donnan2021

Psychology of Sport & Exercise 54 (2021) 101908
Contents lists available at ScienceDirect
Psychology of Sport & Exercise

journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/psychsport
Review
The effects of exercise at different temperatures on cognitive function: A

systematic review
Kate Donnan, MSc a, *, Emily L. Williams, PhD a, Jade L. Morris, PhD b, Nicholas Stanger, PhD a
a
Carnegie School of Sport, Institute for Sport, Physical Activity and Leisure, Leeds Beckett University, LS6 3QT, United Kingdom
b
Centre for Society and Mental Health, Department of Health Service and Population Research Institute of Psychiatry, Psychology and Neuroscience, King’s College
London, London, WC2B 6LE, United Kingdom
A R T I C L E I N F O A B S T R A C T
Keywords: To date, no review has focused specifically on the potential modulating role of environmental temperature on the
Cold effects of exercise on cognitive function. Despite this, a range of occupations and performance contexts exist (e.g.,
Cognitive function military personnel, emergency services, sport) where the maintenance of cognitive function in environmentally
Environmental temperature
challenging environments is crucial. Therefore, this systematic review aimed to evaluate the experimental
Exercise
research investigating how manipulating environmental temperature influenced the effects of acute bouts ex
Hot
ercise on cognitive functioning from pre-to-post exercise, or during exercise. Studies to be included were assessed
by two authors reviewing title, abstract, and then full-text. From the searches conducted, twenty articles were
identified which met the inclusion criteria. For the purpose of this review, exercise involved in each study was
categorised into low, moderate, and vigorous dosages (dependent on intensity and duration). The results indicate
that moderate dosages of exercise help stimulate improved cognitive performance from pre-to-post exercise in
temperate conditions, where cold exposure appears to blunt these effects. In addition, hot environments led to
cognitive decrements during and post exercise which were often identified in studies that implemented pro
longed moderate or vigorous exercise protocols. Therefore, suggesting a combination of heightened physiological
strain from increased dose of exercise, alongside heat exposure, can be detrimental to optimal cognitive func
tioning, whereby executive functioning tasks appeared to be most affected. The findings from this systematic
review highlight the potential modulating role of environmental temperature on the effects of exercise on
cognitive function. Thus, highlighting the importance of considering the role of environmental temperature for
individuals either exercising to elicit desired cognitive benefits or for those involved in physically demanding
occupations or performance domains.
1. The effects of exercise at different temperatures on cognition: processes, for example, learning, attention, decision making, memory,
A systematic review and reasoning (Fisher, Chacon, & Chaffee, 2019), and is sensitive to
changes in physical demand (Hogervorst, Riedel, Jeukendrup, & Jolles,
In occupations and performance contexts that have simultaneous 1996). For example, previous research has reported that acute moderate
physical and cognitive demands such as those undertaken by military intensity exercise can enhance cognitive functioning post-exercise
personnel, emergency service workers (Perry, Sheik-Nainer, Segall, (McMorris & Hale, 2012; Rattray & Smee, 2016). However, extended
Ruigi & Kaber, 2008), and elite sport performers (Meeusen, Watson, & (~45-60-min), or more intense bouts of exercise, could compromise
Dvorak, 2006), the sustainment of optimal cognitive functioning during some aspects of cognitive functioning post-exercise (McMorris, Turner,
(or immediately following) physical exertion that may also be under Hale, & Sproule, 2016; Rattray & Smee, 2016; Tomporowski, 2003) and
taken in varying environmental temperatures are fundamental for suc during exercise in temperate conditions (e.g., Lambourne & Tompor
cessful performance. Cognition is a term that refers to a range of mental owski, 2010; Schmit & Brisswalter, 2018). A number of reviews have
* Corresponding author. Carnegie School of Sport, Institute for Sport, Physical Activity and Leisure, Headingley Campus, Leeds Beckett University, LS6 3QT, United
Kingdom.
E-mail addresses: [email protected] (K. Donnan), [email protected] (E.L. Williams), [email protected] (J.L. Morris), n.
[email protected] (N. Stanger).
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.psychsport.2021.101908
Received 27 May 2020; Received in revised form 30 December 2020; Accepted 28 January 2021
Available online 5 February 2021
1469-0292/Crown Copyright © 2021 Published by Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
K. Donnan et al. Psychology of Sport & Exercise 54 (2021) 101908
provided crucial insights about the facilitative effects of chronic physical simple cognitive functions, such as information processing speed (Chang
activity on cognitive functioning (long-term; e.g., Blondell, & Etnier, 2009), but is unable to facilitate executive functioning
Hammersley-Mather, & Veerman, 2014), the varying effects of acute (McMorris, Sproule, Turner, & Hale, 2011; McMorris et al., 2016).
bouts of physical activity on cognitive functioning (e.g., Chang, Labban, Therefore, the exercise-induced cognitive effects may also be dependent
Gapin, & Etnier, 2012; McMorris & Hale, 2012), as well as the debili on the complexity of the cognitive task.
tative effects of extreme environmental conditions (including hot and
cold conditions) for complex cognitive tasks in the absence of physical 3. The role of environmental temperature on cognitive
activity (Martin et al., 2019). However, such reviews have not consid functioning
ered the influence that environmental temperature may have on the
effects of exercise on cognitive functioning, which is relevant to various In addition to the simultaneous physical and cognitive demands
occupational and performance contexts (e.g., military, elite sport). This involved in many occupational and performance contexts, extreme
review aims to address this gap in our understanding by considering how environmental conditions in which people are often required to perform
the physical demands of acute bouts of exercise under differing envi (e.g., military personnel, firefighters, athletes) can play a role in the
ronmental temperatures can affect cognition. maintenance of optimal cognitive function (Martin et al., 2019). Spe
cifically, environmental temperature has been shown to influence
2. The role of exercise on cognition cognition during exposure to both hot and cold environments, suggested
to be driven by an alteration to psycho-physiological pathways, such as
In relation to the effects of acute bouts of exercise on cognition, catecholamine availability, cerebral blood flow and sensory pleasur
several mechanisms have been applied to explain how these effects e/displeasure within these environments (Taylor et al., 2016). Research
occur. One such mechanism focuses on how exercise can increase neu has also suggested that varying environmental temperatures (including
rotransmitters that are understood to be important for effective cogni in the absence of physical activity) has been shown to impact simple and
tive function (e.g., working-memory, processing speed), such as the complex task performance differentially (Martin et al., 2019).
catecholamines epinephrine (EP), norepinephrine (NE) and dopamine It is generally recognised that heat exposure in warm to hot envi
(DA) (e.g., Cooper, 1973; McMorris & Hale, 2012). Research has shown ronments (~25 to >40 ◦ C) can impair physical and mental performance
that acute bouts of exercise can increase peripheral catecholamine (the latter in response to passive or active exposure) (Girard, Brocherie,
plasma levels in humans (e.g., McMorris et al., 2009; Winter et al., 2007) & Bishop, 2015; Hancock, Ross, & Szalma, 2007). The onset of
and cerebral levels in animals (e.g., Meeusen & De Meirleir, 1995; Sutoo exercise-induced fatigue on both physical and cognitive performance is
& Akiyama, 2003), as well as indicating exercise-induced catecholamine thought to accelerate in the heat due to thermal strain (such as increased
rises (i.e., increases in arousal) may induce cognitive benefits such as core temperature) and exacerbated dehydration, thereby limiting the
improved speed of processing (McMorris & Hale, 2012). That said, it has availability of oxygen to cerebral regions (Maughan, 2010). Relating to
also been proposed that prolonged vigorous exercise could lead to central fatigue, these factors have been reported to influence seroto
excessive catecholamine rises reflecting over-arousal that impairs nergic and dopaminergic activity, and increase the release of stress
cognitive performance by weakening the ‘signal to noise’ ratio beyond hormones (e.g., cortisol), potentially leading to cognitive deficits
catecholamine thresholds (McMorris, 2016). (Masento, Golightly, Field, Butler, & van Reekum, 2014). In relation to
The exercise intensity or physical demand dependent effects of ex core temperature, a review by Schmit, Hausswirth, Le Meur, and Duf
ercise on cognition have been implied in a range of theories, such as the field (2017) concluded that increases in core temperature up to
inverted-U and central fatigue hypotheses. In keeping with Yerkes and ~38.2 ◦ C may benefit some indices of cognitive performance (e.g.,
Dodson’s (1908) theory referring to a curvilinear relationship between improved response speed), after which these benefits begin to disappear,
arousal and performance, Davey (1973) proposed a curvilinear rela with decrements to more complex cognitive functions beginning to be
tionship between exercise intensity and cognition during or following observed when core temperature reaches >38.5 ◦ C. When core tem
exercise. Specifically, light and/or heavy exercise has been considered perature further surpasses 39 ◦ C, it is suggested that these deficits are
insufficient for cognitive facilitation, due to under-, or over-arousal, but less sparing and simple cognitive functions also begin to be adversely
moderate intensity exercise (of <~60-min) is suggested to optimise affected (Schmit et al., 2017).
cognitive performance (Lambourne & Tomporowski, 2010; McMorris & Similarly, exposure to cold environments (~-20 to 10 ◦ C) has also
Hale, 2012; Tomporowski, 2003). Moreover, prolonged bouts of exer been shown to induce cognitive decrements (Taylor et al., 2016), where
cise may compromise cognitive function (Tomporowski, 2003) in part performance on complex cognitive tasks are again thought be most
due to the onset of dehydration and reduction of energy stores, which affected (Martin et al., 2019). The early distraction hypothesis proposed
aligns to premises of the central fatigue hypothesis (Davis & Bailey, that stress elicited from cold exposure shifts attention toward the envi
1997). Based on this latter perspective, prolonged exercise may also ronmental stressor and away from the cognitive task (Teichner, 1958).
increase the brain serotonin to dopamine ratio associated with feelings That said, findings from recent studies suggest that cognitive deficits
of lethargy, loss of motivation and arousal (Meeusen et al., 2006). may be attributed to catecholamine dysregulation in the cold (Muller
Evidence for the inverted-U hypothesis remains disputed; some et al., 2012). Although research surrounding the effects of cold stress is
meta-analyses and narrative reviews have reported facilitating effects of sparse in comparison to those in the heat (Taylor et al., 2016), no sys
light and vigorous exercise on some aspects of cognitive performance (e. tematic review has examined how the effects of acute physical activity
g., Brisswalter, Collardeau, & René, 2002; Chang et al., 2012). Cognitive on cognition may potentially differ between cold or hot environments
tasks are typically categorised as either “simple” or “complex”, where compared to temperate conditions.
