Chapter 3 Engineer Ala'a Nabil Radman

B1E/E and B1EC/E

Chapter 3

B1 E/E and B1 EC/E

Prepared by Engineer Ala'a Nabil Radman

2016 – 2017

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 Chapter 3 Engineer Ala'a Nabil Radman
B1E/E and B1EC/E

Introduction

As the 20th century progressed, many experimental and theoretical problems were
resolved by the special theory of relativity. For many other problems, however, neither relativity
nor Classical physics could provide a theoretical answer. Attempts to apply the laws of classical
Physics to explain the behavior of matter on the atomic scale were consistently unsuccessful. For
example, the emission of discrete wavelengths of light from atoms in a high temperature gas
could not be explained within the framework of classical physics. As physicists sought new ways
to solve these puzzles, another revolution took place in physics between 1900 and 1930. A new
theory called quantum mechanics was highly successful in explaining the behavior of particles of
microscopic size. Like the special theory of relativity, the quantum theory requires a
modification of our ideas concerning the physical world. Max Planck introduced the first
explanation of a phenomenon-using quantum theory. A number of distinguished physicists,
including Einstein, Bohr, de Broglie, Schrodinger, and Heisenberg, made many subsequent
mathematical developments and interpretations. Despite the great success of the quantum theory,
Einstein frequently played the role of its critic, especially with regard to the manner in which the
theory was interpreted.

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Chapter 3 Engineer Ala'a Nabil Radman
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Blackbody Radiation

The thermal radiation emitted by a hot body, in general, depends on the composition and the
temperature of the body. However, there is a class of bodies, called black bodies, which emit
thermal radiation whose quantity and quality depend only on their temperature. For this
reason, the radiation emitted by such bodies is called the electromagnetic radiation emitted by
the black body is called blackbody radiation.

From a classical viewpoint, thermal radiation originates from accelerated charged particles in the
atoms near the surface of the object, those charged particles emit radiation much as small
antennas do. The thermally agitated particles can have a distribution of energies, which accounts
for the continuous spectrum of radiation emitted by the object. By the end of the 19th century,
however, it became apparent that the classical theory of thermal radiation was inadequate. The
basic problem was in understanding the observed distribution of wavelengths in the radiation
emitted by a black body.

"Black body is an ideal system that absorbs all radiation incidents on it and it is a
good radiator. The electromagnetic radiation emitted by the black body is called
blackbody radiation".

A good approximation of a black body is a small hole leading to the inside of a hollow object
as shown in Figure 2, Any radiation incident on the hole from outside the cavity enters the
hole and is reflected a number of times on the interior walls of the cavity; hence, the hole acts
as a perfect absorber. The nature of the radiation leaving the cavity through the hole depends
only on the temperature of the cavity walls and not on the material of which the walls are made.

Fig. 1

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Chapter 3 Engineer Ala'a Nabil Radman
B1E/E and B1EC/E

Blackbody radiation curve

The wavelength distribution of radiation from cavities was studied experimentally in the late 19th
century. Figure 2 shows how the intensity of blackbody radiation varies with temperature and
wavelength.

Fig. 2

From the curve of black body radiation, we noted that:

• The total power of the emitted radiation increases with temperature.
• The peak of the wavelength distribution shifts to shorter wavelengths as the temperature
increases.

Wien’s displacement law is consistent with the behavior of the black body
.
λ max =

Where λmax is the wavelength, at which the curve peaks and T is the absolute temperature of the
surface of the object emitting the radiation in Kelvin ( K ).

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 Chapter 3 Engineer Ala'a Nabil Radman
B1E/E and B1EC/E

CLASSICAL THEORIES OF BLACK BODY RADIATION

Rayleigh–Jeans Theory
The British physicists Lord Rayleigh (1842–1919) and James Jeans (1877–1946) attempted to
derive a better radiation law based on main concepts is given as follow:

The main concept s of their theory about black body radiation are:
• The power per unit area ( Intensity ) emitted in the interval dλ is given by:

I (λ ,T) = eq. 1

Where kB is Boltzmann’s constant "1.38 x10-23" J/K

• The atoms in the cavity walls are treated as a set of oscillators that emit electromagnetic
waves at all wavelength.

