2

ACTIVITY
1
1. Go over the course syllabus in Appendix A. Pay particular
attention to what is required and expected from you.
2. Clarify points that need to be clarified with your Instructor/ Professor.
ACTIVIT
Y2
1. Form groups Of 5. Recall and share with your group a rule that you
have to follow at school and the reason behind such rule.

Share with your small group your answers to these questions:

• What if there were no rules? What are possible consequences?
• Are rules important? Why or why not?
• Do you find them constricting? Why or why ngt?

Rules are important to social beings. Just imagine the chaos that results
from the absence of rules. What happens when students and professors alike
come to school in any attire they want? Imagine what happens when in the
classroom everyone wants to talk at the same time. Let's go out of the
classroom for more examples. What if there were no traffic rules? Rules can be
expanded to include the Philippine Constitution and other laws, What if there
were no Constitution and other laws of the land?
Rules are meant to set order. Rules (the Philippine Constitution and
Other laws included) are meant for man. The greatest Teacher, Jesus
Christ, preached emphatically, "The Sabbath is made for man and not
man for the Sabbath". The law of the Sabbath, i.e. to keep it holy and
observe rest, is meant to make man whole by resting and by giving him
time to thank and spend time in prayer and worship for his own good.
For the sake of order in society, everyone is subject to rules. In a
democratic country like the Philippines, we often hear the statement ''No
ETHICS: LIFE AS IT OUGHT TO BE
 Lesson I: Course Orientation and the Importance of Rules

one is above the law," including the highest omcial of the country. We are all
3
subject to rules or else court chaos.
Rules are not meant to restrict your freedom. They are meant to help
you grow in freedom, to grow in your ability to choose and do what is good
Rules are not
for you and for others. If there are rules or laws that restrict your ability or
meant to
strength to do good, they are suffocating laws and they are not good laws.
restrict your
They ought to be abolished. Any rule or law that prevents human persons
freedom.
from doing and being good ought to be repealed. They have no reasons to
They are meant
exist. to help you
grow in
In fact, if you are a rule or a law-abiding citizen, you don't even feel
freedom, to
the restricting presence of a rule or law because you do what the law or grow in your
what the rule states everybody should do. Looking from a higher point of ability to choose
view, this is the state when one acts not because rules demand it but and do what is
because one sees he has to act that way. It is like saying one no longer good foryou and
needs the rule or law because one has become mature and wise enough to for others.
discern what ought to be done. This is an ideal state which the ancient
Chinese sages (Confucius, Lao Tzu) referred to as state of no-more rules,
no-more laws, because people discern what is right or good and do what is
right or good without thinking or a rule or law; people are no longer in need Any rule or law
of a government because they can govern themselves. It is a state where that prevents
one owns the moral standard not just abide by the moral standard. human persons
from doing and
being good
ough to be
repealed. They
have no reason
to exist
1. The Sabbath is made for man and not man for the Sabbath. What does this
mean? Illustrate with an example.
2. Rules/laws are made for the good of man. State the good that is derived
from the following school rules:
1. No ID, NoEntry
2. Student/Teacher Tardiness beyond 15 minutes means absence
3. Any form of cheating is punishable with suspension.
4. Use of illegal drug is punishable with dismissal.
3. Give an example of a constricting rule or law. What should be done with
it?
4. The ancient Chinese sage named Lao Tsu taught: "Leave the people to
themselves, no laws and inner goodness will flourish." "The more laws
and commands there are, the more thieves and robbers will be." Do you
agree? Why or why not?
4

ETHICS: LIFE AS IT OUGHT TO BE

KEY TAKEAWAYS
Rules are meant to set order in society.
• Rules are intended for human persons. They are not
meant to limit a person's freedom which is the ability to
choose and do what is good. Rather rules are meant to
help persons choose and do what is good.
Those who do what is good don't even feel the presence
of a rule that prevents them from doing what is not good.
It is those who intend to do the opposite of what is good
that feel the suffocating and limiting presence of a rule.
• When society is ideal, i.e. when all persons are good and
do only what is ideal then there will be no more need for
rules and laws according to Lao Tzu.

CHECK FOR UNDERSTANDING

Why are rules important?

REFLECTION
Reflect on your attitude toward rules. Do you welcome rules? Or are
you allergic to rules? What if there were no rules?
 5
Chapter Understanding Morality and Moral Standards
Lesson 2: Moral and Non-Moral Standards

Lesson 2 1 Standards

Intended Learning Outcome:

• Distinguish between moral and non-moral standards

INTRODUCTION

We often hear the terms "moral standards" and "non-moral standards."

What do these refer to? What about the word "immoral?" Is there such a
thing as immoral standards? Is immoral synonymous with non-moral?
Let's find this out in this Lesson.

ACTIVITY

l. Classify the following into groups: moral standards and non-moral standards.
• No talking while your mouth is full.
• Do not lie.
• Wear black or white for mourning; never red.
• The males should be the one to propose marriage not females. • Don't steal.
• Observe correct grammar when writing and speaking English.
• Submit school requirements on time,
• If you are a male, stay by the danger side (roadside) when walking with a
female.
• Go with the fashion or you are not "in".
 • Don't cheat others.
• Don't kill.
• When you speak pronounce words correctly.
• Focus the microscope properly.
• Maintain a 36-24-36 body figure.

ETHICS: LIFE AS IT OUGHT TO BE

ANALYSIS
1. Analyze your groupings. Why do you classify one group as moral
standards and another as non-moral standards?
2. What is common to those listed under moral standards?
3. What is common to the list of non-moral standards?

o ABSTRACT
ION
Ethymology and Meaning of Ethics
The term "ethics" comes from the Greek word "ethos" meaning
"custom" used in the works of Aristotle, while the term "moral" is the
Latin equivalent. Based on the Greek and Latin etymology of the word
"ethics", ethics deals with morality. When the Roman orator Cicero
exclaimed, "0 tempora o mores" (Cicero, 1856) (Oh, what time and what
morals), he may have been trying to express dismay of the morality of his
time.

Ethics or moral philosophy, is a branch of philosophy which deals

with moral standards, inquires about the rightness or wrongness of human
behavior or the goodness or badness of personality, trait or character.' It
deals with ideas, with topics such as moral standards or norms of morality,
conscience, moral values and virtues. Ethics is a study of the morality of
human acts and moral agents, what makes an act obligatory and what
makes a person accountable.
"Moral" is the adjective describing a human act as either ethically
right or wrong, or qualifying a person, personality, character, as either
ethically good or bad.
.moral
standards are Moral Standards or Moral Frameworks and Non-Moral Standards
norms or Since ethics is a study of moral standards, then the first question for
prescriptions
 that serve as the course is, what are moral standards. The following are supposed to be
the frameworks
for determining examples of moral standards: "'Stealing is wrong." "Killing is wrong."
what ought to "Telling lies is wrong." "Adultery is wrong." "Environment preservation is
done or what is the right thing to do". "Freedom with responsibility is the right way."
right or wrong
action, what is "Giving what is due to others is justice". Hence, moral standards are norms
good or bad or prescriptions that serve as the frameworks for determining what ought
character
to be done or what is right or wrong action, what is good or bad character.

In the Activity phase of this Lesson the following can be classified

as moral standards:

Chapter I: Understanding Morality and Moral Standards

Lesson 2: Moral and Non-Moral Standards
7
• Do not lie.
• Don't steal.
• Don't cheat others.
• Don't kill.
Moral standards are either consequences standards (like Stuart
Mill's or non-consequence standards (like Aristole's virtue, St.
natural law, or Immanuel Kant' good will or sense of duty).
The consequence standards depend on results, outcome. An act that m
the general welfare, in the greatest good of the greatest number, s To take part
in a project that results in the improvement of the —:r-ry of people is,
therefore, moral.
The non-consequence standards are based on the natural law. Natural 'B
s iaw of God revealed through human reason. It is the "law of the hearts of
men." To preserve human life is in accordance natural law, therefore it is
in the non-consequence also be based on good will or intention,
moral. Likewise,
and on a sense of for humanity, treatment of the other as a human person, an is
may from a sense of duty, a sense of duty that you wish to all human
moral, springs
persons.
Ch the other hand, non-moral standards are social rules, demands
and good manners. They are guides of action which should be as
expected by society. Sometimes they may not be followed or may
not follow them. From time to time, changes are made good ...non-moral
manners or etiquette. In sociology, non-moral standards or re called standards are.
folkways. -In short, non-moral actions are those where moral cannot social rules,
be applied. demands of
Examples of non-moral standards are rules of good manners and etiquette and
etiquette, rules of behavior set by parents, teachers, and of grammar good
or language, standards of art, standards of sports manners.
«her authorities. Examples are "do not eat with your mouth open;" They are
guides of
rules of grammar," and "do not wear socks that don't match." the
action which
Activity phase of this Lesson, the following are non-moral should be
 followed as
• No talking while your mouth is full. expected by
• Wear black or white for mourning; never red. society.

• The males should be the one to propose marriage not females.