simple tasks are explained to involve simple perceptual motor skills (e.
g., reaction time) in comparison to complex tasks which require higher 4. Purpose of the review
levels of attention and effort (e.g., dual-task, working-memory) (Taylor,
Watkins, Marshall, Dascombe, & Foster, 2016). Specifically, it appears Although several systematic reviews and/or meta-analyses have
that exercise of short to moderate duration and of moderate intensity been conducted on the effects of acute physical activity on cognition (e.
facilitates more complex central executive tasks (e.g., measures of ex g., Lambourne & Tomporowski, 2010; McMorris et al., 2011), as well as
ecutive functioning) more so than other lower-order cognitive function on the effects of environmental temperature on cognition (including in
tasks (Basso & Suzuki, 2017; McMorris et al., 2016), perhaps due to their the absence of physical activity and/or in one temperature condition) (e.
enhanced sensitivity to arousal and catecholamine alterations g., Martin et al., 2019), no review has specifically focused on the po
(McMorris et al., 2016). However, high-intensity exercise can facilitate tential modulating role of environmental temperature on the effects of
2
physical activity on cognitive function. Given the range of contexts by and then the full-text of articles, were screened using a standardized
which the need to maintain cognitive functioning during or immediately template by the first author and a second author independently (KD and
following physical activity (e.g., elite sport, military operations, fire JM). Any disagreement between reviewers over eligibility of studies was
fighting) in environmentally challenging environments is important for resolved through discussions among these authors and if necessary, a
performance, this review aimed to systematically review the research third reviewer was included (NS). Fig. 1 details the screening process
evidence on the effects of exercise on cognition in studies where two or highlighting the number of studies excluded at each stage.
more temperature conditions were manipulated to determine directly Where available, data extracted from each article included: partici
how environmental temperature can influence the effect of exercise on pant demographics (sample size, gender, age, training status, and VO2
cognitive function. Therefore, the aims of this review were to discuss: (a) max); experimental design; environmental manipulation (environ
the role of (manipulating) temperature on the effects of acute exercise mental temperature and relative humidity [rh]); exercise characteristics
on cognitive functioning from pre-exercise to during and/or (mode, duration and intensity); core temperature changes; cognitive
post-exercise, or between different time-points during exercise and (b) function measures/tasks included, and results of cognitive function with
the variances in the effects of different intensities and durations of acute reference to pre-, during, and/or post-exercise. For the purpose of this
exercise on cognitive function when environmental temperature has review, physical activity/exercise was categorised as ‘light’, ‘moderate’
been manipulated. or ‘vigorous’ across studies, whereby these were aimed to align some
what with the classification of exercise intensities from the American
5. Methods College of Sports Medicine (American College of Sports Medicine, 2000)
and relevant reviews (Swain, 2005).1 Specifically, in this review, where
This systematic review was undertaken in accordance with the data was available, ‘light’ exercise was defined as <40% VO2 max or
Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analysis heart rate reserve (HRR), or where heart rate was maintained <110bpm
(PRISMA) Guidelines (Moher, Liberati, Tetzlaff, & Altmans, 2009), in temperate conditions (e.g., McMorris et al., 2006; Swain, 2005).
and has been registered on the international prospective register of ‘Moderate’ exercise was defined as between 40 and 60% VO2max or
systematic reviews (PROSPERO: Reference = CRD42018090653). HRR, or where heart rate was maintained between ~110-140bpm
throughout the temperate condition (e.g., Radakovic et al., 2007; Swain,
5.1. Eligibility criteria 2005). ‘Vigorous’ exercise was defined as >60% VO2 max or HRR, any
protocols to exhaustion or where heart rate was >~140bpm in
Studies included in this review were required to meet the following temperate conditions (Swain, 2005; Taylor et al., 2014). If VO2 max,
selection criteria: The research needed to: (a) be a laboratory-based HRR, nor heart rate data were available (n = 2),2 categorisation was
study so temperature (and humidity) was controlled in the research; based upon that implied by the authors.
(b) involve healthy human adult participants; (c) compare two or more
environmental conditions where the temperature was manipulated and 5.4. Risk of bias
involved an acute bout of exercise, thereby studies with just one envi
ronmental condition or elicited mental fatigue pre-trial were excluded; The two review authors independently assessed the risk of bias for
and (d) have assessed some form of cognitive function from pre-to-post included studies using the Downs and Black (1998) Checklist Criteria for
exercise, or at least two time-points with reference to during exercise (i. randomised and non-randomised intervention trials (Table 1). This
e., pre-exercise and during exercise; or a minimum of two time points quality assessment method included questions on quality of reporting,
during exercise). Field based or longitudinal studies were not included internal validity, external validity and power. The two review authors
due to the purpose of the review being to investigate the effects of acute extracted all relevant data independently for assessment of study qual
exercise in different temperatures on cognition and to ensure environ ity. Following quality assessment of each articles, any discrepancies
mental conditions were controlled. Articles were also included if they between authors’ scores were identified and discussed, and where these
were published in peer-reviewed journals from January 2000 and were unable to be resolved, a third author (NS) was consulted. Study
needed to be available in English. Studies that did not meet all of these quality ranged from 56% to 85%, with an average of 73%.
eligibility criteria were thereby excluded. Three searches were con
ducted in total, the first was on 24th March (2018), with updated 6. Results
searches conducted on June 6th (2019) and October 8th (2020).
6.1. Search result
5.2. Information sources and search strategy
Initial searches returned 4004 papers, plus 37 papers identified
The following electronic bibliographic databases were searched: through manual searches (Fig. 1). After removing duplicates, 2914 pa
Medline, SPORTDiscus, Psych Articles, PsychINFO, The Cochrane Li pers were reviewed by title and abstract, 93 articles were then reviewed
brary and CINAHL. The search strategy stemmed from three themes (1) full-text, whereby 16 articles met the inclusion criteria (Fig. 1 shows
Physical Activity (2) Hot or Cold Temperature Exposure (3) Cognitive
Function. The search terms were adapted for each database, with their
database-specific filters and MeSh terms (See Supplementary Material 1
ACSM thresholds are based off VO2 reserve % (VO2R), however VO2max
1). The search strategy specified the articles were available in English was mostly reported in the studies included. Minimal differences were assumed
language, and only included articles published after January 2000 due between % VO2 max and % VO2R due to average resting VO2 being ~2.6 ml/
to a lack of controlled laboratory-based environmental research incor kg/min (Byrne, Hills, Hunter, Weinsier, & Schutz, 2005), therefore % VO2 max
porating cognitive measures across two or more conditions before 2000. was deemed suitable for categorising dosage of exercise.
2
The search strategy was pilot tested to ensure a robust search strategy. Exercise included in Cvirn et al. (2019) was categorised as moderate for the
purpose of this review due to the intermittent nature of the task, including
Following the searching of databases, hand-searching of references lists
lengthy rest periods between bouts, however no physiological data is provided
from eligible studies and relevant review articles were also conducted.
to support the categorisation of the exercise dose, nor reference to the intensity
of the tasks included. Physiological data was also not reported in Chandra et al.
5.3. Data extraction (2010) and exercise dose was categorised as light based upon the authors
description and seemingly non-taxing nature of the task. Therefore, classifica
Extracted articles from the databases were exported into EndNote. tion of exercise dosage for these studies should be interpreted with these
Following removal of duplicates, the title and abstract of each article, cautionary notes in mind.
3
Fig. 1. PRISMA Protocol for Systematic Review Screening Process across the three searches conducted (PA = physical activity).
Table 1
Risk of bias quality assessment by downs and black Checklist (1998).
Study Reporting (11) External Validity (3) Internal Validity: Bias (6) Internal Validity: Confounding (6) Power (1) Total Score
(27) %
1. Adam et al. (2008) 10 1 4 4 1 20 74

2. Chandra et al. (2010) 7 1 3 4 0 15 56
3. Caldwell et al. (2012) 10 0 4 4 0 18 67
4. Cvirn et al. (2019) 10 1 4 2 0 18 67
5. Donnan, Williams, & Stanger, 2020 11 1 4 5 1 22 81
6. Gerhart et al. (2020) 11 1 3 5 0 20 74
7. Kruk et al. (2001) 9 1 6 5 0 21 78
8. Ji et al. (2017) 11 1 4 5 0 21 78
9. Macleod et al. (2018) 11 1 4 5 1 22 81
10. McMorris et al. (2006) 10 1 4 4 0 19 70
11. Parker et al. (2013) 11 1 4 2 1 19 70
12. Radakovic et al. (2007) 10 1 4 3 0 18 67
13. Roh et al. (2017) 10 1 4 4 0 19 70
14. Shibasaki et al. (2019) 10 1 3 5 0 19 70
15. Tamm et al. (2014) 9 1 4 4 0 18 67
16. Tamm et al. (2015) 9 1 4 4 0 18 67
17. Taylor et al. (2014) 11 1 4 5 1 22 81
18. Tikuisis and Keefe (2005) 10 1 4 4 0 19 70
19. Van Cutsem et al. (2015) 11 1 5 6 0 23 85
20. Watkins et al. (2014) 11 1 4 5 0 21 78
4
reasons for rejection at full paper stage).3 The first updated search (June significantly lower in − 5 ◦ C compared to 18 ◦ C (Watkins et al., 2014).
2019) returned an additional 304 articles, after removing duplicates 255 However, no condition × time interaction effect was identified for vig
articles were reviewed by title and abstract. Six full-text articles were ilance hit scores, nor were other effects found for added measures of
then reviewed, where one article met the inclusion criteria. The final cognitive performance across conditions (i.e., vigilance miss or false
updated search (October 2020) returned a further 691 papers, plus 3 scores, dual-task tracking performance, dual-task visual scores).
papers identified through manual searches. After removing duplicates,
605 articles were reviewed by title and abstract, 10 of these were 6.3.2. Moderate exercise
reviewed by full-text and 3 met the inclusion criteria. Across all three Both studies investigating the effects of cold vs. temperate exposure
searches, twenty articles were included for qualitative analysis. Five of on cognition following moderate exercise found some beneficial effects
the twenty studies were conducted in the UK, two in Australia, two in on cognition in temperate conditions (Adam et al., 2008; Ji et al., 2017).