Rayleigh–Jeans Theory Vs Experiments

It is cleared from a Figure 3 that at long wavelengths, the Rayleigh–Jeans law is agreed with
experimental data, but at short wavelengths is disagreed with experimental data.

Classical

Experiments

Fig. 3

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 Chapter 3 Engineer Ala'a Nabil Radman
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Failure of Rayleigh –Jeans theory

From Rayleigh –Jeans equation "given in equation 1" , As λ approaches zero, the energy
approaches infinity, that is leading to " ultraviolet catastrophe" , but, the experimental data
show that as λ approaches zero , the energy also approaches zero.

Note

This “ultraviolet catastrophe”, the word ultraviolet was applied because ultraviolet
wavelengths are short.

Plank's Formula for a black body radiation

The failure of Rayleigh-Jeans law led Planck to think that it was not possible to obtain a correct
radiation law within the classical physics.

In 1900, Max Planck developed a theory of blackbody radiation that leads to an equation
for I(l,T) that is in complete agreement with experimental results at all wavelengths. Planck
assumed the cavity radiation came from atomic oscillators in the cavity walls in Figure 1.

Planck made two assumptions concerning the nature of the oscillators in the cavity walls:

• The energy of an oscillator can have only certain discrete values En = n hf

• The oscillators emit or absorb energy when making a transition from one quantum state to
another.

Note
An oscillator emits or absorbs energy only when it changes quantum states. If it remains in
one quantum state, no energy is absorbed or emitted.

Plank's Formula for black body radiation

-34
Where h is Plank’s constant "6.626x10 " J.s.

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Chapter 3 Engineer Ala'a Nabil Radman
B1E/E and B1EC/E

Solved Problems
Q1
Find the peak wavelength of the blackbody radiation emitted by the human body when the skin
temperature is 35oC.
Solution
Given that
T = 35 + 273 = 308 K .
. .
λ Peak = = = 9.41x10-6 m = 9.41 µm.

Q2
Find the peak wavelength of the blackbody radiation emitted by the tungsten filament of a light
bulb, which operates at 2000 K.
Solution
Given that
T = 2000 K .
. .
λ Peak = = = 1.45x10-6 m = 1.45 µm.

Q3
Find the peak wavelength of the blackbody radiation emitted by the Sun, which has a surface
temperature of approximately 5800 K.
Solution
Given that
T = 5800 K .
. .
λ Peak = = = 4.997 x10-7 m = 0.5 µ m.

Q4
Using Wien’s displacement law to calculate the surface temperature of a rod giant star that
radiate with peak wavelength of 650 nm.
Solution
Given that
λ peak = 650 nm = 650 x10-9 m.
. .
T= = = 4458 K .
λ

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 Chapter 3 Engineer Ala'a Nabil Radman
B1E/E and B1EC/E

Photoelectric effect
Introduction

Blackbody radiation was the first phenomenon to be explained with a quantum model. In
the latter part of the 19th century, at the same time that data were taken on thermal radiation,
experiments showed that light incident on certain metallic surfaces causes electrons to be emitted
from those surfaces. This phenomenon is known as the photoelectric effect, and the emitted
electrons are called photoelectrons.

"The photo electric effect is a process in which electrons are ejected from a metallic
surface when a suitable light is incident on it ".

Figure 4 is a diagram of an apparatus for studying the photoelectric effect. An evacuated

glass or quartz tube contains a metallic plate E (the emitter Cathode) connected to the
negative terminal of a battery and another metallic plate C (the collector or Anode) that is
connected to the positive terminal of the battery. When the tube is kept in the dark, the
ammeter reads zero, indicating no current in the circuit. However, when plate E is
illuminated by light having an appropriate wavelength, the ammeter, indicating a flow of
charges across the gap between plates E and C., detects a current. This current arises
from photoelectrons emitted from plate E and collected at plate C.