• Observe correct grammar when writing and speaking English.
• Submit school requirements on time.
• if you are a male, stay by the danger side (roadside) when walking
•ith a female.
• Go with the fashion or you are not "in."
ETHICS: LIFE AS IT OUGHT TO BE

8 • When you speak pronounce words correctly.

• Focus the microscope properly.
• Maintain a good body figure.
An indicator whether or not a standard is moral or non-moral lies in it
compliance as distinguished from its non-compliance. Non-compliance
with moral standards causes a sense of guilt, while non-compliance with a
non-moral standard may only cause shame or embarrassment.

Consequence Classification of the Theories of Moral Standards

(teleological,
from tele which Garner and Rosen (1967) classified the various moral standards
means end, formulated by moral philosophers as follows: 1) Consequence (teleological,
result, or from tele which means end, result, or consequence) standard states that an
consequence) act is right or wrong depending on the consequences of the act, that is, the
standard states
that an act is
good that is produced in the world. Will it do you good if you go to school?
right or wrong If the answer is right, because you learn how to read and write, then going
depending on to school is right. The consequence standard can also be a basis for
the determining whether or not a rule is a right rule. So the consequence
consequences standard states that the rightness or wrongness of a rule depends on the
of the act, that
is, the good that consequences or the good that is produced in following the rule. For
is produced in
the world. instance, if everyone follows the rule of a game, everyone will enjoy
playing the game. This good consequence proves the rule must be a correct
rule. 2) Not-only-consequence standard (deontological), holds that the
Not.only•
consequence
rightness or wrongness of an action or rule depends on sense of duty,
standard natural law, virtue and the demand of the situation or circumstances. The
(deontological), rightness or wrongness of an action does not only depend or rely on the
holds that the consequence of that action or following that rule.
rightness or
wrongness of an Natural law and virtue ethics are deontological moral standards
action or rule because their basis for determining what is right or wrong does not depend on
depends on sense consequences but on the natural law and virtue. Situation ethics, too, is
of duty, natural
law, virtue and deontological because the rightness or wrongness of an act depends on
the demand ofthe situation and circumstances requiring or demanding exception to rule.
situation or
circumstances
Rosen and Garner are inclined to consider deontology, be it rule or
act deontology, as the better moral standard because it synthesizes or
includes all the other theory of norms. Under this theory, the rightness or
wrongness of an action depends on (or is a function of) all the following:
a) consequences of an action or rule, what promotes one's greatest good,

or the greatest good of the greatest number; b) consideration other than

consequences, like the obligatoriness or the act based on natural law, or its
being one's duty, or its promoting an ideal virtue. Deontology also considers
the object, purpose, and circumstances or situation of the moral
 Chapter l: Understanding Morality and Moral Standards
Lesson 2: Moral and Non-Moral Standards

issue or dilemma. 9
All these moral standards or ethical frameworks will be dealt with in
detail in Chapter IV of this book.

Makes Standards Moral?

The question means what obliges us to follow a moral standard? For &sts,
believers in God's existence, moral standards are commandments For theists, God
God revealed to man through prophets. According to the Old Testament, is the ultimate
Se Ten Commandments were revealed by God to Moses. One who in God source of what is
moral revealed
vows to Him and obliges himself/herself to follow His Ten C«rzmandments. to human
For theists, God is the ultimate source of what is moral reeled to human persons.
persons.

How about non-theists? For non-theists, God is not the source of

nyality. Moral standards are based on the wisdom of sages like Confucius cr
For nontheists,
philosophers like Immanuel Kant.
God is not the
In China, B. C., Confucius taught the moral standard, "Do others
source of
what you like others to do unto you" and persuaded *Ple to follow this rule
morality Moral
because its is the right way, the gentleman's gay Later, Immanuel Kant, the
German philosopher, formulated a e%äion for determining what makes a standards are
based on the
moral standard moral. It is s:2ed as follows: "Act only according to that wisdom of sages
maxim whereby you cn at the same time will that it should become a like Confucius
universal law." 'i93) In other words, if a maxim or standard cannot pass this or philosophers
test, it =not be a moral standard. For instance, does the maxim "Stealing is like Immanuel
Kant.
pass this test? Can one will that this maxim be a universal maxim? answer is
in the affirmative. The opposite of the maxim would not be ax—table. Moral
standards are standards that we want to be followed by otherwise, one would
be wishing one's own ill fortune. Can you wish not kill" to be a universal
maxim? The answer has to be yes because say "no" then you are not
objecting to someone killing you. Thus, universal necessity of the maxim,
what makes it a categorical —perative is what makes it obligatory. "Stealing
is wrong" means "one not steal" and "Do not kill" means "one ought not
kill." It is one's

Ci:izztion not to steal or kill. Ultimately, the obligation arises from the need
"self-preservation.

Tie Origin of Moral Standards: Theist and Non-Theist

Related to the question on what makes moral standards moral is how
standards arise or come into existence? A lot of new attempts to —Sain the
origins of morality or moral standards have been made.

The theistic line of thought states moral standards are of divine origin 20th
century thinkers claim state that they simply evolved. The issue
 ETHICS: LIFE AS IT OUGHT TO BE
10
is: Are moral standards derived from God, communicated to man through
signs or revelation, or did they arise in the course of man's evolution?
The theistic With the Divine source concept, moral standards are derived from
line of thought
states that natural law, man's "participation" in the Divme law. The moral principle,
moral "Do good and avoid evil" is an expression of natural law. Man's obliging
standards are
ofdivine
himself to respect the life, liberty, and property of his fellowman arises
origin. For the from the God-given sacredness, spirituality, and dignity of his fellow man.
nontheistic line Tt arises from his faith, hope, and love of God and man.
of thought,
moral With the evolutionary concept, the basics of moral standards — do
standards must good, avoid evil — have been observed among primates and must have
have evolved
as the process evolved as the process of evolution followed its course.
of evolution Are these theist and non-theist (evolutionary) origin of moral
followed its
course.
standards reconcilable?
The evolutionist claims that altruism, a sense of morality, can be
observed from man's fellow primates- the apes and monkeys and,
therefore, it can be said that the altruism of human persons evolved from
the primates. However, the evolutionist cannot satisfactorily argue, with
factual evidence, that the rudiments of moral standards can be observed
from the primates. Neither can it be scientifically established that the
theist view, that man's obliging himself to avoid evil, refrain from
inflicting harm on his fellowman, is a moral principle implanted by God in
the hearts of men. But the concept of creation and evolution are not
necessarily contradictory. The revelation of the norms of Divine origin
could not have been instant, like a happening "in one fell swoop." It could
have happened gradually as man evolved to differ from the Other
primates. As the evolutionists claim, creation may be conceived as a
process of evolution. Hence, the biblical story of creation could have
happened in billions of years instead of six days.

I. Here are two questions:

a) Can one eat while praying?
b) Can one pray while eating?

Which is a moral question? Which is a non-moral question?

2. I did not dress appropriately formally for a formal party. Which did I
fail to observe? Moral or non-moral standard?
11

3. Lady B dressed indecently to expose her body. Which did she violate
moral or non-moral standard?

4. In Fyodor Dostoevsky's The Brothers Karamasov, Ivan Karamasovone

asserted the famous line, "If God does not exist, everything is permitted."
a) How does this relate to our lesson on source of moral standards?
Based on this line, what is the source of moral standards?
b) The deeper and stronger one's faith in God is, the deeper and stronger
is his/her morality. Is this an implication of this quoted line?
c) Using your knowledge of logic, what will be the continuation of
Karamasov's syllogism?
Chapter l: Understanding Morality and Moral Standards
Lesson 2. Moral and Non-Moral Standards

Non-moral KEY rules, demands of

standards good TAKEAWAYS etiquette and which
manners. They
expected originate from should be followed as
by
society. Moralsocial are law, the consequence
standards guides
are of of one's
actions and sense action
of Moral standards the law of God
based
are through human on the revealed written in the
reason natural
Moral duty. hearts of men."
standards are to a based on standards. That which
good consequencenatural law, or the leads greatest good of
"
number is what is law of God the greatest
moral. based
Moral on
standards are consequences
of or
non-consequence standards
result
duty that you wish like the or sense by all.
treatment of the Respect for humanity,
based also on an act that is moral,
other from a sense
would be
of duty, a applies springs you wish is
followed as a
to all human For wished by all and
 theists, the origin
human person, God who '"wrote his law
of heart of every
sense of duty in the
person", For non-
'that persons.
is the moral
theists, the moral
frameworks Immanuel
formulated bystandards is Kant, Stuart Mill, et
philosophers al, the natural
• The evolutionist law. moral standards
claims origin of moral must have implanted
evolved with standards
in every human
man not like
Confucius, Creation as a process
person may the creationist
instantly at the that the claims but in to be
have taken place sense of moral.
not billions of something that
was moment of
years as the For creation. only
the theists, belief in 6 days as
in evolutionist
asserts.
God
strengthens
them
 Distinguish between moral
standards and non-moral standards.
2. Does belief in God strengthen a person to be moral? Explain your
answer.
REFLECTION
It is more diffcult to do only that which is moral than to do anything you
want to do. But you keep on striving to do only that which is moral, anyway
What makes you strive to do only that which is moral even if difficult? Write
your reflections.
12

ETHICS: LIFE AS IT OUGHT TO BE

 13
Chapter l: Understanding Morality and Moral Standards
Lesson 3: Moral Dilemmas

O Lesson 3 Moral Dilemmas

Intended Learning Outcomes:

Explain moral dilemma as a moral dilemma as a moral experience
• Distinguish between a moral dilemma and a false dilemma

INTRODUCTION

After learning moral and non-moral standards, you must now have an
idea of what a moral experience is. When you find yourself in a moral
dilemma, you are in for a moral experience. What is a moral dilemma? This is
the main focus of this Lesson.