Estonia, three in the U.S., and one each in India, Poland, Republic of Specifically, Adam et al. (2008) identified a significant interaction
Korea, Belgium, Canada, China, Japan, and Serbia. whereby visual vigilance (i.e., total response latency) was faster in the
Of the twenty articles identified, thirteen investigated exercise and temperate condition post-exercise compared to pre-exercise but did not
cognition in hot compared to temperate environmental conditions differ pre-to-post exercise in the cold. Moreover, a main condition effect
(28 ◦ C to 48 ◦ C vs. 15 ◦ C to 25 ◦ C; 20–75%rh), three examined effects in on visual vigilance (i.e., target detection latency) revealed slower re
cold compared to temperate (2 ◦ C to 10 ◦ C vs. 20 ◦ C to 25 ◦ C; 50–70% sponses in 2 ◦ C compared to 20 ◦ C. No other effects were identified for
rh), one study examined three different hot environmental conditions other indices of vigilance (e.g., scanning visual vigilance) or reaction
(from 28.6 ◦ C to 33.2 ◦ C), one study examined lower and higher time (RT). However, it is worth noting that friend-foe target accuracy
temperate conditions (15 ◦ C vs. 25 ◦ C), and two investigated exercise (%) was found to improve from pre-to-post moderate exercise across
and cognition in hot, temperate and cold environments (30 ◦ C vs. 18 ◦ C both temperature conditions. Comparatively, Ji et al. (2017) found
vs. − 5 ◦ C; 50%rh). For the purposes of this review, conditions ≤10 ◦ C identification and 2-back working-memory RT decreased immediately
were classified as cold, 15 ◦ C to 25 ◦ C as temperate, and ≥28 ◦ C as hot after exercise across both cold and temperate conditions compared to
conditions. Across the twenty studies, sample sizes ranged from 8 to 73, pre-exercise. However, a condition × time interaction was found where
with an average of 19 participants. Of the 366 participants in total, only 2-back working-memory RT remained quicker 30-min post-exercise
41 were females from 6 of the studies (Adam et al., 2008; Cvirn et al., compared to pre-exercise in the temperate condition, but not in the
2019; Gerhart et al., 2020; Macleod, Cooper, Bandelow, Malcolm, & cold. Additionally, a main condition effect for identification RT and
Sunderland, 2018; Parker et al., 2013; Tikuisis & Keefe, 2005). Eight 2-back working-memory accuracy revealed that identification RT was
studies focused on healthy, physically active individuals, seven on slower and 2-back working-memory accuracy was lower in cold
professional/well-trained athletes and/or referees, three on military compared to the temperate condition. No other noteworthy effects were
personnel, and two on emergency service personnel. This review first found.
examines the effects of exercise and cold exposure on cognition, fol
lowed by studies in the heat. 6.3.3. Vigorous exercise
The one study (Taylor et al., 2014) examining the effect of cold
6.2. Cold exposure exposure (− 5 ◦ C) on cognition post vigorous exercise found no main nor
condition × time interaction effect on any measure of cognitive func
6.2.1. Characteristics of studies tioning (i.e., for dual-task visual-tracking or vigilance). Furthermore, the
An overview of studies and associated findings examining the effects only study to examine the effect of exercise on cognition during exercise
of cold exposure on cognitive functioning are presented in Table 2. Two which involved vigorous graded exercise to exhaustion and included a
of the five studies induced cold exposure using an environmental tem manipulation of caffeine intake, identified a main effect of time for
perature of − 5 ◦ C (50%rh) (Taylor et al., 2014; Watkins et al., 2014), choice RT (Kruk et al., 2001). Compared to baseline, RT was quicker
whereas temperatures of 2 ◦ C (50%rh) (Adam et al., 2008), 4 ◦ C (70%rh) during exercise between 100 and 200 W stages in 22 ◦ C and during 200
(Kruk et al., 2001) or 10 ◦ C (50%rh) (Ji et al., 2017) were used to induce W in 4 ◦ C, but as work increased to 300 W, RT was significantly slower
cold exposure in the other studies. Temperate conditions ranged be compared to baseline across both conditions. Another key finding from
tween 18 ◦ C and 25 ◦ C (50–60%rh). One study also included a 60-min this study was in relation to RT being significantly faster from caffeine
period of passive cold exposure prior to the commencement of exer supplementation compared to placebo at 22 ◦ C, but there were no dif
cise (Ji et al., 2017). One study also examined the effects of caffeine vs. ferences at 4 ◦ C. Therefore, suggesting that potential ergogenic effects
placebo (Kruk et al., 2001), and another investigated cold vs temperate from caffeine supplementation may be more effective in temperate
environments whilst euhydrated or hypohydrated (Adam et al., 2008). compared to cold conditions, or such ergogenic effects are suppressed in
Four of the five studies measured cognitive function pre- and cold conditions.
post-exercise, and one included cognitive measures pre- and during Of relevance, one study manipulated two temperature conditions
exercise (Kruk et al., 2001). that reflected lower (15 ◦ C) and higher (25 ◦ C) temperate conditions,
and also looked at the interaction between temperature and altitude (0
vs 3800 m) on cognition (Van Cutsem et al., 2015). Specifically, a
6.3. The effect of exercise on cognition in the cold
vigorous exercise protocol was implemented whereby participants
completed a 30-min cycling time-trial. No condition (temperature only)
6.3.1. Light exercise
or condition × time (pre-to-post) interaction effects were noted for
Only one study examined light exercise on cognition pre-to-post
psychomotor vigilance RT scores.
exercise in cold and temperate conditions which found a main effect
In sum, the benefits of exercise on cognitive functioning from pre-to-
for condition on vigilance, whereby vigilance hit scores were
post exercise were demonstrated following moderate exercise in
temperate/ambient conditions, however such benefits seemed to be
3 negated in cold conditions, or when exercise was vigorous.
An article by Ferguson, Smith, Browne, and Rockloff (2016) was excluded
in the later stages of data analysis to avoid the influence of confounding vari
ables (e.g., sleep duration), due to repeated bouts of PA continuing over a 6.4. Heat exposure
period of three days. Also, because cognitive function comparisons were ana
lysed in relation to only before and after the three day intervention (i.e., 6.4.1. Characteristics of studies
therefore not acute physical activity). An overview of results for each study examining the effect of exercise
5
Table 2
Summary of included studies for effects of exercise in cold and hot environments on cognition.
AUTHORS SAMPLE EXPERIMENTAL DESIGN ENVIRONMENTAL EXERCISE (AND TC (◦ C) COGNITIVE TASK FINDINGS
TEMP (◦ C, %RH) DOSAGE)
Adam et al. 8 (6M, 2F) Repeated measures partially Cold: 1-hr cycling @ No difference 30-min A significant
(2008) moderately fit counter-balanced 2 ◦ C (50%) 60% VO2 peak post-exercise ≠ marksmanship temperature ×
soldiers (24 ± euhydrated (~550 kcal exp) between simulator pre- and exercise interaction
6yrs; VO2max 2 ◦ C (50%) Moderate conditions. post-exercise – 120 for total response
48 ± 9 ml kg− 1. hypohydrated (300 m) 6-s targets latency (F = 8.65, p
min− 1) Temperate: presented and < .05); significantly
20 ◦ C (50%) scanning visual faster response
euhydrated vigilance. post-exercise in
20 ◦ C (50%) temperate vs. pre-
hypohydrated exercise, but not in
cold.
Target detection
time was
significantly longer
in the cold than
temperate during
sentry duty
performance (p <
.05).
Friend-foe %
accuracy improved
from pre-to-post
exercise across all
conditions (p <
.05).
Ji et al. 20M moderately Repeated measures Cold: 60-min passive # ~15-min cognitive Significant
(2017) active randomised counter-balanced 10 ◦ C (50%) exposure → battery at baseline, condition × time
university Temperate: Running 3-min post 45-min rest interaction (F =
students 25 ◦ C (50%) WU @ 5 km/h → (rest), immediately 5.23, p < .01, ηp2 =
(23.5±2yrs; Running @ 60% post-exercise, and .23) and main effect
#VO2max). HRR (~23min) 30-min post- of condition (F =
Moderate exercise. 6.70, p = .02, ηp2 =
Identification .27) for working-
processing speed, memory RT. RT
2-back working- faster post-exercise
memory and set- compared to pre-
shifting cognitive exercise in
flexibility task. temperate, but not
different between
pre-to-post exercise
in cold.
Significant main
effect of condition
on working-
memory accuracy
(F = 4.78, p = .04,
ηp2 = .21); lower in
cold vs. temperate.
Main effect for
condition (F = 6.44,
p = .02, ηp2 = .26),
time (F = 2.94, p =
.04, ηp2 = .14) and
condition × time
interaction (F =
3.16, p = .03, ηp2 =
.15) on
identification
processing speed,
driven by RT
slowing between
baseline and rest
time-points (pre-
exercise) (p = .01).
Kruk et al. 9M Polish 3rd Repeated measures Cold: Graded cycling # Multiple choice RT RT quicker between
(2001) league randomised double-blind 4 ◦ C (70%) placebo test (50 W start) pre-, during the 100 and 200 W
footballers (19 4 ◦ C (70%) caffeine 50 W ↑ every 3- end of each stages vs baseline in
± 2.6yrs; Temperate: min; 30-s rest exercise load and 22 ◦ C (p < .05) and
VO2max 54.9 ± 22 ◦ C (60%) placebo between loads. post-exercise. at 200 W vs.
8.3 ml kg− 1. 22 ◦ C (60%) caffeine Vigorous baseline in 4 ◦ C but
min− 1 ¶) was slower >300 W
compared to
baseline in both
(continued on next page)
6
Table 2 (continued )
conditions (p <
.05).
Condition ×
supplement
interaction
described (no
values reported);
RT significantly
quicker with
caffeine vs. placebo
in temperate (p <
.01) at 100, 150 and
200 W, but no
difference in cold
(p > .05).
Van 9M well-trained Repeated measures, Lower Temperate: 5-min WU C at No effect of Pre- and post- No two-way
Cutsem athletes (23 ± randomised, double-blind 15 ◦ C (0 m) 100 W ↓ temperature exercise; 5-min interaction effects
et al. 3yrs; VO2max Lower Temperate + 30-min TT at condition on TC PVT task were observed for
(2015) 63.6 ± 4.5 ml Altitude: 75% WMAX (free ≠ mean RT. Higher
kg− 1.min− 1) 15 ◦ C (3800 m) to ↓ or ↑ power temperatures did
Higher Temperate: output). not show any
25 ◦ C (0 m) Vigorous influence on mean
Higher Temperate + RT (p > .05). No
Altitude: two-way
25 ◦ C (3800 m). interaction effects
(30–40%) observed for
individual RT
variability (p >
.05). The higher
temperature had no
effect on RT
variability. No
main effects for
time were noted.