Fig.5
Fig.4

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 Chapter 3 Engineer Ala'a Nabil Radman
B1E/E and B1EC/E

Figure 5 is a plot of photoelectric current versus potential difference ∆V applied between

plates E and C for two light intensities. At large values of ∆V, the current reaches a maximum
value, all the electrons emitted from E are collected at C, and the current cannot increase further.
In addition, the maximum current increases as the intensity of the incident light increases, as you
might expect, because more electrons are ejected by the higher-intensity light. Finally, when ∆V
is negative, that is, when the battery in the circuit is reversed to make plate E positive and plate C
negative, the current drops because many of the photoelectrons emitted from E are repelled by
the now negative plate C. In this situation, only those photoelectrons having a kinetic energy
greater than q|∆V| reach plate C, where q is the magnitude of the charge on the electron. When
∆V is equal to or more negative than ∆VS, where ∆VS is the stopping potential, no
photoelectrons reach C and the current is zero.

⇒ E = Ф + K.E max
!
⇒ E = hf =
!
⇒ Ф = h fT =
⇒ K.E max = q VS = meVe2
Where
E is the energy of the incident light, and Ф is the work function of a metal.
Kmax is the maximum kinetic energy of the ejected electrons.
h is the plank's constant = 6.626 x10 -34 J.s .
c is the speed of light = 3 x108 m/s .
fT is the cutoff frequency , λT is the cutoff wavelength.
VS is the stopping voltage, q is the charge of electron = 1.6 x10 -19 C .
me is the mass of electron = 9.11 x10 -31 kg , Ve is the speed of the ejected electron.
hc = 1.9878 x10 -25 J.m

Definitions
Work function is the minimum energy of light required to liberate the electron from a
surface of the metal.
Cutoff frequency is the smallest frequency at which the electron can be ejected.
Cutoff wavelength is the longest wavelength at which the electron can be ejected.
VS is the smallest applied voltage can stop the fastest electron.

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 Chapter 3 Engineer Ala'a Nabil Radman
B1E/E and B1EC/E

Figure 6 , shows work functions of selected metals

Fig.6

Einstein’s explanation of photoelectric effect

A satisfactory explanation of photoelectric effect was first proposed by Albert Einstein in
1905. According to Einstein, electromagnetic radiation of frequency " f " consists of small packets,
called photons, each of energy " hf ". When a photon of energy " hf " is incident on the surface of a
material, some of its energy is spent in making the electron free and the rest appears as kinetic
energy of the electron. The electrons at the surface of the material are most loosely bound and
require minimum energy for their liberation. This energy is called the work function of the material.
The electrons, which are more tightly bound, are ejected with less kinetic energy.

Einstein's view
the incident photon gave all its energy to a single electron in the metal and the photon treated as
a particle that has energy and momentum and the process at which the electron will eject from a
surface of the metal occurs instantaneously one- to –one".

Notes from Einstein's explanation

No electrons are ejected if the incident light energy is less than the work function.
Number of ejected electrons depends on the intensity of the incident light.
The energy of the ejected electrons depends on the frequency of the incident light.
It has been observed that as soon as the light is incident on the substance, the electrons are
emitted i.e., there is no time lag between the incidence of radiation and the ejection of
electron.

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Chapter 3 Engineer Ala'a Nabil Radman
B1E/E and B1EC/E

Failure of classical physics

The kinetic energy of ejected electron should depend on the intensity of the radiation.
Existence of threshold frequency has no explanation at all in the classical theory.
There should be considerable time lag between the arrival of the radiation and the ejection of
electron, which is contrary to the observation.

Solved Problems
Q1
Calculate the energy in electron volt of photo where the frequency
a) 3.1 G Hz
b) 46 M Hz
c) Determine the corresponding wavelength for these photons
Solution
a)
. " #$
-34 9 -24
E = hf = 6.626x10 x 3.1x10 = 2.054 x10 J, E (eV) = % = 1.28 x10 -5 eV
.
b)
. " #&
-34 6 -26
E = hf = 6.626x10 x 46 x10 = 3.048 x10 J , E (eV) = % = 1.91 x10 -7 eV .
.
c) Wavelength :
For f = 3.1 G Hz = 3.1 x109 Hz
' )
λ= = = 0.096 m .
( .
For f = 46 M Hz = 46 x106 Hz
' )
λ= = & = 6.52 m .
( "

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Chapter 3 Engineer Ala'a Nabil Radman
B1E/E and B1EC/E
Q2

A sodium surface is illuminated with light having a wavelength of 300 nm, the work function for
sodium metal is 2.46 eV.

