provide a trip distribution calculation using the gravity model for two iterations. Assume Kij
= 1.
The following table shows the number of productions and attractions in each zone:

The survey’s results for the zone’s travel time in minutes were as follows:

The following table shows travel time versus friction factor.

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Topic No.01: Introduction to Transportation 6 September 2024
Planning and Engineering

Trip Distribution
Trip Distribution Models
2. Gravity Model
Solution:
The mathematical formulation for the gravity model is given by:

Since Kij = 1, this factor does not affect the calculations. The iterative application of the
gravity formula is as follows:

Iteration 1:
65

Trip Distribution
Trip Distribution Models
2. Gravity Model
Solution continued:
Iteration 1: 46

139

209

24

217

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Topic No.01: Introduction to Transportation 6 September 2024
Planning and Engineering

Trip Distribution
Trip Distribution Models
2. Gravity Model
Solution continued:
Iteration 1:
168

48

86

Trip Distribution
Trip Distribution Models
2. Gravity Model
Solution continued…
The trip matrix after iteration 1 is:

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Topic No.01: Introduction to Transportation 6 September 2024
Planning and Engineering

Trip Distribution
Trip Distribution Models
2. Gravity Model
Solution continued…
We calculate the adjusted attraction factors using the equation:

Zone 1: Ajk = 353

Zone 2: Ajk = 279

Zone 3: Ajk = 409

Now, we apply the gravity model formula for Iteration 2 using the above adjusted
attraction factors.

Trip Distribution
Trip Distribution Models
2. Gravity Model
Solution continued:
Iteration 2: 55
68
127

195
38
217

148
71
81

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Topic No.01: Introduction to Transportation 6 September 2024
Planning and Engineering

Trip Distribution
Trip Distribution Models
2. Gravity Model
Solution continued..
The trip matrix after Iteration 2 is:

Observe that the computed attractions are approximately equal to the given attractions. A total convergence would be
expected in another iteration.

Trip Distribution

Kindly watch the YouTube video:

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=i6JsaC5Hxuk

CE 133: Principles of Transportation Engineering 12

Topic No.01: Introduction to Transportation 11 September 2024
Planning and Engineering

CE 133: PRINCIPLES OF
TRANSPORTATION ENGINEERING

Topic No.4.3: Classic Four-Step

Forecasting Model (Mode Choice
Analysis / Modal Split)

Mode Choice Analysis

The Modal Split Analysis phase of the travel-demand forecasting process
analyzes people’s decision regarding mode of travel (e.g. auto, bus, jeepneys,
train, etc.). This can be done at various points in the forecasting process. However,
it is commonly being conducted after the trip distribution process because
information on where trips are going allows the mode usage relationship to
compare the alternative transportation services competing for users.

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Topic No.01: Introduction to Transportation 11 September 2024
Planning and Engineering

Mode Choice Analysis

Figure 1. Output from Trip Distribution (Person – Trips)

Mode Choice Analysis

Four Elements in a Choice Process:
1. Decision maker
2. Alternatives
3. Attributes of alternatives
4. Decision rule

Three (3) broad categories of factors that affect the choices that people make are:
a. The characteristics of the trip makers (e.g. family income, number of autos available,
family size, residential density)
b. The characteristics of the trip (e.g. trip distance, time of delay)
c. The characteristics of the transportation system (e.g. riding time, waiting time, and
other qualitative factors such as comfort, convenience, safety and security, etc.)

CE 133: Principles of Transportation Engineering 2

Topic No.01: Introduction to Transportation 11 September 2024
Planning and Engineering

Mode Choice Analysis

Logit Model
- The logit formulation is a share model that divides the persons between the
various modes depending on each mode’s relative desirability for any given trip.
- Modes are said to be relatively more desirable if they are faster, cheaper, or
have other mode favorable features than competitive modes.
- The better a mode is, the more utility it has for the potential traveler.
- The logit model takes the following form to trade off the relative utilities of various
modes

Mode Choice Analysis

Logit Model
Example No.1:
1. The calibrated utility functions for auto and transit travel are:
Auto: Va = -0.3 – 0.04X – 0.1Y – 0.03C
Transit: Vt = -0.04X – 0.1Y – 0.03C
Where: Vi = utility function of mode I
X = in-vehicle travel time
Y = out-of-vehicle travel time
C = cost of travel / income
A traffic zone has the following characteristics:

What is the probability that a person with an income of Php.10,000 will travel by transit?