Watkins 13M active Repeated measures, Cold: 90-min protocol; Lower TC in Pre-, half-time and Main effects for
et al. participants randomised, counter-balanced − 5 ◦ C (50%) 2 × 45-min − 5 ◦ C (36.9 ± post-exercise condition (F = 5.70;
(2014) (19.6 ± 3yrs, Temperate: halves (/15-min 0.4 ◦ C) than numerical p = .01) and time
#VO2max). 18 ◦ C (50%) rest) side- 18 ◦ C (37.1 ± vigilance, and (F = 4.50, p < .01)
Hot: stepping in 2 × 0.2 ◦ C) at all tracking/visual RT for vigilance hit
30 ◦ C (50%) 1 m box. time-points post dual-task tests. scores. Hit scores
Light 5-min (p < .001). higher in temperate
than in cold and
were higher at 0-
min than 90-min
across conditions
(p = .02).
A main effect for
time was found for
vigilance miss
scores (F = 5.60, p
< .01). Miss score
% increased at 90-
min vs. 0-min (p <
.05) across all
conditions.
Main effect for time
for dual-task
tracking (F = 5.10;
p < .01) and dual-
task miss scores (F
= 3.70, p = .02).
Tracking declined
from 0-min to 45-
min across
conditions, and %
miss scores
increased after 45-
min vs 0-min.
Taylor 13M PA semi- Repeated measures Cold: 105-min No overall Pre-, HT and post- No condition, time
et al. pro football randomised − 5 ◦ C (50%) protocol; 90-min difference exercise numerical or condition × time
(2014) players (6) or Temperate: running, 2 × 45- between 18 ◦ C vigilance, and interaction effects
referees (7) 18 ◦ C (50%) min halves of and 30 ◦ C (p > tracking/visual RT for vigilance hit,
(20.3 ± 2.2yrs; Hot: intermittent .05). TC Δ pre-to- dual-task tests. false, or miss
#VO2max). 30 ◦ C (50%) running/15-min post exercise scores, or for dual-
greater in 30 ◦ C task false, miss or
7
rest). vs 18 ◦ C (p < tracking scores (p’s

Vigorous .001). > .05).
Caldwell 8M active Repeated measures, counter- Temperate: 2-h protocol. 8 Higher TC max in ~10-min test No main effects or
et al. university balanced 20 ◦ C (30%) × 13-min low HD (38.9 ± battery pre- and treatment by time
(2012) students (27.1 Hot-Dry (HD): intensity cycling 0.3 ◦ C) than 30-min intervals interactions for any
± 6.2yrs; 48 ◦ C (20%) bouts at 30 W HDLC (37.3 ± during exercise; cognitive measure
#VO2max). HDLC: Light 0.1 ◦ C) and vigilance, divided (p > .05).
48 ◦ C (20%) + liquid temperate (37.0 attention and
cooling (15 ◦ C) ± 0.1 ◦ C) (p < filtering, verbal
.05). working-memory,
problem solving
and perceptual RT.
Tikuisis 11 (9M, 2F) Repeated measures, partially Temperate: 22 ◦ C 30-min bouts of Higher TC in HH Simulated patrol Marginally lower
and military counter-balanced Hot Hydrated (HH): 25-min walking and HD than scenario using friendly target
Keefe personnel (28.9 28–30 ◦ C at 3 km h− 1 temperate after combat firing detections across all
(2005) ± 6yrs; Hot Dehydrated (HD): followed by 5 50-min (p < .05); simulator. 3 × 5- trials compared
#VO2max) 28–30 ◦ C (#%) min seated rest 180-min: min shooting with foe targets (p
42 ◦ C liquid suit (max 4-hrs). temperate 37.35 segments during < .05), attributed to
worn in both hot → 15-min friend ± 0.26 ◦ C; HH last 15 min of lower detection
conditions to ↑ TC vs foe detection 38.41 ± 0.29 ◦ C; walking in each rate of friendly
shooting task HD 38.47 ± 0.2 bout; friend vs. foe targets at 180-min
during last 15 detection task, 12 during HH than in
min of walking × 6-s targets temperate and HD.
in each bout presented, 8 foe &
Light 4 friendlies.
McMorris 8M active paid Repeated measures, counter- Temperate: 20-min cycling Mean Δ TC post- Pre-, post-exercise Working-memory
et al. volunteers balanced 20 ◦ C (40%) at 100 W → treatment higher and post-recovery poorer post-
(2006) (22.2 ± 3.23 Hot: 10-min rest → in 36 ◦ C (+1.10 working-working exercise than pre-
yrs; #VO2 max). 36 ◦ C (75%) 20-min cycling ± 0.1 ◦ C) than memory, visual exercise in 36 ◦ C (p
at 100 W → 70- 20 ◦ C (− 0.35 ± choice RT, verbal < .01, d = 1.60).
min seated rest. 0.22 ◦ C) (p < and spatial short- Working-memory
Light 0.001). term memory tests. post-recovery
worse than pre-
exercise in 36 ◦ C (p
< .01, d = 1.40).
Post-exercise Δ
working-memory
poorer in 36 ◦ C
than in 20 ◦ C (p <
.05, d = 1.10).
Cvirn et al. 73 (62M, 11F) Independent measures Temperate: 3 × 2-h sessions # Pre- and (~20–25 Stroop matching
(2019) firefighters 18-20 ◦ C (13:50, 15:50 min) post- exercise word-pairs RT
Temperate: 45 (#%) and 17:50hrs) bouts, Stroop and slower in temperate
participants Hot: including: Walter Reed PVT vs. hot (F = 4.01, p
(38M, 7F; 36.4 33-35 ◦ C 55-min self- < .05). Condition
± 14.2 yrs) (#%) paced timed × time-of-day effect
Hot: 28 circuit (physical for Stroop matching
participants woodland word-pairs (F =
(24M, 4F; 34.7 firefighter tasks) 3.51, p = .04) found
± 13.2 yrs) → RT was slower in
#VO2max 20-25-min of temperate at 13:50
physiological h (p = .03) and
tests → 20-25- 15:50 h (p = .02)
min cognitive vs. hot.
tests → Effect of condition
15-20-min rest for Stroop non-
period matching word-
Moderate pairs RT (F = 6.84,
p = .01): RT was
slower in hot vs.
cold. Effect of time-
of-day for Stroop
non-matching
word-pairs RT (F =
4.95, p = .01): RT
was slower at
17:50 h vs. 13:50 h
(p = .01) and 15:50
h (p < .01).
A condition ×
hydration
interaction was
found for PVT RT
(F = 4.17, p = .04),
showing
8
dehydrated RTs in
the hot condition
were slower vs
euhydrated values
in both temperate
and hot conditions.
A hydration ×
condition × time-
of-day interaction
for PVT lapses (F =
6.99, p = .001).
Lapses were higher
by 17:50 h for hot
dehydrated values
vs. hot euhydrated
values (p < .001)
and were higher
than euhydrated (p
< .001) and
dehydrated values
(p = .001) in
temperate. Lapses
were higher by
17:50 h for
dehydrated values
in the hot condition
compared to 13:50
h (p < .001) and
15:50 h (p < .001).
A time-of-day effect
(F = 7.15, p = .001)
showed PVT lapses
were higher at
17:50 h vs 13:50 h
(p < .001) and
15:50 h (p < .01).
Condition × time-
of-day interaction
on lapses (F = 4.42,
p = .01) showed
lapses were higher
by 17:50 h in hot
than control (p =
.003).
Gerhart 10 (8M, 2F) PA Repeated measures, counter- Temperate: 10-min walk Marginally Pre-, and 30-min No condition ×
et al. future balanced 25.0 ◦ C (40%) (70–75% higher 30-mins post-exercise; time interaction (F
(2020) emergency Hot: HRmax) → 15 × post in hot vs Stroop Colour- = 0.355, p = .80),
service 37.8 ◦ C (60%) sandbag lifts → temperate Word Test (SCWT) condition (F =
personnel (24 ± 10-min walk conditions (p = 1.266, p = .29) or
2.5 yrs; height (70–75% .002) but was not time (F = 1.644, p
177.2 ± 4.9 cm; HRmax) → 15 different during = .20) effect for
weight 88.2 ± sandbag lifts exercise where it SCWT.
20.2 kg; body (between ~30 increased
fat 23.9 ± and 50% of VO2 throughout
12.9%; VO2max max throughout exercise across
49.7 ± 15.8 ml exercise) ¶ both conditions
kg− 1.min− 1) Moderate (p < .05). Max
reached
~38.0 ◦ C ≠.
Parker 40 (24M, 16F) Independent measures, Temperate: 90-min treadmill Rate of increase Pre- and post- More correct
et al. healthy randomised 22–24 ◦ C walking @ greater in hot (p exercise; Walter responses (p <
(2013) participants. (#%) 40–45% VO2 < .07) but no Reed PVT and .001), fewer errors
Temperate: 9M Hot: max with a main effect of Wisconsin Card (p < .001) and more
(31 [24–37] 35–38 ◦ C weighted condition (p = Sorting Test conceptual
yrs); 11F (27 (#%) backpack (20% .08). (WCST). responses (p =
[24–31] yrs). BM)/3 × 10-min .001) for WCST
Hot: 15M (26 breaks. post-exercise in
[23–30] yrs.); Moderate both hot and
5F (27 [20–34] temperate
yrs.) VO2max conditions.
>35 ml kg− 1. Perseverations and
min− 1# perseverative errors
(p < .01) decreased
in both conditions’
9
pre-to-post
exercise.
Radakovic 40M soldiers Independent measures, Temperate: Exertional Heat Steady tympanic Pre- and For complex rapid
et al. (20.1 ± 0.9yrs; randomised 20 ◦ C (#%) Stress Test (90- ◦
C increase immediately post- visual information
(2007) 16.6 ± 3.2%; Hot-Unacclimated: min max); throughout EHST; Cambridge processing, in 40 ◦ C
VO2max 57.8 ± 40 ◦ C (UN) (#%) walking at 5.5 EHST in all 40 ◦ C Neuro- (UN), correct
7.2 ml kg− 1. Hot-Passive km/h on a groups ≠ (max psychological response %
min− 1¶) acclimated: 40 ◦ C (P) treadmill in >~39.3 ◦ C in Battery; selective, declined pre-post
(#%) combat uniform UN) divided and EHST. A delay in RT
Hot-Active with a 20 kg sustained movement time
acclimated: 40 ◦ C (A) backpack. attention, motor post-EHST
(#%) Moderate screening, RT and compared to
rapid visual baseline in 40 ◦ C
information (UN) was also
processing. found (p < .05).