a) Find the maximum kinetic energy of the ejected photoelectrons.

b) Find the cutoff wavelength λT for sodium.
Solution
Given that
λ = 300 nm = 300 x 10-9 m , Ф = 2.46 eV = 2.46 x 1.6x10-19 = 3.936 x10-19 J.
a)
*+ . $ × )
E= = = 6.626 x10-19 J .
λ
K.E max = E - Ф = 6.626 x10-19 - 3.936 x10-19 = 2.69 x10-19 J.
b)
*+ . $ × )
λT = = % = 5.05 x10-7 m .
Ф .
Q3
Light of frequency of 5x10 14 Hz liberates electron with energy of 2.31x10-19 J from a metallic
surface, what is the wavelength of ultraviolet light which liberates electrons of energy of
8.93x10-19 J from the same surface .
Solution
Given that
f = 5x10 14 Hz , K.E max 1 = 2.31x10-19 J , K.Emax 2 = 8.93x10-19 J
E1 = hf1 = 6.626 x10-34 x 5x10 14 = 3.313 x10-19 J .
Φ1 = E1 - Kmax 1 = 3.313 x10-19 - 2.31x10-19 = 1.003 x10-19 J.
• work function is constant, therefore Ф2 = Ф1 =1.003 x10 -19 J.
E2 = Φ2 + Kmax 2 = 1.003 x10-19 + 8.93 x10-19 = 9.933 x10-19 J .
*+ *+ . $ × )
E2 = λ2 = = % = 2 x10-7 m.
λ# -# .

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Chapter 3 Engineer Ala'a Nabil Radman
B1E/E and B1EC/E
Q4
The emmiter in a photoelectric tube has a threshould wavelenght of a 600 nm. Determine the
wavelenght of the light incident on the tube if the stopping potential for this light is 2.5 V.
Solution
Given that
λT = 600 nm = 600 × 10-9 , VS = 2.5 V.
*+ . $ × )
Ф= = = 3.313 x10-19 J .
λ.
K.Emax = qVS = 1.6 x10-19 x 2.5 = 4 x 10-19 J.
E = K.Emax + Ф = 3.313 x 10-19 + 4 x 10-19 = 7.313 x 10-19 J .
*+ . $ × )
λ= = % = 2.718 x 10-7 m .
- /.

Q5
The kinetic energies of photoelectric rang from zero to 4.0× 10-19 J when light of wave length
3000 Ao falls on a surface . What is the stopping potential for this light ? Also determine the
threshould wavelength for the material .
Solution
Given that
K.E max = 4× 10-19 J , λ = 3000 Ao = 3000 x 10 -10 m .
0.- " %
VS = % = % = 2.5 V .
. .
*+ . $ × )
E= = %1 = 6.626 × 10-19 J .
λ
Φ = E – K.E max = 6.626 × 10-19 - 4× 10-19 = 2.626 x 10-19 J .
*+ . $ × )
λT = = % = 7.57 x 10-7 m .
Ф .

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Chapter 3 Engineer Ala'a Nabil Radman
B1E/E and B1EC/E
Q6

In a photoelectric effect, it was observed that for light of wavelength 4000 Ao, a stopping
potential of 2.0 V is needed and for light of wavelength 6000 Ao, a stopping potential of 1.0 V.
From these data, calculate the the Planck’s constant and used it to calculate the work function of
the material .

Solution
Given that
λ1 = 4000 Ao = 4000 x 10-10 m ,VS1 = 2 V , λ2 = 6000 Ao = 6000 x 10-10 m ,VS1 = 1 V.

⇒K.E max1 = qVS1 = 1.6 x10-19 x 2= 3.2 x 10-19 J .

⇒K.E max2 = qVS2 = 1.6 x10-19 x 1= 1.6 x 10-19 J .
Since work function is constant, therefore Ф1 = Ф2

• E1 – K.E max1 = E2 – K.E max2

*× ) *× )

" %1 - 3.2 x 10 -19

= %1 - 1.6 x 10-19

7.5x1014 x h - 3.2 x 10-19 = 5 x1014 x h - 1.6 x 10-19

7.5x1014 x h - 5 x1014 x h = - 1.6 x 10-19 + 3.2 x 10-19

. %
14 -19
2.5x10 x h = 1.6 x 10 h= %$ = 6.4 x 10-34 J.s.
.
*+ ." $ × )
E1 = = %1 = 4.8 × 10-19 J .
λ% "

Φ = E1 – K.E max1 = 4.8 × 10-19 - 3.2 x 10-19 = 1.6 x 10-19 J .