ACTIVITY

Read The Pregnant Lady and the Dynamite, then answer the questions
given:
A pregnant woman leading a group offive people out of a cave on a coast
is stuck in the mouth of that cave. In a short time, high tide will be upon them
and unless she is unstuck, they will all be drowned except the woman whose
head is out of the cave. Fortunately (or unfortunately), someone has with him a
stick of dynamite. There seems no way to get the pregnant woman loose
without using the dynamite which will inevitably kill her; but if they do not use
it everyone else will drown. What should they do?
(http://psychopixi.com/author/pixil)

ANALYSIS
1. What would you do if you were one of the men? Explain why you decided to
act that way?
 2. The situation or the experience you went through is a moral dilemma. What
then is a moral dilemma?
3. Is finding yourself in a moral dilemma, a moral experience? Why or why
not?
ETHICS: LIFE AS IT OUGHT TO BE

ABSTRACTION
Meaning of Moral Dilemma
Moral dilemmas
are situations A moral dilemma is a problem in the decision-making between two
where two or possible options, neither of which is absolutely acceptable from an ethical
more moral perspective. It is also referred to as ethical dilemma. The Oxford Dictionary
values or duties
make demands
defines ethical dilemma as a "decision-making problem between two
on the possible moral imperatives, neither of which is unambiguously acceptable
decisionmaker, or preferable. It is sometimes called an ethical paradox in moral
who can only
honor one of
them, and thus
philosophy." (Oxford Dictionary)
violate at least Based on these definitions, moral dilemmas have the following in
one imponant
common: I) "the agent is required to do each of two (or more) actions
moral concern,
no matter what
he or she which are morally unacceptable; 2) the agent can do each of the actions; 3)
decides to do. but the agent cannot do both (or all) of the actions. The agent thus seems
condemned to moral failure; no matter what she does, she will do
something wrong (or fail to do something that she ought to do).
Moral This means that moral dilemmas are situations where two or more
dilemmas moral values or duties make demands on the decision-maker, who can only
present
situations where honor one of them, and thus will violate at least one important moral
there is tension
between moral
concern, no matter what he or she decides to do. Moral dilemmas present
values and situations where there is tension between moral values and duties that are
duties that are
more or less on
equal footing. more or less on equal footing. The decision-maker has to choose between a
The wrong and another wrong. The decision-maker is a deadlock.
decisionmaker
has to choose In the case of The Pregnant Lady and the Dynamite, there were two
between a
wrong and options — use the dynamite and kill the pregnant woman but save the other
another wrong. 5 or don't use the dynamite and all the 5 will get drowned except the
The
decisionmaker pregnant woman whose head is out.
is in a deadlock.
To have a genuine dilemma, one of the conflicting solutions should
not override the other. For instance, the requirement to protect others from
serious harm overrides the requirement to repay one's debts by returning a
borrowed item when its owner so demands." Hence "m addition to the
features mentioned above, in order to have a genuine moral dilemma it
must also be true that neither of the conflicting requirements is overridden"
(McConnell, T, 2019). This means that none of the conflicting requirements
is solved by the other. The persons involved in the dilemma are in a
deadlock. They find themselves in a "damn-if-you-do and damn-ifyou-
don't" situation.
Another example of a moral dilemma is the story from the Bible about
King Herod. On his birthday, his stepdaughter, Salome danced so well in
front of him and the guests at his party that he promised to give her
anything she wanted. Salome consulted her mother about what she
 Chapter l: Understanding Morality and Moral Standards
Lesson 3: Moral Dilemmas
15
A:e.ld wish for, and decided to ask for the head of John the Baptist on a The
king now had a choice between honoring the promise to his Rt•daughter, or
honoring the life of John the Baptist. And Herod chose to John the Baptist
beheaded.
The king had inadvertently designed a moral trap for himself, a Skama where
whatever he decided to do would be morally wrong.

Waning of a False Dilemma

On the other hand, a false dilemma is a situation where the decision-
. a false
dilemma is a
has a moral duty to do one thing, but is tempted or under pressure
situation
something else. A false dilemma is a choice between a right and a
where the
For example, a lawyer or an accountant can face an opportunity to
decision.
self-interest over the client's interest.
maker has a
moral duty to
to Do When Faced with a Moral Dilemma do one thing,
Ultimately, dilemmas are conflicts in the application of moral •mdards. but is
The question is which moral standards must be followed? In a —e of tempted or
emergency, necessity demands no moral law. You have to decide on your best under
judgment or choose based on the principle of lesser evil greater good or pressure to
urgency. do something
There are 24 moral dilemmas listed by Pixi's blog. Refer to 25 Moral else.
>.kmmas, Pixi's Blog (retrieved]http://psychopixi.com/author/pixil)
APPLICATI
ON
L Are these cases examples of moral dilemma? Defend your answer:
a) Anne is the project manager of a large industrial project in a
developing country, run by a Nordic company. On a crucial day for
the project, the electricity is suddenly gone from the entire plant.
Large quantities of cement are about to congeal in the blenders, and
it is crucial to activate them again, quickly. More than a thousand
employees are unable to do their work. Anne contacts the local
authorities to solve the problem. A bureaucrat turns up at the plant
and explains that he can get the electricity back on again very
quickly, on the condition that he can bring ten of the company's PCs
back to the town hall. There is a desperate shortage of PCs there,
and the bureaucrat and his colleagues are therefore unable to do
provide adequate service to the local community. Thus, he suggests
a trade-off: PCs for electricity In this manner, Anne and her
company can make a significant contribution to the society in
which they
 operate Time is of the essence, and Anne has little time to dwell on
the alternatives. There is no time to contact top management in her
home country to get advice or instructions about what to do. She has
to figure this out by herself If the cement congeals today, it will mean
a considerable delay in the project. Several operations will have to be
redone, at a high cost, particularly compared to cost of losing ten PCs
that can be easily replaced Anne also has sympathy with the local
bureaucrats and the population they are serving. They will probably
make very good use of the PCs. On the other hand, if she gives in to
blackmail this time, the same may happen again, at other crucial
stages of the project. Anne faces a diffcult choice. What should she
do?
Anne wants to honor the moral value of finishing the project on time
and within budget, but also the moral value of not giving in to
blackmail or corruption, One of these values will have to give way at
the expense of the other. There is no harmonious way out, where
Anne can say that she has done everything right.

b) The Deliberate Infection

Ken is a docton One of his patients, whom he has diagnosed as
HIV positive, is about to receive a blood transfusion prior to being
released from the hospital. He has told Ken, in the confidence of their
doctor-patient relationship, that after he gets his transfusion, and his
medicine from Ken, he intends to infect as many people as possible
with HIV starting that evening
Because Ken is bound by doctor-patient confidentiality, there is
no legal way to stop this man from carrying out his plan. Even if Ken
warned the police, they would not be able to arrest him, since his
medical information is protected.
It occurs to Ken that he could contaminate his medication by
putting an untraceable poison in it that will kill him before he gets a
chance to infect others,
Should Ken poison this man in order to prevent him font
spreading HIV? (Source: http;//psychopixi.com/author/pixil)

The Unfaithful Wife

You are an emergency worker that has just been called to the
scene ofan accident. When you arrive you see that the car belongs to
your wife. Fearing the worst you rush over, only to see she is trapped
in her car with another man. He is obviously her lover; with whom
she S been having an affair.
You reel back in shock, devastated by what you have just found
out. As you step back, the wreck in front ofyou comes into focus.
You

16
 ETHICS: LIFE AS IT OUGHT TO BE

see your wife is seriously hurt and she needs attention straight away.
Even if she gets immediate attention there's a very high chance she'll
die. You look at the seat next to her and see her loven Hes bleeding
heavily from a wound in the neck and you need to stem the flow of
blood immediately.
Ifyou attend to your wife, her lover will bleed to death, and you
may not be able to save her anyway Ifyou work on the lover, you can
save his life, but your wife will definitely die.
Who should you choose to work on? (Source: http://psychopixi.
com/author/pixil)

You are an English teacher at a high school. One ofyour pupils is a

very bright and gifted girl whom you have always enjoyed teaching.
She has always achieved A grades throughout her school years, and
is now in her final year and getting ready to graduate.
Unfortunately, she has been very ill this term, and missed several
weeks of schooling She has just turned in a report which is worth
40% of her final grade, but you realize that she did not write it
herself— she has copied a reportfound online and tried to pass it off
as her own work
Ifyou report her plagiarisation to the school authorities, it will
be entered on her permanent record and she will no longer be
eligible to attend the prestigious university that she has dreamed of
attending all through high school. If you refuse to accept the report,
her final mark will be very poor and may harm her chances of being
chosen for this university. If you mark the paper as though you
believed it .as her own work, she will do very well, and stand every
chance of getting her desired university place.
What should you do?
(Source: http://psychopixi.com/author/pixil)

: these moral dilemmas?