Shibasaki 15M college Repeated measures, Temperate: 4 × 15 min Tympanic ◦ C was Pre- and A significant
et al. well-trained randomised 20◦ C cycling bouts; higher in hot immediately post- condition × time
(2019) rugby and Hot: intensity set to compared to each 15 min interaction was
baseball players 35◦ C maintain a HR of temperate across exercise bout; Go/ observed for Go/
(20.8 ± 0.9yrs; (30–40%) ~130 bpm in all time-points No-go paradigm No-go RT (p < .05)
83.6 ± 8.1 kg; temperate (132 (max ~38.0 ◦ C) ≠, though further
173.2 ± 6.5 cm) ± 27 W)/10 min in final exercise analyses showed no
rest bout) ≠. significant effects
Moderate under the 20 ◦ C and
35 ◦ C conditions.
Additionally, no
significant main
effects or
interactions were
noted for Go/No-go
error rate (p > .05).
Donnan, 12M well- Repeated measures, counter- Temperate: 2 × 40-min Higher between Pre- and during Preliminary
Williams, trained football balanced 18 ◦ C (50%) cycling 20 and 40 min in exercise (every 10- analyses revealed
& players (21.4 ± Hot: intermittent hot (38.40 ± min). Stroop and no differences in
Stanger, 3.3yrs; VO2max 32 ◦ C (50%) sprint protocol/ .43 ◦ C) than vigilance tasks. any cognitive
2020 53.0 ± 3.6 ml 15-min rest temperate function score at
kg− 1.min− 1; Vigorous (37.92 ± .53 ◦ C) baseline (pre-
body fat 13.7 ± (p = .015). exercise).
2.4%) Higher overall in Condition × time
hot compared to interaction (F =
temperate (p = 3.673, p = .022)
.047). where congruent
RT was quicker
between 20th-40th
min of the CISP in
hot compared to
control was not
different between
conditions in the
first 20 min or
following half-time
(p’s > .05).
No condition, time,
or condition × time
interactions for
congruent Stroop
accuracy (p > .05).
A main effect for
time was found for
incongruent Stroop
accuracy (F =
6.136, p = .002),
where % accuracy
was lower between
20-40 min and
40–60 min of the
CISP compared to
the first 20 min. No
condition (F =
2.723, p = .127) or
condition × time
interaction (F =
1.375, p = .268)
was found for
incongruent
10
accuracy.
No effects for
condition, time or
condition × time
interactions were
found for
incongruent Stroop
RT.
No effects for
condition, time or
condition × time
interactions were
found for vigilance
RT or accuracy (p’s
> .05).
Macleod 8F elite hockey Repeated measures, Temperate: 2 × 25min TC increased ~15-min cognitive Condition × time
et al. players (22 ± randomised 16 ± 3 ◦ C (53 ± 2%) blocks: standing, over time (p < test battery pre- interaction trend (p
(2018) 3yrs; VO2max þ Fluid Intake walking, fast .001); greater and post-exercise. = .08) was found
53.4 ± 2.2 ml 16 ± 3 ◦ C (53 ± 2%) walking, jogging increase in Stroop, visual where Stroop RT
kg− 1.min− 1) – Fluid Intake (75% VO2 max), 33.3 ◦ C than search (VS) and was quicker post-
Hot: cruising (95% 16 ◦ C (p < .05) ≠ Sternberg WM. exercise in the heat
33.3 ± 0.1 ◦ C (59 ± VO2 max) and (p = .01; d = 0.39)
1%) þ Fluid Intake lunging on a vs pre-exercise, but
33.3 ± 0.1 ◦ C (59 ± treadmill/10- not in temperate (p
1%) – Fluid Intake min rest = .51, d = 0.16).
Vigorous A significant effect
of condition was
found, where
complex VS RT was
quicker in hot
conditions than in
temperate (p =
.001; d = 0.47).
A condition × time
interaction (p <
.01) found WM %
accuracy increased
pre-to-post exercise
in temperate (p =
.04; d = 0.46) but
not in hot (p = .61,
d = 0.12). Main
effects for condition
(p = .02, d = 0.13)
and time (p < .01, d
= 0.26) were found
for WM RT. WM RT
was quicker in hot
than in temperate.
RT got faster pre-to-
post exercise across
all conditions (p <
.05).
Roh et al. 10M rugby and Repeated measures Temperate: 60-min running Tympanic ◦ C Stroop Colour and Stroop word scores
(2017) soccer collegiate P1-5 = 18 ◦ C→32 ◦ C→32 ◦ C 18 ◦ C (50%) at 75% HRR higher in 32 ◦ C Word Test increased
athletes (18.8 ± + W→32 ◦ C + S Hot: Vigorous (NF) vs all performed at rest, immediately post-
0.2yrs; VO2max P6-10 = 32 ◦ C (50%) + No conditions at 30- immediately after exercise in 18 ◦ C vs.
56.6 ± 1.6 ml 32 ◦ C→32+S→18 ◦ C→32 ◦ C Fluid (NF) min, exercise and 60- rest (p < .05). No
kg− 1.min− 1). +W 32 ◦ C (50%) + Water immediately min post-exercise. change in other
(W) post-exercise and Comprised of conditions (p >
32 ◦ C (50%) + Sports 60-min post- word, colour and .05).
Drink (S) exercise ≠ (p < colour-word Colour scores
.05). scores. increased
immediately post-
exercise and 60-
min post-exercise in
18 ◦ C vs. rest (p <
.05). No change in
other conditions (p
> .05).
Colour word scores
were lower
immediately post-
exercise in 32 ◦ C
(NF) vs. all other
11
conditions (p <
.05). At 60-min
post-exercise,
colour word scores
were lower in 32 ◦ C
(NF) than 18 ◦ C (p
< .05). Colour-
word scores
increased
immediately post-
and 32 ◦ C (W) and
32 ◦ C (S) vs. rest,
and 60-min post-
and 32 ◦ C (W) (p <
.05). Values ∕=.
Tamm et al. 24M healthy Repeated measures, pseudo- Temperate passive In HEX and NEX TC difference in Pre, at 10-min and A compression in
(2014) volunteers randomised (HEX always (TNE): 20-min stood NEX (38.2 ± 60-min during the proportionality
(25.3 ± 3.9yrs; preceded NEX) 22 ◦ C (35%) static before 0.07 ◦ C) vs HEX exercise and post- between subjective
VO2max 52.4 ± Temperate active walking at 60% (39.2 ± 0.09) (p exercise. Time and objective time
6.9 ml kg− 1. (TEX): max until < .001). production task – (a1) was observed
min− 1) 22 ◦ C (35%) exhaustion. (HEX 4 × 7 target at 10-min (F =
Hot passive (HNE): duration; 85 ± intervals (0.5, 10.31, p < .05) and
42 ◦ C (18%) 28-min, #NEX). 0.75, 1, 2, 3, 5 and 60-min (F1,18 =
Hot active (HEX): Vigorous 10-s). 9.13, p < .01) in
42 ◦ C (18%) HEX (b = 0.97 ±
0.04s; 0.87 ±
0.04s) compared to
TEX (b = 1.14 ±
0.09s; 1.11 ±
0.07s) – indicating
a quicker
pacemaker rate in
HEX.
Tamm et al. 20M healthy Repeated measures Hot-Dry (HD): Treadmill TC lower post- Pre, at 10-min and An effect of
(2015) volunteers 42 ◦ C (18%) walking @ 60% exercise in 60-min during condition (F2,28 =
(24.9 ± 3.7yrs; Temperate: VO2 peak until neutral (38.2 ± exercise and post- 5.06, p < .05) and
VO2max 53.8 ± 22 ◦ C (35%) exhaustion. 6 0.5) vs. HD exercise. Time time (F2,28 = 3.60,
7.1 ml kg− 1. Hot-Dry Acclimated km h− 1, between (39.7 ± 0.4) and production task – p < .001), and a
min− 1). (HDAC): 7 and 15% HDAC (39.7 ± 4 × 7 target marginal
42 ◦ C (18%) + 10- incline. 0.4) (p < .05). intervals (0.5, interaction effect
day acclimation Vigorous 0.75, 1, 2, 3, 5 and (F4,56 = 2.26, p =
10-s). .07) for the
proportionality
between perceived
and objective time.
A compression in
the proportionality
between subjective
and objective time
(a1) was observed
at 60-min in HD
compared to
temperate and
HDAC conditions –
indicating a quicker
pacemaker rate in
the non-acclimated
hot condition.
A significant effect
of time (F2,28 =
6.63, p < .01) and
condition × time
interaction (F4,56 =
3.51, p < .05) found
for shortest time
residual produced
by participants (a0).
Significantly
smaller time
residuals produced
at 60-min
compared to post-
exercise in
12
temperate
condition (p < .05).
Chandra 15M university One trial only; 3 progressive Hot: 15-min (3x5-min # Simple auditory Faster visual and
et al. students (24.45 heat loads 28.6 ◦ C → bouts) cycling at and visual RT – auditory RT (p = #)
(2010) ± 1.34yrs; 30.6 ◦ C → 60 kg m/h (60 pre- and post- each post-exercise in
#VO2max). 33.2 ◦ C (~61%) rpm) 5-min bout of 28.6 ◦ C vs. pre-
5-min exposures Light exercise exercise. Followed
by slowed RT post-
exercise in 30.6 ◦ C
and in 33.2 ◦ C.
Please note: No clear
specific coefficients
are reported to
compare pre-to-
post scores (only
stated in text
whether differences
were statistically
significant)
Note: M = Male; F = Female, PVT = psychomotor vigilance task; # = values not reported or measured; ≠ = values demonstrated in graph form only; ¶ = calculated
from temperate placebo conditions. a1 = slope of linear function (i.e. proportionality between subjective and objective time), a0 = intercept of linear function (i.e.
shortest time residual participant produced). ◦ C = degrees Celsius, RH = relative humidity. Studies were ordered by environmental condition (cold followed by hot
conditions) and then by exercise dosage (light, moderate, vigorous). Exercise dosage is stated in bold for each study.
on cognition (from pre-to-post and/or to during exercise) in the heat are (− 5 ◦ C) environmental conditions, but no differences were found be
presented in Table 2. Of the sixteen studies that included a hot condition tween the hot and temperate condition on vigilance or dual-task per
fifteen included comparisons with a temperate condition, and one study formance following 90-min of exercise. However, a time effect revealed
included only a manipulation within hot conditions (Chandra, Ghosh, impairments in vigilance scores post-exercise compared to pre-exercise
Barman, Iqbal, & Sadhu, 2010). Three studies looked at temperatures across all conditions, and tracking performance declined from
between 28 ◦ C and 30 ◦ C (Taylor et al., 2014; Tikuisis & Keefe, 2005; pre-exercise to a 45-min mid-trial break. In contrast, McMorris et al.