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Topic No.01: Introduction to Transportation 11 September 2024
Planning and Engineering

Mode Choice Analysis

Logit Model
Solution of Example No.1:
Auto: Va = -0.3 – 0.04X – 0.1Y – 0.03C
Va = -0.3 – (0.04)(15) – (0.1)(5) – (0.03)( ) = - 1.40

Transit: Vt = -0.04X – 0.1Y – 0.03C

Vt = (-0.04)(40) – (0.1)(10) – (0.03) )( ) = - 2.60
Therefore, the probability of the trip maker taking the transit is:

Answer.

Mode Choice Analysis

Logit Model
Example No.2:
2. The calibrated utility function for travel in a medium-sized city by automobile,
bus, and light rail is U = a – 0.002X1 – 0.05x2
Where: X1 is the cost of travel (cents), and X2 is the travel time (min.). Calculate
the modal split for the given values:

If a parking fee of Php.1.00 per trip is imposed, what would be the split to the other
two modes?

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Topic No.01: Introduction to Transportation 11 September 2024
Planning and Engineering

Mode Choice Analysis

Logit Model
Solution of Example No.2:
Given the ff:

U = a – 0.002X1 – 0.05x2

Automobile: UA = -0.30 – 0.002(130) – 0.05(25) = - 1.81

Bus: UB = -0.35 – 0.002(75) – 0.05(35) = - 2.25
Light Rail: UL = -0.40 – 0.002(90) – 0.05(40) = - 2.58

Mode Choice Analysis

Logit Model
Solution of Example No.2 continued..

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Topic No.01: Introduction to Transportation 11 September 2024
Planning and Engineering

Mode Choice Analysis

Logit Model
Solution of Example No.2 continued…
Summary:

If a parking fee of Php.1.00 per trip is imposed, Ua = -0.3 – 0.002(230) – 1.25 = -2.01

Hence, even a flat parking of Php.1.00 makes a 5% difference in automobile ridership.

Mode Choice Analysis

Recommended YouTube Video:

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=ZFNX5vmC_Yk

CE 133: Principles of Transportation Engineering 6

Topic No.01: Introduction to Transportation 16 September 2024
Planning and Engineering

CE 133: PRINCIPLES OF
TRANSPORTATION ENGINEERING

Topic No.4.4: Classic Four-Step Forecasting Model

(Trip Assignment)

Trip Assignment
The goal of this travel demand forecasting phase is to predict the traveler's
route choice and, hence, the traffic on network links. For example, if a trip goes
from a suburban to downtown, the model predicts the specific streets or transit
routes to be used.

Figure 1. Traffic Assignment

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Topic No.01: Introduction to Transportation 16 September 2024
Planning and Engineering

Trip Assignment
Basic Terminologies:
1. Network – Consists of a set of points and a set of lines connecting certain pairs of points.
2. Nodes – The points on the network.
2.a Supply Node – Has the property that the flow out of the node exceeds that flow into
the node
2.b Demand Node – The flow into the node exceeds the flow out of the node
2.c Transshipment Node – Satisfies conversation of flow, so flow in equals flow out.
3. Path – A path between two nodes is a sequence of distinct arcs connecting these nodes.
3.a Directed Path – A directed path from node i to node j is a sequence of connecting
arcs whose direction is toward j.
3.b Undirected Path – An undirected path from node i to node j is a sequence of
connecting arcs whose direction can either toward or away from node j.
3.c Cycle – A path that begins and ends at the same node.

Trip Assignment

Figure 2. Sample of a graph and its link-path incidence matrix.

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Topic No.01: Introduction to Transportation 16 September 2024
Planning and Engineering

Trip Assignment
Shortest-Route Method
Objective: To determine the shortest path from the source node 1 to the sink
node n.
Given:
- A network of ‘n’ nodes denoted by (1,2,3,…,n)
- To each are ( i, j ), there is a nonnegative number dij called the distance or
transit time from node i to node j.
- When there is no way of getting from i to j, we set dij = +∞

Trip Assignment
Dijkstra’s Algorithm
Assumptions:
a. There is a direct distance between any two nodes ( dij ) in the network of n
nodes.
b. All the distances are nonnegative.
Prestep:
- Initialize by assigning a label of zero to the source node.
- All other node labels are temporary and are equal to the direct distance from
the source node to that node.
- Select the minimum of these temporary labels and declare it permanent. In
case of ties, choose any one.