Taking credit for others' work in order to get promoted
Manufacturing and distributing fake drugs for profit
Offering a client a worse product for bigger profit Utilizing inside
knowledge for your own profit

group compose your own moral

dilemma.
17
Chapter l: Understanding Morality and Moral Standards
Lesson 3: Moral Dilemmas
 ETHICS: LIFE AS IT OUGHT TO BE

18

KEY TAKEAWAYS
A moral dilemma is a "decision making problem between two possible
moral imperatives, neither of which is unambiguously acceptable or
preferable.
A moral dilemma is a situation where a person has the moral obligation
to choose between two options both based on moral standards, but he
[she cannot choose both, and choosing one means violating the other. In
a moral dilemma, one is caught between two options. It is a "damnif-
you-do and damn-if-you-don't situation. One is in a deadlock.
False dilemmas are situations where the decision-maker has a moral
duty to do one thing, but is tempted or under pressure to do something
else. A false dilemma is a choice between a right and a wrong unlike a
moral dilemma where both choices are wrong.

A. Write T if the statement is True and F if is False.

I. A person or persons in a moral dilemma can easily
choose which course of action to take.
2. In a moral dilemma, one course of action between two
options is obviously immoral while the other choice is
moral.
3. A person involved in a moral dilemma can choose both
options.
4. In a moral dilemma, a person has a choice for the good,
only that because he/she is tempted he/she ends up
choosing that which is not good,
5. In a moral dilemma, a person is torn between two no
good options.
 ETHICS: LIFE AS IT OUGHT TO BE

19
Chapter I: Understanding Morality and Moral Standards
ETHICS: LIFE AS IT OUGHT TO BE
Lesson 3: Moral Dilemmas
20

Lesson 4
Moral Dilemmas

Intended Learning Outcome:

• Illustrate the three levels of moral dilemma

INTRODUCTION

This Lesson reinforces your understanding of moral dilemmas. After

understanding the meaning of moral dilemmas, let us now illustrate three
levels of moral dilemma. In this Lesson, you are expected to give examples of
the levels of moral dilemmas. A research on some significant events in history
may help you arrive at a concrete understanding of structural dilemma most
especially.

ACTIVITY

l. Read the following dilemmas:

I) The mission of Catholic School A is to serve the poor by giving quality
education. It is torn between the obligation to charge low tuition to help
the poor and to pay better salaries to keep quality teachers.
2) Heinz's wife was dying from a particular type of cancer. Doctors said a
new drug might save her. The drug had been discovered by a local
chemist, and the Heinz tried desperately to buy some, but the chemist
was charging ten times the money it cost to make the drug, and this was
much more than the Heinz could afford.
Heinz could only raise half the money, even after help from family
and friends. He explained to the chemist that his wife was dying and
asked if he could have the drug cheaper or pay the rest of the money
later.
The chemist refused, saying that he had discovered the drug and was
going to make money from it. The husband was desperate to save his
wife, so later that night he broke into the chemist's laboratory and stole
the drug.
 ETHICS: LIFE AS IT OUGHT TO BE

Chapter l: Understanding Morality and Moral Standards

Lesson 4: The Three Levels of Moral Dilemmas

21
3) A principal ought to welcome and encourage parents and community
participation in school affairs. Based on her experience, parents and
community are passive and so the principal always ends up deciding and
doing things just the same. She is obliged to observe parents' and
community participation which do not give any input at all at the same
time she is obliged to accomplish things on time.

ANALYSIS

following questions:
l. Answer the dilemmas, which is an example of an
2. Among the 3 dilemma?individual organizational dilemma?
structural dilemma? dilemmas differ?
3. How do the 3
ABSTRACTION
A. Individual
This refers to you-do-and—damn— personal
if=you—don't The case of one of the dilemma is an
best individual's
Kohlberg's have stolen personal dilemmas. It is an individual's damn- damn-if-
youdo-and-
the the drug that stealing the ifsituation, damn— if-
drug individual who is the
law. So this an Heinz as given in the Activity phase of the lesson you-don t
is known individual dilemma's of Kohlberg's situation
(1958).
Organizational dilemma questions were as follows: "Should
An organizational rcessities
Heinz drug." (Mackinnon, B., etal 2015) If he
of a exist between group did
interests
not steal would mean his wife's death. He
and The example lesson shows the between and saving his wife. The
was torn
quality education fee possible
dilemma
and is faced by an torn between 2
obligations -- to save the wife or obey example
of an individual dilemma.

dilemma is a puzzle posed by the

dual social organization and members' self-
interest. It may personal interests and
orgamzational welfare or between organizational
well-being... (Wagner, J. 2019) of the Catholic
school in the Activity phase of the dilemma
between the goal of the school to give for the
poor and so must charge the lowest tuition yet to
keep quality faculty the school must raise their
 ETHICS: LIFE AS IT OUGHT TO BE
22

An
organizational
dilemma
exists between
personal
interests and salary and consequently, must raise tuition.
organizational Organizational dilemmas may likewise occur in business,
welfare or
between medical, and public sector.
individual The following hypothetical case highlights the story of Mr. Brown, a
groups' 74-year old man who is seriously ill of metastatic lung cancer. Mr. Brown
interests and
organizational completed a full course of radiation therapy as well as chemotherapy for
well-being. treatment of his cancer, and he is now hospitalized with severe shortness
of breath and pneumonia. His physician has managed the symptoms
associated with the lung disease, including chest pain, fever, infection,
and respiratory distress, but believes that there are no other options
available to aggressively treat the underlying cancer.... Both Mr. Brown
and his wife clearly state that they 'want everything done.' ...
The dilemma here lies in the conflicting concerns: a) the financial
problems of Mr. Brown and his wife, b) the hospital concern of focusing
govemments its attention on this hopeless patient when there are other cases which
and schools have still possible remedies, c) the other hospital patient's concern,
have
likewise particularly their need of the medicine used by Mr. Brown, c) the concern
become of the medical staff, et al.
more Organizational dilemmas arise due to different opposing concerns
differentiated
and so it
between various groupings in an organization.
becomes
more
difficult to
C Structural
integrate The case of the principal whether to be participatory or
them for a nonparticipatory in school affairs but due to her not so favorable
unified experience of attempting to be participatory ended up to one-woman rule
structure. is an example of a structural dilemma.
Below are more examples of structural dilemma.
Differentiation Versus Integration in Structural Dilemma
Different divisions have their own different culture and so
coordination between divisions or bringing them together for becomes
more difficult.
With decentralization, local governments have become more
empowered to direct their affairs just as schools have become
empowered to address their problems or are given opportunity to
localize the given curriculum.
In effect, local governments and schools have likewise become more
differentiated and so it becomes more difficult to integrate them for a
unified structure. Local governance and schools curricula have become
more complex. There is need for more costly coordination

Chapter l: Understanding Morality and Moral Standards

Lesson 4: The Three Levels of Moral Dilemmas
23
strategies.
Any attempt to introduce reform in society or government creates
 structural dilemma. For instance, promoting or introducing universal A structural
care, which is tantamount to socialized health care, gives rise to a dilemma is
a conflict
structural dilemma, that is, a conflict of perspective of sectors, groups
of
and institutions that may be affected by the decision. Why would those perspective
who contribute less to the social fund enjoy the same benefits as those of sectors,
who contributed big amounts of premium? In a study on the Feces of groups and
medicines in the Philippines, it was established that "patients ate buying institutions
medicines from the private sector at many times their mternational that may be
affected by
reference price" (Ateneo de Manila University 2019). If the government
the
intervenes by introducing price control, the drug stores may lose so decision
much that they may close shop. If the government does not do anything
at all, the patients will continue to suffer because they may not be able
to afford the high prices of medicines.

Gap Versus Overlap

There may be gaps and overlaps in roles and responsibilities. If key
responsibilities are not clearly assigned, there may be gaps or overlaps There may be
in important tasks. If there are gaps, organizations end up with no one gaps and
overlaps in
doing the responsibility. If there are overlaps, things become unclear roles and
and may lead to more confusion and even conflict and worse wasted responsibilities.
effort and perhaps even resources because of the unintended overlap. If key
responsibilities
Here is an example. A patient in a teaching hospital called her are not clearly
husband to report how disturbed she is and how sleepless she was assigned, there
may be gaps or
during the night. At night, she couldn't sleep because hospital staff kept
overlaps in
waking her up, often to repeat what someone else had already done. important
This is an overlap of nurse duty. Conversely, when she wanted tasks.
something, her call button rarely produced any response. This is a gap.
There is a gap as to who according to rule is supposed to respond to the
buzzer. (www.humancapitalreview.org/content/default.asp?&ticle_
DS28#
To illustrate further the consequence of gap and overlap, here is •
story to show what happens when there is a gap or overlap. A boy
•anted his pants shorter. So he went to his mother to ask him to shorten
His mother was busy computing grades and told her son to ask his
sister to do it. IHis sister was busy reviewing for the final exams and —
ked her brother to ask their elder brother to do it. But his older *other
was also busy with his school project and so could not also attend to it.
The boy highly frustrated went to sleep. His pants were

ETHICS: LIFEAS IT OUGHT TO BE

24
 beside him. After finishing her grades, Mother peeped into her so
room, saw the pants and remembered her son's request. So she took a p
of scissors and shortened them. Before she went to bed, the sister al
remembered her brother's request. Full of remorse she went to h
younger brother's room, saw the pants, got a pair of scissors a
shortened them, too. The older brother finally completed his scho
project and suddenly remembered his brother's asking for help to short
the pants. So he went to his younger brother's room, got a pair of scisso
and cut them, too. When the younger brother woke up, he was surpris
to see a pair of extremely short shorts. The pants which he wanted
make just a little bit shorter ended up too short to him!
That is what happens when there are gaps or overlaps in
organization. The gaps leave an important thing in an organizati
undone. The overlap results in unnecessary and counterproductiv
redundant procedures which ultimately lead to waste of resources.