Watkins et al., 2014), eight between 31 ◦ C and 38 ◦ C (Cvirn et al., 2019; (2006) found a decline in random movement generation
Donnan, Williams, & Stanger, 2020; Gerhart et al., 2020; Macleod et al., working-memory from pre-to-post exercise in 36 ◦ C (75%rh) with a
2018; McMorris et al., 2006; Parker et al., 2013; Roh, So, Cho, & Suh, large effect size, but no significant changes were found in 20 ◦ C (40%rh).
2017; Shibasaki et al., 2019), three between 39 ◦ C and 42 ◦ C (Radakovic Though, no effects were found for choice RT, verbal recall and spatial
et al., 2007; Tamm et al., 2014, 2015), and one at 48 ◦ C (20%rh) recall over time or between 20 ◦ C and 36 ◦ C conditions. Moreover,
(Caldwell, Patterson, & Taylor, 2012). Another observed the effect of Chandra et al. (2010) examined progressive heat loads (i.e., ≥28 ◦ C) in
progressive heat exposure in only hot conditions (28.6–33.2 ◦ C) within the same trial and found that simple visual and auditory RT was faster
one trial (Chandra et al., 2010). following the first 5-min of exercise in 28.6 ◦ C, but saw RT become
Thirteen of the studies also gave an indication of relative humidity slower immediately after 10 and 15 min of exercise in 30.6 ◦ C and in
which varied between 18% and 75%. Eight of the studies manipulated 33.2 ◦ C, respectively. However, these inferences need to be considered
solely the environmental temperature (Cvirn et al., 2019; Donnan, with caution due to limited statistics being reported in the paper, and as
Williams, & Stanger, 2020; Gerhart et al., 2020; McMorris et al., 2006; all temperatures were in the same condition with short exposure time (5
Parker et al., 2013; Shibasaki et al., 2019; Taylor et al., 2014; Watkins min) at each temperature, it is not possible to determine if changes in RT
et al., 2014). Three studies investigated differences in fluid intake be were due to duration of exercise or heat exposure, or a combination of
tween conditions (Macleod et al., 2018; Roh et al., 2017; Tikuisis & both.
Keefe, 2005), two looked at the effectiveness of heat acclimation pro Two studies also assessed cognitive parameters during light exercise.
tocols (Radakovik et al., 2007; Tamm et al., 2015) and two included the Both identified no effects on cognitive functions, including attention,
use of a liquid conditioning garment (Caldwell et al., 2012; Tikuisis & verbal working memory, problem solving, perceptual RT (Caldwell
Keefe, 2005) to manipulate core temperature. One study (Tamm et al., et al., 2012) as well as target detection and rifle marksmanship perfor
2014) also compared the effects of passive (i.e., at rest) and active (i.e., mance (Tikuisis & Keefe, 2005). With one exception whereby a small but
involving exercise) heat exposure compared to temperate conditions. significant target (i.e., foe vs. friendly) × condition × time interaction
Five of the sixteen heat studies included cognitive tests during exercise was identified in the study by Tikuisis and Keefe (2005), which indicated
(Caldwell et al., 2012; Donnan, Williams, & Stanger, 2020; Tamm et al., a less accurate detection rate of friendly targets at 180-min during hot
2015, 2014; Tikuisis & Keefe, 2005), four of which included pre-exercise hydrated (30–32 ◦ C) trials compared to temperate (22 ◦ C) and hot
tests (Caldwell et al., 2012; Donnan, Williams, & Stanger, 2020; Tamm dehydrated (30–32 ◦ C) trials.
et al., 2014, 2015). The remaining eleven studies investigated cognitive
function pre- and post-exercise bouts. 6.5.2. Moderate exercise
Five studies involved moderate exercise performed in hot compared
to temperate environmental conditions on cognition (pre-to-post exer
6.5. The effect of exercise on cognition in the heat cise). Specifically, Radakovic et al. (2007) reported significant declines
in rapid visual information processing accuracy (% correct responses)
6.5.1. Light exercise and reaction movement time slowed down after an exertional heat stress
Three studies investigated the effects of light exercise performed in test (wearing combat uniform and carrying a 20 kg load) in 40 ◦ C
hot compared to temperate environmental conditions on cognition (pre- compared to pre-exercise for an un-acclimated group. However, no such
to-post exercise) and reported equivocal findings. Specifically, Watkins significant changes were found in a group exercising in temperate
et al. (2014) manipulated hot (30 ◦ C), temperate (18 ◦ C) and cold
13
conditions (20 ◦ C) or in acclimated groups. Cvirn et al. (2019) found an for working memory accuracy indicated that accuracy scores were
interaction effect whereby congruent (i.e., simple) Stroop RT was slower significantly higher post-exercise than pre-exercise in 16 ◦ C but were
after the first two of three simultaneous 55-min physical work circuits unchanged in 33.3 ◦ C. Thus, suggesting RT can become quicker post
over an afternoon in the temperate (18–20 ◦ C) compared to the hot vigorous exercise in the heat compared to temperate conditions, but
(33–35 ◦ C) condition. Conversely, a main condition effect for incon aligns with Roh et al. (2017) whereby vigorous exercise in the heat
gruent (i.e., more complex) Stroop revealed RT was slower in the hot negated any post-exercise benefits on cognitive accuracy observed in
compared to temperate condition across all circuits. However, no effects temperate conditions. The remaining study examining pre-to-post ex
were identified for Stroop accuracy. Moreover, interaction effects ercise cognition following vigorous exercise (90 min) in hot (30 ◦ C) and
revealed more lapses in vigilance were found following the third circuit temperate (18 ◦ C) conditions found no condition, time, or condition ×
in the hot condition compared to the temperate condition, as well as time interaction effects on dual-task or vigilance performance measures
after the two previous circuits. Greater vigilance lapses were also found (Taylor et al., 2014).
when dehydrated in the hot condition after the third circuit compared to Three studies also assessed cognitive performance during vigorous
when euhydrated in the heat as well as when dehydrated or euhydrated exercise, two of which observed that the heat impaired performance on a
in the temperate condition. Therefore, suggesting that RT during simpler time perception task compared to temperate conditions (Tamm et al.,
cognitive tasks may be quicker following up to two acute exercise bouts 2014, 2015). Tamm et al. (2014) identified a greater relative compres
in the heat compared to temperate conditions, but more complex RT sion of perceived time indicative of a quicker internal pacemaker during
appears to deteriorate, and more frequent lapses are observed following vigorous exercise to exhaustion in 42 ◦ C (18%rh) compared to 22 ◦ C
repeated, interspersed exercise bouts in the heat, more so if dehydrated. (35%rh). Specifically, a more pronounced decline was found at 10-min
Conversely, Parker et al. (2013) found no effect of heat (35–38 ◦ C vs. and 60-min during exercise in proportionality between perceived and
22–24 ◦ C) on psychomotor vigilance or Wisconsin Card Sorting Test objective time (a1), in the hot condition compared to the temperate
(WCST) scores. Only a main effect for time was reported whereby condition (Tamm et al., 2014). In a similar study, Tamm et al. (2015)
cognitive performance improved following moderate exercise in both also identified a greater compression of produced time intervals in hot
hot and temperate conditions, reflected by fewer errors and more con (42 ◦ C) compared to a temperate (22 ◦ C) condition, including a greater
ceptual responses on the WCST. Likewise, Gerhart et al. (2020) observed compression of perceived time at 60-min compared to pre-exercise in the
no condition, time or condition × time interaction for the Stroop task hot condition, but not in the temperate condition.
following two 10-min walks interspersed with 15 × sandbag lifts (be Interestingly, the final study implementing cognitive measures dur
tween ~30 and 50% VO2 max throughout exercise) in 25 ◦ C to 37.8 ◦ C. ing vigorous exercise found after confirming no differences in cognition
However, cognitive tasks were only implemented pre- and 30-min scores at baseline (pre-exercise), that congruent (i.e., simple) Stroop
post-exercise. Additionally, exercise in this study was manipulated RT’s were quicker in team sport athletes between the 20th and 40th
within each condition to maintain a HR of ~70–75%, and therefore, minute of a cycling intermittent sprint protocol (CISP) in 32 ◦ C
work output was reduced in hot conditions to reflect this, also resulting compared to 18 ◦ C (Donnan, Williams, & Stanger, 2020). However, no
in peak core temperature not rising beyond ~38.0 ◦ C. Similarly, internal differences in Stroop RT were found in the first 20-min or following
temperature (tympanic in this instance) in Shibasaki et al. (2019) only 40-min of exercise, coinciding also with the only time-point where core
reached peaks of ~38.0 ◦ C in the final exercise bout during a protocol temperature was significantly higher than in temperate conditions. In
involving 4 × 15-min cycling bout (132 ± 27 W) interspersed with terms of Stroop accuracy, no effects of condition or condition × time
10-min rest in 35 ◦ C compared to 20 ◦ C. They too observed no effects for interactions were observed, however incongruent (complex) Stroop
condition, time or interactions for RT or error rate on a Go/No-Go task. accuracy was impaired between the 20th-60th minutes of the CISP
However, it is worth noting that when examining brain evoked poten across conditions. No main effects or interactions were found for simple
tials using an electroencephalograph (EEG), a significantly lower peak vigilance measures. Taken together, the results of the studies examining
P300 amplitude was found in 35 ◦ C compared to 18 ◦ C after the fourth cognition function during exercise in the heat indicate a quicker pace
exercise bout, reflecting reduced depth of processing during the cogni maker rate, and therefore, a distorted perception of time during vigorous
tive task after the final bout of exercise in this protocol in the heat. exercise in hot conditions (Tamm et al., 2014, 2015). Though when core
temperature is moderately increased (~38.40 ◦ C) in hot conditions,
6.5.3. Vigorous exercise quicker RTs were observed for simple indices (Donnan, Williams, &
Three studies involved vigorous exercise in hot compared to Stanger, 2020).
temperate environmental conditions on cognition (pre-to-post exercise).