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Topic No.01: Introduction to Transportation 16 September 2024
Planning and Engineering

Trip Assignment
Dijkstra’s Algorithm
Step 1:
- Let node K be the most recent node permanently labeled.
- Considering the remaining nodes with temporary labels, compare one at a time
the temporary labels of each node, to the sum of the permanent label of node K
and the direct distance from node K to the node under consideration.
- Assign the minimum of these two distances as the new temporary label for that
node.

Trip Assignment
Dijkstra’s Algorithm
Step 2:
- Select the minimum of all temporary labels, and declare it permanent.
- In case of ties, select any one of them.
- If this happens to be the sink node, then terminate
- Otherwise return to Step 1.

By retracting the path backwards from the sink node to the source node, the
minimal path can be constructed.

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Topic No.01: Introduction to Transportation 16 September 2024
Planning and Engineering

Trip Assignment
Example No.1:
The municipal planning engineer would like to identify the shortest path coming from all the
7 barangays of the municipality going to the municipal center and vice-versa. The roads
along these shortest paths will be made into all-weather roads to make them passable all
year round. The values along the links are in kilometers.

Trip Assignment
Solution to Example No.1:
This is the shortest-route problem which can be solved using the Dijkstra’s Algorithm.
1st Iteration:

2nd Iteration:

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Topic No.01: Introduction to Transportation 16 September 2024
Planning and Engineering

Trip Assignment
Solution to Example No.1 continued…
This is the shortest-route problem which can be solved using the Dijkstra’s Algorithm.
3rd Iteration:

Trip Assignment
Solution to Example No.1 continued…
This is the shortest-route problem which can be solved using the Dijkstra’s Algorithm.
4th Iteration:

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Topic No.01: Introduction to Transportation 16 September 2024
Planning and Engineering

Trip Assignment
Solution to Example No.1 continued…
This is the shortest-route problem which can be solved using the Dijkstra’s Algorithm.
5th Iteration:

Trip Assignment
Solution to Example No.1 continued…
This is the shortest-route problem which can be solved using the Dijkstra’s Algorithm.
6th Iteration:

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Topic No.01: Introduction to Transportation 16 September 2024
Planning and Engineering

Trip Assignment
Solution to Example No.1 continued…
This is the shortest-route problem which can be solved using the Dijkstra’s Algorithm.
7th Iteration:

Trip Assignment
Solution to Example No.1 continued…
This is the shortest-route problem which can be solved using the Dijkstra’s Algorithm.
8th Iteration:

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Topic No.01: Introduction to Transportation 16 September 2024
Planning and Engineering

Trip Assignment
Solution to Example No.1 continued…
Summary of Observations:
1. Road segments 1-3, 3-2, 3-4, 4-6, 6-5, 5-7, and 6-8 are roads to be converted to all-
weather roads.
2. Therefore, shortest paths from the municipality (Node 1) to each barangays are the
following:

Trip Assignment
Recommended YouTube Video:

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=qjSLM3-ENxU

CE 133: Principles of Transportation Engineering 9

 CE 133: PRINCIPLES OF
TRANSPORTATION ENGINEERING

Topic No.4.1: Classic Four-Step

Forecasting Model
Problem Solving:
A commercial center in the downtown contains several retail establishments and light
industries. Employed at the center are 220 retail and 650 nonretail workers. Determine
the number of trips per day attracted to this zone?

Where:
HBW = home-based work
HBO = home-based other
NHB = non-home based
Given:
220 – retail workers
650 – nonretail workers

Where:
HBW = home-based work
HBO = home-based other
NHB = non-home based

Required: Number of trips per day attracted to this zone?

Solution:
Using the trip generation rates listed in the given table, we solve for the number of trips per
day:

HBW = (220 x 1.7) + (650 x 1.7) = 1479 trips

HBO = (220 x 5.0) + (650 x 2.0) = 2400 trips
NHB = (220 x 3.0) + (650 x 1.0) = 1310 trips

TOTAL = 5189 trips/day

Answer

Note that three trip purposes are given in the given table: home-based work (HBW), home-based
other (HBO), and non-home-based (NHB). For example, for HBO trips, there are 5.0 attractions
per downtown retail employee (in trips/day) and 2.0 attractions per nonretail employee.