. when Lack of Clarity Versus Lack of Creativity. If employees are uncle

responsibilities
about what they are supposed to do, they often tailor their roles arou
are
overdefined, personal preferences instead of system wide goals, frequently leading
people trouble. Most McDonald's customers are not seeking novelty and surpr
conform to in their burgers and fries. But when responsibilities are over define
prescribed people conform to prescribed roles and protocols in "bureaucratic" way
roles and
protocols in
They rigidly follow job descriptions regardless of how much the servi
"bureaucratic" or product suffers and so end up uncreative.
ways. They "You lost my bag!" an angry passenger shouted, confronting
rigidly follow airline manager. The manager's response was to inquire, "How was t
job flight?" "I asked about my bag," the passenger said. "That's not my job
descriptions the manager replied. "See someone in baggage claim." The passenger d
regardless of not leave as a happy airline customer.
how much the
service or The job o
product suffers the manager was overdefined and made the manager uncreative and
and so end up ineffcient. Her job in relation to the airline system wide goals was neith
uncreative. clear and so ended up giving the wrong answer that turned off the airlin
passenger.

Flexibility versus Strict Adherence to Rules

You accommodate by bending rules to help someone or you sti
strictly to rules no matter what and so unable to help someone who
thrown into a helpless situation. Or you may become being to
accommodating that all rules are no more.
Your jobs are defined so clearly that you will stick to them ev
 Chapter I: Understanding Morality and Moral Standards
Lesson 4: The Three Levels of Moral Dilemmas

if circumstances are such that by sticking to your job description the ET-vice
or product that your organization provides suffers.

•ve Autonomy Versus Excessive Interdependence

This refers to being too isolated versus too much coordination.
*estrate:
men individuals or groups are too autonomous, people often feel isolated
and disconnected. School teachers working in self-contained dassrooms and Whe
rarely working with other teachers may feel lonely and •asupported. Yet, indiv
efforts to create closer teamwork have repeatedly failed because of•teachers group
' difficulties in working together: In contrast, units and roles are too tightly auton
linked, people are distracted from peopl
•ork and waste time on unnecessary or too much coordination. IBM bsr feel
and
an early lead in the personal computer business in part because initiatives disco
required so many approvals —from levels and divisions alike — that
new products were over designed and late to market. Hewlett —
Packard's ability to innovate in the late 1990's was hindered the same
 problem. (www.humancapitalreview.org/content/default. ...if u
sp2Article_ID528#) roles
tightl
Structural dilemma is the dilemma arising from conflicting peop
concerns among various sectors of society. In the first instance of distra
Efferentiation versus integration, the dilemma is how to enforce a from
decision, policy, or rule intended for everybody among many different and
time
unique groups or individuals. In the second, the dilemma arises &cause unne
of either gaps or overlaps in the procedure of implementation of certain or to
projects or policies among involved agencies like the FBI Ed CIA in the coord
U.S.A. or like the NBI and the INP in the Philippines. GAPS creates
serious consequences. Read about the unforgettable Mamasapano
massacre in Mindanao, Philippines.

C—ralized versus Decentralized Decision Making

In decentralized decision making, organizations can respond
change more rapidly and effectively because the decision makers •e the
people closest to the situation. However, top managers may bse some
control. This is the dilemma of tight overcentralization or Effusing
authority which is loose.

Dilemma in a World Organization Like the UN

 ETHICS: LIFE AS IT OUGHT TO BE
26
Succinctly put, a structural dilemma in a world organization like
the UN is the problem of the balance between world order and
national sovereignty re-stated as the balance between the measure of
In resolving international authority essential to the establishment of an organized
moral
dilemma common peace and the continued freedom of action of the separate
think of members of the world community or the balance between
available
altemative
interdependence and independence. (Jenks, 1971) Source:
options
revealing that
the dilemma
does not Some Structural Dilemmas of World Organization* C. Wilfred Jenks* *
really exist.
This happens Georgia Journal of International & International & Comparative Law
where there Volume 3 1973 Issue 1
are available
aftemative
options Resolving Moral Dilemmas
The following offer some techniques in resolving moral dilemma:
One way is to think of available altemative options revealing that the
dilemma does not really exist. This happens where there are available
alternative options. For instance one is experiencing a dilemma
Another way between stealing or not stealing otherwise his family will either die of
in resolving
hunger or survive. The creative moral agent will to think of other
moral dilemma
is "choosing
alternatives, like "alternative means of income or support such as
the greater social safety net, charity, etc."
good and Another way is '.'choosing the greater good and lesser evil" or "
lesser evil," Or one may apply the situation ethics approach, following the rule, one
must do only what he can where he is. Do not resort to extraordinary or
supernatural means.
Joseph Fletcher offers some principles in resolving moral
dilemma. He uses Kant's "ought implies I can" rule. If I ought to do
something, then I can do it. By contraposition, if I cannot do
something, then I cannot be obliged to do it. Or by implication, either I
cannot be obliged to do something or I can do it. In other words, one is
only obliged to do something if and only if he can do it. So Fletcher
says, "do what you can where you are." Or quoting St. Augustine's,
"Dilige, et quod vis fac" (love and do what you will). The extent of
one's obligation and responsibility is the extent of one's ability and the
measure of the "extent" is one's capacity for love.
Here is a situation: You are a father of seven children. On your
support, seven children plus your wife depend. You work in the mines
and receive only a minimum wage. After working like a "carabao" in
the mines, you need to ease your pains with a bottle of gin before
 Chapter I: Understanding Morality and Moral Standards
Lesson 4t The Three Levels of Moral Dilemmas

be down to rest and sleep. You also need to eat food suffcient to 27
replace your wasted energy. Hence, you spend for wine, and cigarette.
Minus these expenses, the balance of your wage enough for the food of
your children. Nothing is left for their and other expenses. Question: One is o
obliged to
Should you be faulted for not able to sacrifice enough by giving up something
your needs, so that your —edents can have something left for their and only if
education? You love your but you have a need you cannot give up. Is your can do it... A
what you c
case what to picture? Your obligation ends where your capacity for eods. where you ar
Love is supposed to be unconditional, no limits of sacrifice S:undaries.
But your love is human, you are only human. "You can '*hat you can
where you are." Others can sacrifice more by up their gin and
cigarette and eat less expensive food. Yes others bat can one be faulted for
not being like the others, not having the to overcome a vice? one not
argue that the extent of his Ed:t-y is the limit of his responsibility? On the
other hand, can it not be Sat resorting to human frailty is just a convenient
or comfortable
•ry of justifying one's lack of moral will? That may be easier said Ooe,
although it is possible for one who has virtue as his moral But what can
be said of one who has no moral virtue or to sacrifice with the discomfort
of self-giving? Endless en±anation? That would be un-Christian.
 KEY
TAKEAWAYS
• Moral dilemmas come in three levels individual, organizational or
structural.
• Individual dilemmas concern dilemmas that individual persons face.
• Organizational dilemmas refer to dilemmas between organizational
benefits versus individual members' welfare.
• Structural dilemmas concern dilemmas faced by groups or individuals
as a result of structural relationships.
• A world organization like the United Nations is usually faced with this
dilemma: sovereignty of nations versus world order.
• If confronted with a moral dilemma, choose the greater good and
lesser evil or do only what you can where you are (Fletcher) or "love
and do what you will" (St. Augustine) The extent of one's obligation
and responsibility is the extent of one's ability and the measure of the
"extent" is one's capacity for love.