In a sample of athletes where a temperate condition (18 ◦ C) was 7. Discussion
compared with hot conditions (32 ◦ C) that involved no fluid intake, fluid
intake, and fluid intake with sports drink, Roh et al. (2017) found that 7.1. Active cold exposure on cognitive function
simple and complex Stroop accuracy significantly improved immedi
ately after exercise in temperate (18 ◦ C) conditions, but no change was The findings from studies in the present review support the notion
observed post-exercise in hot conditions (32 ◦ C). Additionally, colour that acute bouts of moderate exercise enhance aspects of cognitive
word (incongruent) scores were significantly lower immediately after function (e.g., reaction time) post-exercise, as well as during exercise,
exercise in 32 ◦ C without fluid ingestion than in other conditions. compared to pre-exercise in temperate conditions (e.g., Tomporowski,
Therefore, suggesting exercise in the heat and particularly combined 2003). However, when a moderate dosage of exercise is undertaken in
with lack of fluid intake contributed to negating any potential benefits of cold conditions, these typical cognitive benefits may be reduced or
vigorous exercise on simple or complex RT after exercise. This somewhat negated (Adam et al., 2008; Ji et al., 2017). Though no cognitive ben
aligns with Cvirn et al.’s (2019) findings which observed improved efits were observed following light or vigorous exercise in both
simple RT for up to two moderate exercise bouts in the heat which were temperate and cold conditions (Taylor et al., 2014; Van Cutsem et al.,
negated later in the protocol when dehydrated, alongside complex RT 2015; Watkins et al., 2014), including some decrements being observed
declines. following light exercise (Watkins et al., 2014). Although just one study
In another study, Macleod et al. (2018) found mixed findings implemented cognitive function during exercise, the quickening of
whereby overall Stroop RT was quicker from pre-to-post exercise in the choice RT between rest and during light-to-moderate exercise stages of
heat (~33 ◦ C) but not in temperate (~16 ◦ C). Additionally, complex an incremental exercise protocol was less notable in cold compared to
visual search RT and working-memory RT were significantly quicker in temperate conditions (Kruk et al., 2001). The delayed reaction time
hot compared to temperate conditions. However, an interaction effect during higher workloads (i.e., at 300 W) observed in this study also align
14
with the curvilinear relationship described by the inverted-U hypothesis Sonna, 2011), thus reducing the extent to which core temperature de
(Davey, 1973), where specifically moderate bouts of exercise are clines in cold conditions. Nonetheless, these effects could be due to a
thought to induce optimal levels of arousal which can facilitate reaction range of factors (e.g., how long after exercise cognition was measured)
time, however more vigorous bouts can result in overarousal, conse and thereby due to limited research, it is presently difficult to make
quently impairing reaction time. Additionally, there is some suggestion strong inferences about these propositions.
that stimulants (i.e., caffeine) consumed prior to exercise appear to Only one study has measured cognitive performance during exercise
quicken choice RT in temperate conditions, but these effects are negated in the cold that was relevant for the present review, which revealed that
in the cold (Kruk et al., 2001). during incremental exercise to exhaustion, psychomotor performance (i.
It has also been proposed that passive (i.e., no exercise) cold expo e., reaction time) improved between rest and low-to-moderate exercise
sure that induces a 2 ◦ C or more reduction in core temperature in temperate conditions (Kruk et al., 2001). However, RT began to slow
commonly elicits decrements to cognitive performance, specifically at higher intensities which is aligned to other previous work showing
response time capability, but less than 2 ◦ C have little effects on such effects whereby RT improves up to intensities of ~75% VO2 max,
cognitive performance (Giesbrecht, Arnett, Vela, & Bristow, 1993; and then begins to slow rapidly (Chmura et al., 1994). However, it’s
Hancock et al., 2007). However, when exploring active cold exposure (i. notable that the quickening of reaction time was only observed between
e., involving physical activity), exercise induced heat production may rest and 200 W in 4 ◦ C compared to lower work stages (100 W–200 W) in
negate the adverse effects of cold exposure on cognitive function by 22 ◦ C, suggesting that cold exposure may reduce the beneficial effects of
limiting alterations in core temperature from the homeostatic range light-to-moderate exercise on reaction time during, as well as
(Hancock & Vasmatzidis, 2003), and may lead to little or no effects on post-exercise. Also, the beneficial effect of caffeine ingestion on choice
cognitive function (i.e. negative nor positive effects). RT observed in 22 ◦ C was blunted in 4 ◦ C (Kruk et al., 2001). Therefore,
When looking at the effect of light exercise on cognition (Watkins individuals requiring to simultaneously perform exercise of exhaustive
et al., 2014), vigilance was lower in cold (− 5 ◦ C) compared to temperate nature in the cold may need to consider other approaches to help limit
(18 ◦ C) conditions, however no changes in cognitive performance from these effects (e.g., clothing).
pre-to-post exercise were found across conditions. A lack of
exercise-induced heat production from light exercise suggests that this 7.2. Active heat exposure on cognitive function
dosage was unable to attenuate adverse effects from cold exposure on
cognitive function, as well as potentially being an insufficient dosage of It was anticipated that studies incorporating acute bouts of light
exercise to stimulate physiological arousal enough in temperate condi exercise would affect cognition to a lesser extent in hot environments
tions to facilitate clear pre-to-post exercise improvements in cognitive than those implementing more prolonged, vigorous exercise bouts in the
function (e.g., Davey, 1973). heat due to the latter expected to induce higher levels of thermal strain
Moderate exercise was found to benefit cognition, specifically pro (Sawka et al., 2011). Additionally, it was expected that greater decre
cessing speed, reaction time and response latency, where performance ments would be observed for complex central executive tasks which
appears to speed up post-exercise in temperate conditions (Adam et al., have been shown to be more sensitive to changes in the concentration
2008; Ji et al., 2017). However, when moderate exercise is performed in and proportion of central catecholamines (McMorris et al., 2016), often
cold conditions, these benefits were negated, or more temporary, reported when under physiological strain such as that induced by ex
compared to temperate conditions. There were also some decrements in ercise and the heat (Roelands, De Pauw, & Meeusen, 2015).
cognitive performance (i.e., slower target detection times) noted Studies implementing light exercise protocols found little to no ef
following exercise in the cold in the absence of any core temperature fects of heat exposure on varied indices of cognitive function both post
differences between conditions (Adam et al., 2008). These effects were (Watkins et al., 2014) and during exercise (Caldwell et al., 2012; Tikuisis
attributed to increased perceptual demand, lower mood, and a potential & Keefe, 2005), including in more complex cognitive tests (e.g., problem
distraction effect whereby cold exposure may have drawn attention solving). As anticipated, light exercise appeared generally to result in
away from cognitive tasks on to thermal discomfort (e.g., Muller et al., lower physiological strain (i.e., lower HR and core temperatures) than
2012; Teichner, 1958), thereby counteracting potential cognitive ben moderate or vigorous dosages of exercise, resulting in little to no dif
efits following moderate exercise (Adam et al., 2008). Interestingly, Ji ferences in cognitive function between hot and temperate conditions.
et al. (2017) identified that working-memory accuracy deteriorated in Despite some, but not all (Watkins et al., 2014), light exercise protocols
response to 60-min passive cold exposure, but following moderate ex inducing some thermal strain, as identified by significantly higher core
ercise no such accuracy decrements were observed. In part, supporting temperatures in hot compared to temperate conditions, these were up to
that an acute bout of moderate exercise may minimise or nullify some ~39 ◦ C and thereby perhaps not sufficient enough to impair cognition
cognitive decrements observed by cold stress due to exercise-induced during exercise (Caldwell et al., 2012; Tikuisis & Keefe, 2005). However,
heat production (Hancock & Vasmatzidis, 2003). it has previously been suggested that complex cognitive deficits begin to
In regard to vigorous exercise bouts, no effects were found on post- be identified once a core temperature threshold of ~38.5 ◦ C is sur
exercise vigilance or dual-task performance across conditions (Taylor passed, where when reaching >~39 ◦ C, cognitive impairment appears
et al., 2014), despite core temperature being significantly lower in cold to extend to simpler tasks (Schmit et al., 2017). Conversely, McMorris
compared to temperate conditions. Moreover, a study that compared a et al. (2006), observed working-memory decrements (immediately, and
cooler temperate condition with a warmer temperate condition (i.e., 70-min) following light exercise in 36 ◦ C, but not in 20 ◦ C. Whilst the
15 ◦ C vs. 25 ◦ C) found no effects of temperature, and no changes in protocol employed by McMorris et al. (2006) was classified as ‘light’ in
psychomotor vigilance were noted from pre-to-post vigorous exercise this review, the workload was notably higher than the protocol used by
(Van Cutsem et al., 2015). These findings support the notion that Caldwell et al. (2012). Therefore, although limited combined effects of
vigorous exercise may not improve cognition post-exercise (Chmura, light exercise and heat on cognitive function post-exercise was noted,
Nazar, & Kaciuba-Ulscilko, 1994), perhaps due to surpassing the optimal the only clear decrements were observed in the study incorporating the
level of physiological arousal to benefit both simple and complex highest work-load within the ‘light’ category, on a complex central ex
cognitive functions (Cooper, 1973; Davey, 1973; Smith et al., 2016). ecutive task.
However, vigorous exercise may reduce the detrimental impact of cold Regarding moderate intensity exercise, two (Cvirn et al., 2019;
exposure on cognitive functioning compared to those observed Radakovic et al., 2007) studies identified cognitive deficits post-exercise
post-exercise in studies employing light exercise protocols (e.g., Watkins in hot compared to temperate environments, particularly on complex
et al., 2014). It is suggested this may be due to vigorous exercise visual processing accuracy when unacclimated (Radakovic et al., 2007).
inducing greater metabolic heat production (Sawka, Leon, Montain, & That said, Cvirn et al. (2019) also identified decrements in psychomotor
15
vigilance, which is considered a “simpler” form of cognitive function. was manipulated, so that study characteristics within studies (e.g., ex
This effect may be because Cvirn et al. employed a unique protocol that ercise dosage, cognitive measures) were controlled to facilitate a direct
spread exercise across a whole day involving several circuits and examination of how different temperatures may influence the effect of
cognitive testing periods that may have contributed to additional acute exercise on cognitive function. It is also worth noting that there is
accumulative fatigue, particularly as the majority of these decrements field-based research investigating the effects of exercise and environ
were found following the final circuit, often when dehydrated. However, mental temperature on cognitive function (e.g., Bandelow et al., 2010).
some observed no detrimental effects for simple or complex indices of However, most field-based research investigates the effect of exercise on
performance following moderate exercise in the heat, though this was cognition in one temperature condition due to not being able to
commonly when core (or tympanic) temperate did not rise above manipulate environmental conditions in the field (e.g., Bandelow et al.,
~38.0 ◦ C – 38.2 ◦ C in hot conditions (Gerhart et al., 2020; Parker et al., 2010). Therefore, though such research may offer additional relevant
2013; Shibasaki et al., 2019), in comparison to Radakovic et al. (2007) insights, these were not included as they did not directly address the
recording heights of >~39.3 ◦ C in the unacclimated heat condition. aims of the present review.
