AP Human Geography Notes

Unit 1: Thinking Geographically
Module 1- Introduction to Maps

Defining Maps
● A map is a two-dimensional representation of a geographical area.
● A cartographer is someone who makes maps.
● Data aggregation is the process of collecting and organizing large amounts of
information.
● A spatial perspective is a geographic outlook that seeks to identify and explain the uses
of space, and it helps to explain spatial patterns.
● Spatial patterns are the placement or arrangement of objects on Earth’s surface.
○ Objects are clustered if they are clumped together.
○ Objects are dispersed if they are spread out in some organized fashion.
○ Their pattern is random if the objects are either clustered or dispersed, thus
lacking any organization.
● Time-distance decay states that near things are more related than distant things, and
interaction between two places decreases the farther apart they are. It implies that the
farther people have to travel for goods and services, the less likely they are to do so.
1. Maps present 2. Cartographers 3. Maps use a 4. Maps reveal

information gather and spatial spatial
about the use a large perspective to patterns that
world in a amount of show spatial result from a
simple, visual data to draw patterns. specific
way. maps. process.
- The official U.S census occurs every 10 years.

- For most of human history, humans traveled to distant locations by boat. Building cities
on large bodies of water helped human beings travel and trade with distant cultures.
The Parts of a Map

● The title states exactly what the map is illustrating.
● Map symbols are graphic elements that help organize the information in the map.
● The legend explains the meaning of map symbols and colors. It is usually presented ina
box in a corner of the map.
● The compass rose is a drawing that shows the map’s orientation and the four cardinal
directions of north, south, east, and west.
● Absolute direction corresponds to the direction on a compass: north, south, east, west,
and combinations such as northeast and southwest.
● A map scale is the distance on a map in relation to distance in actual space; for
example, 1 inch on a map might indicate a distance of 1000 miles.
● Scale is the territorial extent of any object.
○ Absolute distance is the distance that can be measured with a standard unit of
length, such as a foot, yard, mile, or kilometer.
○ Relative distance is a measure of the level of social, cultural, or economic
similarity between places despite their absolute distance from each other.
○ Relative direction is a direction that can be described as position, such as in front
of or behind, to the left or to the right.
● Elevation is the distance above sea level.
○ An isoline (on a map) is a line that connects or links different places that share a
common or equal value, such as elevation.
○ A topographic map is a graphic representation of the three-dimensional
configuration of Earth’s surface. They show the natural or physical features of a
landscape, including its elevation.
- Most people live on coastal plains at elevations of 500 feet or less. At high elevations,
the climate becomes too cold for growing crops, and at low elevations, areas are more
vulnerable to flooding and storm surge.
Reference Maps
● A reference map is a map that shows geographic locations on Earth’s surface, such as
the locations of cities or oceans.
○ Reference maps often display the boundaries, names, and unique identifiers of
geographic areas, such as states, provinces, or countries.
○ Reference maps may also show major cultural or physical features, such as
roads, railroads, coastlines, and bodies of water.
○ Topographical maps and the Global Positioning System are examples of
reference maps.
Thematic Maps
● A thematic map emphasizes the spatial patterns of geographic statistics or attributes.
Some examples include:
- A map that shows the predominant soil type in various regions
- A map that shows political party membership by county
- A map that shows population density in various nations
● All thematic maps use reference maps as their baselines.
○ Remember: Reference maps focus on places, while thematic maps focus on
data.
Choropleth Maps: Cartograms: Proportional/Gradu Dot Density/
A choropleth map is a A cartogram is a map ated Circle Maps: Distribution Maps:
thematic map that that distorts the A proportional map is A dot distribution map
shows data geographic shape of a map that uses is a map that uses
aggregated for a an area in order to symbols (such as dots to represent
specific geographic show the size of a circles or dots) of objects or counts; the
area, often using specific variable; the different sizes to dot can represent
different colors to larger the area on a represent numerical one object (a
represent different cartogram, the larger values. one-to-one dot
values. the value of the density map), or it
underlying variable. can represent a
number of objects (a
one-to-many dot
density map)
Map Projections
● A map projection is a method for representing the surface of Earth or a celestial sphere
on a plane (two dimensional) surface; all map projections distort some aspect of the
Earth’s surface.
Mercator Projection:
● Named after cartographer Gerardus
Mercator.
● Useful for navigation because the
lines connecting points on the map
represent the true compass direction.
● Widely adopted during Europe’s age
of exploration during the 16th and
17th centuries.
● Standard projection in geographic
education.
● Size is truly represented along the
equator but greatly distorted along the
North and South Poles.
Peters Projection:
● Created by German historian Arno
Peters.
● Claimed to challenge the “Eurocentric”
dominance of the Mercator projection,
promising equality to the “developing
world” in Africa and Asia.
● An equal-area projection that shows
all landmasses with their true areas.
In doing so, it greatly distorts shape.
Goode Homolosine Projection:

● Named after U.S geographer John
Paul Goode.
● Equal-area map that avoids shape
distortion by creating “interruptions” in
the map’s continuity.
● Looks like an orange peel
● Splits the oceans
Polar Projection:
● Looks down at Earth from the
perspective of either the North Pole or
the South Pole.
● Landmasses close to the Poles seem
much bigger than they actually are.
● This projection does not always have
to be centered on the poles.
Robinson Projection:
● Created by Arthur Robinson , a U.S
geographer and cartographer
● A map projection that attempts to
create the most visually appealing
representation of Earth by keeping all
types of distortion low over most of
the map.
1-1 What is a map?

1-2 How do maps aggregate data and illustrate spatial patterns?
1-3 What are the different parts of a map?
1-4 What are the two main types of maps?
1-5 What are the benefits and drawbacks of map projections?
1-6 How can you think critically about maps and map projections?
Module 2- Geographic Data
● Geographic data ( A.K.A. geospatial data or geographic information) identify the location
of features on Earth’s surface
● The geographers who gather data fall into two categories: individual data gatherers and
people who work for an organization.
● A census is an official count, or survey of a population, typically recording various details
about individuals, such as age, sex, and race. Important uses of census data include:
- Determining how many seats each state has in the House of Representatives.
- Helping the federal government follow social and economic trends to determine
how to distribute public funds, and administer public programs for health care,
education, employment, transportation, and infrastructure.
- Helping private businesses to determine where to build new stores.
- Allowing private medical care facilities to place hospitals and assisted-living
facilities where there is an aging population.
● Fieldwork is learning and doing research involving firsthand experience, which takes
place outside the classroom setting.
Longitude and Latitude

● Latitude lines are the (invisible) horizontal lines circling Earth parallel to the equator;
latitude is the degree of distance north or south from the equator, which is at 0 degrees,
as far as the poles, which are at 90 degrees.
● Longitude lines are the (invisible) vertical lines on Earth’s surface that mark imaginary
circles connecting the North Pole with the South Pole.
● The Prime Meridian is the zero-degree longitude line that runs through Greenwich,
England; also known as the Greenwich Meridian.
Types of Geospatial Technologies

● Geospatial technologies are the equipment and software that are used to measure and
analyze Earth’s land and features.

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Unit 1: Thinking Geographically

Module 1- Introduction to Maps

1. Maps present 2. Cartographers 3. Maps use a 4. Maps reveal

- The official U.S census occurs every 10 years.

The Parts of a Map

Goode Homolosine Projection:

1-1 What is a map?

Longitude and Latitude

Types of Geospatial Technologies

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