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 Chapter 3 Engineer Ala'a Nabil Radman
B1E/E and B1EC/E

The Compton Effect

Introduction

In 1919, Einstein concluded that a photon of energy E travels in a single direction and
carries a momentum equal to E/c. In 1923, Arthur Holly Compton (1892–1962) and Peter Debye
(1884–1966) independently carried Einstein’s idea of photon momentum further. Prior to 1922,
Compton and his coworkers had accumulated evidence showing that the classical wave theory of
light failed to explain the scattering of x-rays from electrons.

Fig.7
Figure 7 is a schematic diagram of the apparatus used by Compton. The x-rays, scattered from
a carbon target, were diffracted by a rotating crystal spectrometer, and the intensity was
measured with an ionization chamber that generated a current proportional to the intensity.

Compton and Debye realized that the scattering of x-ray photons from electrons could be
explained by:

i. Treating photons as a particle having energy hf and momentum E/c.

ii. Assuming that energy and momentum of photon-electron pair are conserved in collision.

Compton shift equation

!
λ - λo = ( 1 - Cos Θ )
23 4
!
Where me is the mass of the electron, and the factor is called the Compton wavelength of
23 4
!
the electron, = 0.00243 x 10- 9 m.
23 4

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Chapter 3 Engineer Ala'a Nabil Radman
B1E/E and B1EC/E

λ = λo + 0.00243 x 10 - 9 (1 - Cos Θ)
Kinetic Energy of recoiling electron is given by:

K.E = Eo - E

• λo is the wavelength of the incident beam and λ is the wavelength of the scattered beam ,
Eo and E are the energies of incident and scattered photon respectively.

Solved Problems
Q1
Suppose that a beam of 0.2 MeV photon is scattered by electron a carbon target
a) What is the wavelength associated with the photons.
b) What is the wavelength of those photons scattered at angle of 90o.
c) What is energy of scattered photons through an angle of 60o and what is the kinetic energy
of the recoiling electron?
Solution
a)
Energy of photon = 0.2 M eV = 0.2 x106 x 1.6 x10-19 = 3.2 x10-14 J.
*+ . $ × )
λo = = %$ = 6.212 x10-12 m .
-5 .
b)
λ = λo + 0.00243 x10-9 (1 – Cos 90) = 6.212 x10-12 + 0.00243 x10-9 = 8.642 x10-12 m.
c)
For Θ = 60o
λ\ = λo +0.00243 x10-9 (1 – Cos 60) = 6.212 x10-12 +1.215 x10-12 = 7.427 x10-12 m.
*+ . $ × )
E= = %# = 2.676 x10-14 J.
λ /." /

K.E = Eo - E = 3.2 x10-14 - 2.676 x10-14 = 0.524 x10-14 J.

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Chapter 3 Engineer Ala'a Nabil Radman
B1E/E and B1EC/E
Q2
In a Compton experment an electron attains a kinetik energy of a 0.100 MeV when an X-ray
energy is of 0.500 MeV strikes it . Determine the wavelenght of the scattered photon if the
electron is initially at rest .
Solution
Given that
K.E = 0.100 M eV = 0.1 x 106 x 1.6 x10-19 = 1.6 x 10-14 J .
Eo = 0.500 MeV = 0.5 x 106 x 1.6 x10-19 = 8 x 10 -14 J .
E = Eo – K.E = 8 x 10 -14 - 1.6 x10 -14 = 6.4 x 10 -14 J .
*+ . $ × )
λ = = %$ = 3.1 × 10 -12 m.
- ."

Q3
From ( Q2 )find the angle that the scattered photon makes with the incident direction .
*+ . $ × )
λo = = %$ = 2.485 × 10 -12 m .
-5
6 7 . %# 6 ." %#
AN = = = 0.2531
. " . "
Θ = Cos -1 (1- AN) = Cos -1 (1- 0.2531) = 41.7o.