28

APPLICATI
ON

I. Give true-to-life examples of structural dilemmas that illustrate:

a) excessive autonomy versus excessive interdependence
b) flexibility versus strict adherence to rules
c) gap versus overlap
d) differentiation versus integration
e) centralized versus decentralized decision-making
f) sovereignty of nations versus world peace and order

Researching on the following events that illustrate structural dilemmas

may be of help:
a) Mapapasano Encounter SAF 44 — Why were 44 killed? Based
on reports, what was said to be the cause of the death Of 44?
b) Reason behind the bombing of the cities of Nagasaki and
Hiroshima
c) Red tape in government offices
d) Creation of autonomous regions like ARMM
2. "Man is not made for the Sabbath. The Sabbath is made for man."
How can this guide you when face with a structural dilemma on
strict adherence to rules versus flexibility?
ETHICS: LIFE AS IT OUGHT TO BE
 CHECK FOR
UNDERSTANDING

Identify the structural dilemma described. (Differentiation vs

negation; gap vs. overlap; lack of clarity vs. lack of creativity; flexibility
strict adherence to rules; excessive autonomy vs. independence)
Excessive interdependence versus too much coordination
Different divisions have their own culture versus coordination between
or among divisions by using lateral strategies to bring divisions together
3. Being too accommodating causing inconsistency versus adhering strictly
to rules
4. Unclear roles and responsibilities due to redundancy or gaps
Lack of resourcefulness as a result of unclear duties and
responsibilities
REFLECTI
ON
What structural dilemma have you experienced? How did you deal it?
Are you happy with how you dealt with it?
29
Chapter l: Understanding Morality and Moral Standards
Lesson 4: The Three Levels of Moral Dilemmas
30
ETHICS: LIFE AS IT OUGHT TO BE
31
 And saw it through without exemption
I planned each charted course
Each careful step along the byway
And more, much more than this

I did it my way
[Verse 3]
Yes, there were times, I'm sure you knew
When I bit off more than I could chew
But through it all, when there was doubt
I ate it up and spit it out
Ifaced it all, and I stood tall
And did it my way

[Verse 4]
I've loved, I've laughed and cried
I've had myfill, my share of losing
And now, as tears subside
[find it all so amusing
To think I did all that
And may I say, not in a shy way
Oh, no, oh, no, not me
I did it my way
[Verse 5]
For what is a man, what has he got?
If not himself, then he has naught
To say the things he truly feels

And not the words of one who kneels

The record shows I took the blows
And did it my way.

[Outro]
Yes, it was my way.

-Vote: (A possible alternative: Born This Way by Lady

Gaga)
Chapter l: Understanding Morality and Moral Standards
Lesson 5: Freedom as Foundation for Moral Acts
 ETHICS: LIFE AS IT OUGHT TO BE

32

ANALYSIS
l. What's your favorite line from 'the song, My Way/Bom This Way? Why
is it your favorite?
2. Does the song suggest choice or freedom? Why?
3. If a beast like a dog could sing the same song, could the dog be
honestly singing what the song expresses?
ABSTRACT
ION
Ethics Applies Only to Human Persons
The song, My Way/Born This Way, implies choice or freedom "I did it
my way". Unlike the lower forms of animals, human persons have a choice
or freedom, hence morality applies only to human persons.
unlike the
lower foms of Ethics, therefore, applies only to human persons. We cannot say a cat
animals,
human persons is "unethical" when it eats the food at table intended for you or when a dog
have a choice urinates on your favorite bag lying on the floor.
or freedom,
hence morality Dilemmas presuppose freedom. Freedom-loving societies have
applies only to
human persons customary ways of training the young to exercise their freedom, Parents
regularly give their children opportunities to choose. "Guys, what do you
want for breakfast ham and egg or pancake?" Later in life, they come face
to face with hard choices. Then dilemmas come along. There is such a

thing as a dilemma because there is such a thing as freedom. If there is no

ability or power of choice, then any incident simply happens without any
interference. There would also be no obligation to do any act in expectation
of the responsibility following the act.

Freedom and Moral Choice

Without freedom it is impossible to make a moral choice." If
we are to have free will we must have the ability to make a
decision that is unhindered. Kant believed that we must have free
.making
moral choice is
will if we are to be held morally responsible for our actions. If
a necessary God did not give us free will then our decisions cannot be
consequence considered immoral or moral as we would have had to act in the
for being free,
a consequence way we did. Thus we cannot be held responsible; a good moral
of being a action cannot be praised as you had no other option, whilst an
human person. immoral action cannot be punished as once again there was no
 free choice. In other words, making moral choice is a necessary
consequence for being free, a consequence of being a human
person.

Chapter l: Understanding Morality and Moral Standards

Lesson 5: Freedom as Foundation for Moral Acts

Because a human person has freedom, he/she has a choice 33

and so is responsible for the consequences of his/her choice. The
lower forms of animals have no choice since they are bound by
Because a
instinct and so cannot be held responsible for their behavion
human person
Te be Ethical: Own Not Merely Abide by Moral Standards has freedom,
Having free will or freedom to choose among alternatives, which s/he has a
prior analysis and study, is coming to terms with what you affrm or deny. choice and so
is responsible
When you arrive at a personal conviction and selfE:mation, you begin to
for the
own the moral standard. The moral standard *gins to be integrated,
consequences
internalized. You follow the norrn not because it is z:cosed by others, not
of his/her
because others say so or authoritatively impose it on On the other hand,
choice.
merely abiding by moral standards means applying as basis to resolve a
moral problem without necessarily having xrrnalized them. Merely
abiding by them means once the enforcer is not the moral standard is not
followed.
Or if you do not own or internalize the standard, you will tend to use
convenience, to evade responsibility, to put the blame on the standard
self when things do not end well. You simply become legalistic, and adopt
maxims, 'follow the rule or law, even if the sky falls down"; "the law so";
the law is hard, but it is the law (dura lex sed lex). You follow the because
others, authorities, regulators say so; not because you say so.
Owning moral standards means internalizing them, making them part
your conviction. Internalized or embodied moral standards are being
%Cowed with or without anyone telling you.
You internalize a rule after using reason to understand. When you re
persuaded of its wisdom, it becomes your basis of resolving an ethical
F*lem. You decide to do something not because the law says so but you
yourself say so.
This may be termed as the embodiment Of the moral standard in you.
B: moral standard becomes one with the moral agent. As the moral agent,
moral standard becomes your natural and immediate basis in your —#u-al
decision making,
The presupposition is that you have come to own the moral standard
having been convinced of its wisdom, having chosen it among
other ;rn-iples or standards. Any dilemma regarding the standard has been
—Ived. Under the Chinese Taoist concept of harmony, this is where the
the word, and the action become one. This author once visited a
temple and had a chance to ask what a Taoist live by as a principle life.
He replied, "what I think must be the same as what I say, and what I say
must be the same as what I do." The result is oneness of thought,
•ced and action, and its effect is an integrated personality, personality made

Making your mind, word, and action, a unity is not easy. You have in
cmd the maxim, "honesty is. the best policy." As a teacher you always tell to
students. But deep in your heart you know it has been difficult to be
34 honest all the time. There was the joke, of which no one knew the source,
regarding the motto of the Philippine Military Academy (PMA) "Integrity,
Courage, Loyalty." This is a signage at the gate of PMA in Baguio City. At that
time, some military offcials, alumni of PMA, were being investigated for
corruption, the word "Integrity" disappeared.

•
APPLICATIO
N
1. Bernard Haring says "Morality is for persons." What does this mean?
2. "Ought implies can" is an ethical formula ascribed to Immanuel Kant.
What does this mean?
3. Does Kant's statement, "ought implies I can" make you understand
why morality or ethics cannot apply to the lower forms of animals?
4. "Two roads diverged in the woods; I took the one less traveled by and
that made all the difference." — Robert Frost
Does the quote imply choice and ethics or morality? How?

Choice or freedom is a prerequisite of ethics or morality.

Every human person has freedom or choice and so is expected to be

ethical or moral.
Lower forms of animals have no choice. They are governed by instincts
and so ethics or morality does not apply to them.
To be truly ethical or moral, we must internalize or possess not Just
adhere to moral standards. "l did it My Way" because I am convinced,
have to do it "My Way" and not because others tell me so.
 Explain why only human beings,
not the brutes, can be ethical.
REFLECTION
What choice have you made in life recently? Are you happy with tha
choice? Are you grateful you have the capacity to choose freely?
Chapter l: Understanding Morality and Moral Standards
Lesson 6: Culture: How It Defines Morel Behavior
35

O Lesson 6 Culture: How It

Defines Moral
Behavior

*'tended Learning Outcomes:

• Articulate what culture, enculturation,
inculturation ånd acculturation mean
• Attribute facets of personal behavior to culture
Explain how culture shapes the moral agent

INTRODUCTION

The "absolute freedom" that the existentialist and

phenomenologist re talking about does not of course exist in
yacuum. It exists in a world all its spatio-temporal
conditions, its "facticity." Facticity refers to
"givens" of our situation such as our language, our
environment. Our #Z'hous choices and our very selves in
their function as in —itself constitute facticity. (Sartte,
Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy) That includes
-22:ure. In this Lesson, we shall discuss culture and how it
affects our of moral behavior.
 ACTIVITY

Brainstorming — When you hear the word

"culture" what comes to your mind at once? List
them down then compare with your seatmate. Form
groups of four and compare your answers. As
groups in a class compare your answers to come up
with the final list of common items.

Marriage Practices — Give different marriage practices as a

result of culture.
36

ANALYSIS

For Activity # 1
L Go back to your class list. Are these items acquired by
heredity or by learning and practice?
2. If there is one word that would embrace all of these on
your list for questions #1 anci #2, what would that be?