It was expected that studies involving vigorous exercise protocols In terms of limitations for research conducted in the area, some
would observe more consistent and amplified decrements in cognitive studies did not include core temperature measures (Chandra et al., 2010;
function post-exercise in the heat compared to temperate conditions due Cvirn et al., 2019; Ji et al., 2017; Kruk et al., 2001). Therefore, it could
to greater physical (e.g., increased metabolic heat production) and not be determined whether the changes in environmental temperature
perceptual (e.g., negative affective responses) strain (Ekkekakis, Hall, & induced changes in core temperature in many studies. Consistency in the
Petruzzello, 2005; Sawka et al., 2011). Some research aligned with this reporting of core temperature is recommended in future research to
whereby post-exercise executive function improved in temperate con avoid making assumptions of the level of cold or heat stress experienced.
ditions, but not in the heat (Roh et al., 2017). That said, another study That said, although core temperature is a potential key factor in
(Macleod et al., 2018) found some evidence for post-exercise benefits to explaining the effect of environmental temperature on cognitive per
simple cognitive indices (i.e., RT) in hot compared to temperate condi formance following or during exercise (Hancock & Vasmatzidis, 2003),
tions following high-intensity intermittent exercise in elite hockey research would benefit from considering other potential mediating
players, but found working-memory accuracy (higher level cognitive variables, such as catecholamines and emotional-regulation strategies,
functioning) improved post vigorous exercise in the temperate condi to further examine how environmental temperature may influence the
tion, but not in the heat. Therefore, offering some alignment to sug effects of exercise on cognitive function.
gestions that increased concentrations of catecholamines elicited by Limited research has also implemented cognitive function measures
more physically demanding environments may improve response speed during exercise (as opposed to after), which does not reflect the simul
but reduce accuracy in responding (McMorris et al., 2011). taneous cognitive and physical demands experienced in a range of
Furthermore, a compression of subjective time (or a speeding up of occupational and athletic contexts within hot and cold environments.
the internal clock or faster pacemaker) was found during vigorous ex Additionally, more context-specific cognitive tasks should be imple
ercise in the heat compared to temperate conditions (Tamm et al., 2014, mented, enhancing the ecological validity of such tasks. For instance, by
2015). This compression of subjective time observed could contribute using sport-specific decision-making protocols in athletic samples dur
some understanding as to why quicker RT’s, particularly for simple ing exercise. There is also a profound lack of research investigating the
indices, have been observed in other studies (i.e., Donnan, Williams, & effects of acute cold exposure on cognitive function both during and
Stanger, 2020; Macleod et al., 2018) in the heat. Where individuals after exercise. Therefore, research would benefit from further investi
perceive they have less time, they may respond quicker (and potentially gating the effects of cold exposure to provide implications to places
impulsively), potentially compromising the consideration of all influ where cold strain is commonly experienced. Furthermore, research has
ential stimuli and thereby negatively impacting the ability to respond focused on assessing cognitive performance in males, and thereby in
accurately. Future research employing more complex cognitive tasks future, research would benefit from configuring difficulties of having to
during exercise, as well as adopting moderate and vigorous exercise, control for the menstrual cycle within physiological research in order to
would help to further test these possibilities. These findings align with better understand how these stressors also affect female performance.
the transient hypo-frontality hypothesis (Dietrich, 2006) that suggests as
physical demand increases, such as during vigorous exercise, neural 7.4. Implications and conclusions
resources are diverted toward regions of the brain responsible for sup
porting movement or other physical or sensory functions, thereby Overall, based on the (rather limited) research to date that has
reducing resources in the pre-frontal cortex which is responsible for compared the effects of exercise on cognitive performance across cold
complex cognitive functioning. Therefore, this may explain clearer and temperate conditions, it appears that moderate dosages of exercise
decrements in cognitive function, particularly for complex tasks, during could stimulate improved cognitive performance after exercise in
vigorous exercise compared to during light exercise. temperate conditions. However, cold exposure may blunt such benefi
cial cognitive effects following acute moderate exercise. Although it is
7.3. Limitations and future research difficult to draw robust conclusions due to the limited evidence directly
manipulating cold exposure on the effects of exercise on cognition, the
This review examined studies where environmental temperature was findings to date suggest that if one was to consider exercising to improve
manipulated to offer insights about the modulating role of environ cognitive performance post-exercise (e.g., during break times for office
mental temperature on the effects of acute bouts of exercise on cogni workers), then it appears consideration is needed in regard to the tem
tion. To date, there is relatively limited existing research which has perature and dosage of exercise conducted.
investigated the cognitive response to exercise in two or more envi In terms of cognitive function during or following exposure to a hot
ronmental temperatures (particularly comparing cold with temperate environment, decrements were generally found particularly when pro
conditions), and therefore it is difficult to draw strong conclusions. Some longed moderate or vigorous exercise dosages were implemented; sug
research has also examined the effect of exercise on cognition in one gesting that decrements are due to a combination of heightened
temperature condition (e.g., in 25 ◦ C; Coull et al., 2015) as well as exercise-induced physiological arousal in response to additional heat
examined chronic exposure to environmental temperature (Lieberman, exposure. With the exception of one study (McMorris et al., 2006),
Castellani, & Young, 2009) on cognition that could offer some further which also comprised the highest intensity of the studies in the ‘light’
insights. Such research was excluded in the current review as the focus exercise category), no differences in cognitive function were found be
was only on laboratory-based studies where environmental temperature tween temperate and hot conditions when light exercise protocols were
16
implemented. Thus, individuals in roles that require Coull, N. A., Watkins, S. L., Aldous, J. W. F., Warren, L. K., Chrismas, B. C. R.,
Dascombe, B., et al. (2015). Effect of Tyrosine Ingestion on cognitive and physical
moderate-to-vigorous dosages of exercise, and therefore more physically
performance utilising an intermittent soccer performance test (iSPT) in a warm
demanding work in hot environments, should be conscious that optimal environment. European Journal of Applied Physiology, 115, 373–386. https://doi.org/
cognitive functioning may be jeopardised particularly for more complex, 10.1007/s00421-014-3022-7
executive functioning tasks. For instance, it seems that the ability to Cvirn, M. A., Dorrian, J., Smith, B. P., Vincent, G., Jay, S. M., Roach, G. D., et al. (2019).
The effects of hydration on cognitive performance during a simulated wildfire
accurately process time may be impaired during exercise in the heat, suppression shift in temperate and hot conditions. Applied Ergonomics, 77, 9–15.
where a speeding up of the internal pacemaker has been observed that https://doi.org/10.1016/j.apergo.2018.12.018
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less-accurate) decisions. Davis, J. M., & Bailey, S. P. (1997). Possible mechanisms of central nervous system
In sum, research to date indicates that exercise in cold and hot en fatigue during exercise. Medicine & Science in Sports & Exercise, 29, 45–57. https://
vironments can impair cognitive performance compared to temperate doi.org/10.1097/00005768-199701000-00008
Dietrich, A. (2006). Transient hypofrontality as a mechanism for the psychological
conditions, particularly in relation to moderate dosages of exercise (and effects of exercise. Psychiatry Research, 145, 79–83. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.
also in the most part for vigorous exercise in the heat). However, these psychres.2005.07.033
effects vary across studies likely due to variation in exercise dosages, Donnan, K., Williams, E. L., & Stanger, N. (2020). The effects of heat exposure during
intermittent exercise on physical and cognitive performance among team sport
cognitive measures employed, and approaches to manipulate tempera athletes. Perceptual & Motor Skills. https://doi.org/10.1177/0031512520966522
ture. In future, research would benefit from greater consideration of Downs, S. H., & Black, N. (1998). The feasibility of creating a checklist for the assessment
more context-specific cognitive performance during exercise as well as of the methodological quality both of randomised and non-randomised studies of
health care interventions. Journal of Epidemiology & Community Health, 51, 377–384.
other mediators that may account for these effects (e.g., catecholamine
Ekkekakis, P., Hall, E. E., & Petruzzello, S. J. (2005). Variation and homogeneity in
response, coping strategies). affective responses to physical activity of varying intensities: An alternative
perspective on dose-response based on evolutionary considerations. Journal of Sports
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Declaration of competing interest Ferguson, S. A., Smith, B. P., Browne, M., & Rockloff, M. J. (2016). Fatigue in emergency
services operations: Assessment of the optimal objective and subjective measures
using a simulated wildfire deployment. International Journal of Environmental
None. Research and Public Health, 13, 171. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph13020171
Fisher, G. G., Chacon, M., & Chaffee, D. S. (2019). Chapter 2 – theories of cognitive
ageing and work. In B. Baltes, C. W. Rudolph, & Z. Hannes (Eds.), Work across the
Appendix A. Supplementary data lifespan (pp. 17–235). Elsevier Academic Press. https://doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-12-
812756-8.00002-5.
Supplementary data to this article can be found online at https://doi. Gerhart, H. D., Fiorentini, A. B., Storti, K. L., Alman, R., Bayles, M. P., Pesci, L., et al.
(2020). Psychophysiological responses in emergency medical technician students
org/10.1016/j.psychsport.2021.101908.
during simulated work activities in a hot environment. International Journal of
Environmental Research and Public Health, 17, 3443. https://doi.org/10.3390/
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Psychology of Sport & Exercise 54 (2021) 101908

Contents lists available at ScienceDirect

Psychology of Sport & Exercise

The effects of exercise at different temperatures on cognitive function: A

1. Adam et al. (2008) 10 1 4 4 1 20 74

rest). vs 18 ◦ C (p < tracking scores (p’s

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