Q4
Calculate The fractional change in the wavelenght of an X-ray of wavelenght of 0.400 Ao that
undergoes a 90o Compton scattered from an electron .
Solution
Given that
• λo = 0.400 Ao = 0.4 ×10-10 m , Θ = 90o .
. " %1 ( 6 '9: Θ ) . " %1 ( 6 '9: )
Frictional change = = %1 = 0.0608.
λ5 ."
Percentage = 0.0608 x 100 % = 6.08 %.

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 Chapter 3 Engineer Ala'a Nabil Radman
B1E/E and B1EC/E

Wave Properties of Particles

Phenomena such as photoelectric effect, Compton’s effect etc, offer a great evidence that when
the light and matter interact, the light behaves as if it were composed of particles having
energy hf and momentum p. On the other hand, we recognize that the light and other
electromagnetic waves exhibit interference and diffraction effects, which are consistent with a
wave model.

Dual Nature of Light

Light had a dual nature, it exhibit both wave and particle characteristics.

The phenomenon of interference and diffraction of light could be explained based on wave model
of radiation whereas the phenomenon involving interaction of radiation with matter as
photoelectric effect and Compton’s effect could only be understood based on particle nature of
radiation.

Dual Nature of Matter

In his 1923 Louis de Broglie postulated that " Because photons have both wave and particle
characteristics, perhaps all forms of matter have both properties ".

Form Einstein's view, a travelling photon of energy E carries a momentum p = E/c , the
momentum of photon may expressed as :
< !
p= =
Where λ is de Broglie wavelength, If p = mV, therefore de Broglie wavelength is given by:
! !
λ= =
= 2>

Principle of Complementary
Bohr stated, "The wave and particle models of either matter or radiation complement each
other ".
Note
Wave concept (frequency and wavelength), particle concept (momentum and energy).

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 Chapter 3 Engineer Ala'a Nabil Radman
B1E/E and B1EC/E

The Davisson–Germer Experiment

The diffraction of electrons was first confirmed in 1927 by Davisson and Germer by accident while
they are studying the scattering of low energy electron (54 eV) from a nickel target. Davisson and
Germer performed more extensive diffraction measurement on electrons scattered from single
crystal target. Their result showed:
i. The wave nature of electron.
! !
ii. Confirmed the de Broglie relationship λ = = .
= 2>

Solved Problems
Q1
Calculate the de Broglie wavelength of an electron accelerated through a potential difference 50 V.
Solution
Given that
Vp = 50 V.
* . $
λ= = % %
= 1.74 x 10-10 m .
? @ A BC √ . .

Q2
If the de Broglie wavelength of an electron is 1 Ao what is its velocity and its kinetic energy
Solution
Given that
λ = 1 Ao = 1 x10-10 m.
* * . $
λ= V= = % %1 = 7.27 x 106 m/s.
@B @λ .

K.E = m V2 = x 9.11 x10-31 x (7.27 x 106) 2 = 2.41 x 10-17 J.

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 Chapter 3 Engineer Ala'a Nabil Radman
B1E/E and B1EC/E
Q3
Calculate the de Broglie wavelenght of a 0.05 eV neutron .
Solution
Given that
K.E = 0.05 eV = 0.05 x 1.6 x10-19 = 8 x 10-21 J , m = 1.67 x10-27 kg.
* . $
λ= = #E #%
= 1.28 x 10-10 m .
√ @0.- √ . /

Q4
Determine the accelerated potential neceessary to give an electron a de Brogle wavelenght of 1 Ao.
Solution
Given that
λ = 1 Ao = 1 × 10-10 m.
*# ( . $ )#
VP = = = 150.6 V.
@Aλ# . % . % ( %1 )#

OR

* . $
V= = % %1 = 7.27 x 106 m/s.
@λ .

@ B# (/. / & )#
Vp = = % = 150.5 V.
A .

References
1) PHYSICS FOR SCIENTISTS AND ENGINEERS with modern physics 8th edition.
By SERWAY / JEWETT.

2) PHYSICS FOR SCIENTISTS & ENGINEERS with modern physics 4th edition
By DOUGLAS C. GIANCOLI.

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