For Activity # 2
1. Explain the "why" behind these different marriage
practices. Are they morally acceptable?

ABSTRACTIO
N

What is Culture?
Culture "is
the Culture "is the integrated pattern of human knowledge, beliefs, a
integrated
pattem behaviors. This consists of language, ideas, customs, morals, laws, taboos,
of human institutions, tools, techniques, and works of art, rituals and other capacities
knowledge, and habits acquired by a person as a member of society." (Taylor as quoted
befiefs, and by Palispis, 1997). These include the list of items you made in the Activity
behaviors." phase of this Lesson. Culture is the one word expected of Question # 2 of
Activity # 1.
The Magisterium of the Church explains culture as "the set of mea
used by mankind to become more virtuous and reasonable in order to
 become fully human. In its fullest sense, culture means opening up to the
Culture is
*the set of divine, and ultimately, to a religious dimension." Based on this Church
means used definition, it is clear that culture is meant to serve human persons.
by mankind to Sociologists categorize culture into material and non-material cultur
become more 'GNonmaterial culture consists of language, values, rules, knowledge, and
vi!tuous and meanings shared by members of society: Material culture is the physical
reasonable object that a society produces—tools, streets, homes and toys, to name a
in order to few." (Brinkerhoff, 1989). If you review your lists again in the Activity
become fully phase, you will be able to categorize those that belong to material culture a
human."
to the non-material culture.
Culture is passed on to the next generation by
learning not through the genes or heredity. "Culture"
includes all human phenomena which are not purely
results of human genetics. (Kroeber et al, 1952)

Chapter l: Understanding Morality and Moral Standards

Lesson 6: Culture: How It Defines Moral Behavior

Rznan Person and Culture

As a moral agent you are born into a culture, a factual reality
you mt chosen. You are not born nothing. It may be said that the -
e-sz:elico-Thomistic tradition is one dominant, if not the most As a moral agent
dominant This Aristotelico-Thomistic culture is a Greco-Roman the human person is
bom into a culture.
culture, has influenced and shaped the moral life of those who
have been to it. Those who were born into this culture, educated
under this are persuaded that there is God, that a divine order and
law keep gavern the world, which includes you. But what happens
when there Cerent cultures with their own different views of man's
direction and For instance, the Greek culture introduced the idea
of perfection. eats of numbers, a perfect thing is 100%; in terms of
figures, it is a circle. A perfect thing has no privation, no lack, no
absence of being. if a new culture redefines perfection as any
created and present which may be recreated, remolded like clay?
Any change in the may be perceived as the creation of a new
model of perfection, not a:tualization of what was lacking. Every
created model is a perfection own right.

Exulturation, Inculturation and Acculturation

Cultures change or evolve. There are various ways by which
cultures by enculturation, inculturation and by acculturation.
Enculturation, an anthropological term, was coined by J.M.
Herskovits -".rgaret Mead has, however; was, the one who defined *Enculturation is
the term as "the —exess of learning a culture in all its uniqueness
and particularity". process of leam
from infancy till dea
Enculturation is a process of learning from infancy
the components of
till death, the components of life in one's culture.
in one's culture.
The contents of this learning include both the
material and non-material culture. The latter refers
to values while the former refers to tools such as a
hoe or mask. In the said pmcess of learning, a
person vows into a culture, acquires competence in
that culture and that culture takes root in that person
and becomes the cognitive map, the term of
reference for acting
For instance, African girls (South of the Sahara) grow up
learning as a woman she has less rights and privileges as the
African man. instance, a man can marry more than one
woman while she cannot.
ZEe the African wife cannot share her love with other men, the
can share his with other women in the system. It turns women into
an rpendage, a property of the man — one of the man's laborers.
Umoren,
(1992)

38

Another mamage practice that shows that the African woman is the
property of the husband and his family is levirate marriage. Levirate
marriage is the marriage between the widow and the brother of her deceased
husband. Therefore at the husband's death the woman is generally expected
to stay on (as property of the family) without any choice in the matter: She
raises children to immortalise the deceased husband's name. Umoren, U.E.
1992
This is enculturation in concrete terms. The African
girl grows up and becomes a woman through the said
process of enculturation. This enculturation process has both
cognitive and emotional elements. The girl child who later
becomes a woman learns and internalizes the idea that she,
because she is a woman, has less privileges than the African
man. This learning takes place through example, direct
teaching and in patterns of behavior. What is learned
becomes her cognitive map, her tenn of reference that
directs her behavior.
Inculturation Another term is inculturation. Inculturation refers to the "missiologi
refers to the process in which the Gospel is rooted in a particular culture and the latter is
amissiological transformed by its introduction to Christianity." Umoren, U.E. (1992)
process in In the Special Assembly of the Synod in 1985, Pope John Pau
which the defined inculturation in Redemptoris Mission, n. 52, as
Gospel is the intimate transformation of authentic cultural values
rooted in a
particular through their integration in Christianity and the insertion
culture and of Christianity in the various human cultures." This
the latter is means that inculturation is characterized by a dual
transfomed movement, i.e. a dialogic movement towards cultures via
by its the incarnation of the Gospel and the transmission of its
introduction to values, and a movement towards the Church that involves the
Christianity. " incorporation of values that come from the cultures the latter
encounters. Therqfore, a fruitful cross-fertilisation can follow
(Umoren, U.E., 1992)
In other words, inculturation raises two related
problems, that of the evangelisation of cultures (rooting the
Gospel in cultures) and that of the cultural understanding of
the Gospel. It was this movement that led Pope John Paul Il
to say in 1982, ''The synthesis between culture and faith is
not only a requirement of culture, but also of faith.... Faith
that does not become culture is not fully accepted, nor
entirely reflected upon, or faithfully experienced"
This means that inculturation is not an action but a
process that unfolds over time, one that is active and based
on mutual recognition and dialogue, a critical mind and
insight, faithfulness and conversion, transformation and
growth, renewal and innovation.
 Chapter I: Understanding Morality and Moral Standards
Lesson 6: Culture: How It Defines Moral Behavior
39
Inculturation is a two way process: it roots the Gospel in a
culture and introduces that transformed culture to Christianity.
For example, to root the Gospel in the African culture is to
initiate two events. The first event is to transform the African
culture of oppressing women into a culture where men and
women are treated as human persons equal in dignity, rights and
privileges. The second event is to develop the African culture's
latent potential towards the human development of the woman,
created like her male counterpart in the image and likeness of
God. The other aspect is to introduce the woman and her Acculutration i
the "cultura
transformed modification o
an individua
culture to Christianity, for example, by allowing the woman a group, or people
meaningful place among the agents of inculturatiom (cf by adapting to
borrowing trait
Untoren, U.E. 1992) from anothe
Acculturation is another big term. It is the "cultural modification of n culturet
individual, group, or people by adapting to or borrowing traits from e:xher
culture". It is also explained as the .merging of cultures as a result
prolonged contact". Immigrants to the United States of America become
•culturated to American, life. Refugees and indigenous peoples (IP)
iiewise adapt to the culture of the dominant majority:
There are cultural practices that should be stopped because of the
*inful harm they do. The practice of human sacrifice has somehow been
•pped. But the circumcision of women still goes on in some parts of the
like Africa, Some approaches have been successful, like what one
tried to introduce in Africa. It is called a buying in. To gradually
stop circumcision of women, the approach was to buy in, like
Culture
introducing the place good health facilities and other forms of definitely
assistance to üviate their economic hardships in return to their stopping affects the
the practice. way we
evaluate
andjudge
Bow Culture Shapes the Moral Agent things.
Culture definitely affects the way we evaluate and judge things.
Consider the African women not as privileged as the African men
described z the earlier section of this Lesson. Some societies consider it
alright EEhering vegetables at the backyard of their neighbor considering
the act getting a share. In such societies, the act would not be called
stealing. In •st societies, the act is stealing. In ancient times, human
sacrifice was not wrong. Today it is a criminal act. In some culture like
Islamic culture, and African culture (South of Sahara) having several
wives is allowed. In other altures, it's concubinage or adultery.
Culture has a very long lasting hold on an individual. A person may save
become highly educated, may have even obtained a doctorate degree,

or
ETHICS: LIFE AS IT OUGHTTO BE

educated with Christian values of forgiveness, but if he comes from a

society with a culture of vengeance ("an eye for an eye and a tooth for a
tooth") having the sense of obligation to make an act of revenge when a
member of his tribe has been killed or harmed by another tribe, and when
a case arises where a member of his tribe is harmed by another, he
becomes ultimately vindictive and joins his tribe seeking revenge. No
amount of graduate education can prevent him from joining his tribe to
seek revenge. He forgets about his doctorate degree in Values Education.

APPLICATIO
N
1. Culture affects human behavior. Is this proven in this instance when
one spends so much money for rebonding of her hair or buying an
expensive Nike pair of shoes instead of using the money to pay her
tuition in school so can take the final exams (which is most urgent)?
2. Cite two more proofs that culture influences human behavior.
3. Cite a behavior of yours which is an influence of your culture, Is that
behavior morally right?
4. Enculturation is the leaming of first culture. Acculturation is the
leaming of second culture. Are these statements correct?
5. Faith that does not become culture is not fully accepted, nor entirely
reflected upon, or faithfully experienced" — John Paul Il. Does this
explain inculturation? How?
6. Is socialization a process of enculturation?
7. Culture is leamed not inherited. Is it within your power to change for
the better?
8. Does culture limit human person's freedom?
9. Culture makes absolute freedom impossible. Discuss.
 Chapter l: Understanding Morality and Moral Standards
Lesson 6: Culture: How It Defines Moral Behavior
ETHICS: LIFE AS IT OUGHT TO BE
41
knowledge, beliefs and

KEY material culture. Non-

• Culture is the integrated pattern TAKEAWAYS material culture and
behaviors. It is people's way meanings shared by to
• Culture consists of non material of human of the physical objects
includes language, life.
values, that a of art.
members of society. Material and acquired
rules, through
society produces such as tools knowledge cultureenculturation,
• Culture is learned not inherited.refers and works It
inculturation and acculturation.is
the components of life —u
• Enculturation is the process as of learning one'smaterial
well as non-material — in culture. Gospel
• Inculturation is making the that take Christianity. roots in a culture and
transformed culture to by which introducing
• Acculturation is the process
culture. person, people learn and adapt a new
• Culture influences the human Not all
who is the moral agent.
• Culture affects human behavior. culture of to
cultural practices are
acceptable. Examples are the the
morally vengeance and low
African women in comparison regard for the African men.
REFLECTION
Reflect on one cultural practice of yours. Is it moral in the sense that it you
more human?
 Intended Learning Outcomes:
• Explain cultural relativism
• Cite the strengths and weaknesses of cultural relativism

INTRODUCTIO
N
After studying the meaning of culture, how it is learned and how it
shapes moral behavior, let us focus on cultural relativism, its meaning and
its strengths and weaknesses.

ACTIVITY
I. Read this statement: "What is true for me is true for me, and what is tille
for you is true for you." DO you agree with this statement? Those who
say NO, they don't agree, form one group. and those who say YES, they
agree form another group.

2. YES group and NO group engage in a debate. Whoever is convinced

should transfer to the group. Example, at first you are a YES but after
listening to the NO group, you are convinced and so you join the No
group.

ANALYSI
S

Is there any danger posed by this thought: "What is true for me is true for
me, and what is true for you is true for you"?
Chapter I: Understanding Morality and Moral Standards
Lesson 7: Cultural Relativism
43
ETHICS: LIFE AS IT OUGHT TO BE
c*ural relativism would say, "what you believe, value or practice
on your culture while what I believe, value and practice, depends my
culture." In other words, cultural relativism is "the idea that a —son's
beliefs, values, and practices should be understood based on that Føn's
own culture, rather than be judged against the criteria of another,"
in another way:

Cultural relativism is the view that moral or ethical systems,

which vary from culture to culture, are all equally valid and no
one system is really "better" than any other. This is based on the
idea that there is no ultimate standard of good or evil, so every
judgment about right and wrong is a product of society.
Therefore, any opinion on morality or •ethics is subject to the
cultural perspective of each persom Ultimately, this means that
no moral or ethical system can be considered the "best, " or
"worst, " and no particular moral or ethical position can actually
is cultural relativism? First, relativism says ''what is true for is
true for you, and what is true for me is true for me." Analogously,
be considered "right" or "wrong. " (https://www.allaboutphilosophy.
org/cultural-relativism.htm)

In the context of cultural relativism, the manner by which the African

•eman is treated in comparison to that of the African man should not
be .u2ged against other culture's standards. This should be judged in the
of African culture, not in the context of Christian culture.

Cultural Relativism vs Cultural Perspective

However, what the cultural relativist fails to see is the difference
between cultural perspective and cultural relativism. A perspective is a
standpoint or viewpoint of something. For instance, there are as many
perspectives of a building, a house, as there are standpoints. You try to
appreciate the design of a house considering its various perspective, but
you never judge the design based on only one perspective. Trying to
understand one's culture, having a perspective of one's culture, is needed to
understand people. But it does not follow that morality must be based only
on said culture:
the problem with moving from cultural perspective to cultural
relativism is the erosion of reason that it causes. Rather than simply
 ETHICS: LIFEAS IT OUGHT TO BE

44

saying, "we need to understand the morals of other cultures, " it says,
"we cannot judge the morals of other cultures, " regardless of the

Ifwehold on to reasons for their actions. There is no longer any perspective, and it
strict cultural becomes literally impossible to argue that anything a culture does is
relativism, it is right or wrong. If we hold on to strict cultural relativism, it is not
notpossible to possible to say that human sacrifice is "wrong, " or that respect for the
say that human
elderly is "right. " After all, those are products of the culture. This takes
sacrifice is
any talk of morality right over the cliff, and into meaningless gibberish.
Wong, or that
(Mckinnon, et al., 2015)
respect for the
elderly is Likewise, logical analysis of cultural relativism yields
"right. "After contradictory implications:
all, those are
Relativism in general breaks down when examined from a purely
products of the
logical perspective. The basic premise is that "truth is relative." If every
culture. This
takes any talk
truth statement is valid, then the statement "some truths are absolute"
of morality must be valid. The statement "there are no absolute truths" is accurate,
right over the according to relativism but it is an absolute truth itself. These contradict
cliff, and into the very concept of relativism, meaning that absolute relativism is self-
meaningless contradictory and impossible.
gibberish.

Stated in another way:

Tolerance is certainly a virtue... Ifmorality is simply relative to
each culture then if the culture does not have a principle of tolerance,
its members have no obligation to be tolerant... from a relativistic point
Relativism, in
general,
of view, there is no more reason to be tolerant than to be intolerant and
breaks down neither stance •is objectively morally better than the othe.t:
when
examined If... valid criticism supposes an objective or impartial
from a purely standard, relativists cannot morally criticize anyone outside their
logical own culture. AdolfHitler's genocidal actions, so long as they are
perspective. culturally accepted, are as morally legitimate as Mother Teresa
absolute
relativism is works of mercy. If Conventional Relativism is -accepted, racism,
contradict01 genocide of unpopular minorities, oppression of the poor; slavery
Y and even the advocacy of war for its own sake are as equally moral
as their opposites. And ifa subculture decided that starting a
nuclear war was somehow morally acceptable, we could not
morally cricize these people. (MacKinnon, et al., 2015)

impossible.
 ETHICS: LIFE AS IT OUGHT TO BE
Chapterl: Understanding Moralityand Moral Standards
Lesson7: CulturalRelativism
45

is
cultural perspective the same as cultural relativism?
: Eustrate with an example cultural perspective and cultural relativism.

KEY TAKEAWAYS
Cultural relativism is "the idea that a person's beliefs, values and
practices should be understood based on that person's own culture,
rather than be judged against the criteria of another."
Morality is relative to the norms of one's culture. That is, whether an
action is right or wrong depends on the moral norms of the society in
which it is practiced. The same action may be morally right in one
society but be morally wrong in another.
• The danger of cultural relativism is the idea of relativism itself. Whether
action is right or wrong depends dn the moral norms of the society
which it is practiced. What is good depends on what society's culture
considers as good. What is bad likewise depends on what society's
culture considers as bad.
• Absolute relativism is self contradictory and impossible. Absolute
relativism states "there are no absolute truths: which is an absolute
truth so absolute relativism contradicts itself.
• There is a difference between cultural perspective and cultural
relativism. TO have a cultural perspective is to understand people's
beliefs, values and practices in the context of their culture. Having a
perspective of one's culture, is needed to understand people. But it does
not follow that morality must be based on said culture.

CHECK FOR UNDERSTANDING

Explain cultural relativism.
: Bow does cultural relativism differ from cultural perspective?
E. is a strength of cultural relativism? What is a weakness of a2turaI
relativism?
 REFLECTION
you really agree with the concept of cultural relativism? Why or

46
O

Intended Learning Outcomes:

• •
• Analyze crucial qualities Of the Filipino moral identity
• Evaluate elements of the Filipino character
INTRODUCTION
After having Teamed that culture influences the human person as a
moral agent of and after having understood the meaning of culture
relativism let us now examine the Filipino character to determine which one
does not help him/her grow in moral character.

ACTIVITY
I. Group yourselves by 5. Identify at least 3 strengths of the Filipino
character.

ANALYSIS
These strengths sometimes also become weaknesses. Do you agree?
Explain your answer and illustrate with an example.

C}
ABSTRACTIO
N
The Filipino Character: Strengths and Weaknesses
Below is an excerpt of the Report "A Moral Recovery Program:
Building a People, Building a Nation" submitted on April 27, 1988 by the
Task Force to President Corazon Aquino, the Senate and the members of the
press by then Senator Leticia Shahani, the moving spirit behind the program.

Chapter i: Understanding Morality and Moral Standards 47

Lesson 8: The Filipino Character
 ETHICS: LIFE AS IT OUGHT TO BE
The weaknesses of the Filipino character as cited in the Report are as

Extreme family centeredness - Excessive concern for family means

•sing one's office and power to promote family interests and thus
_f=tionalism patronage, political dynasties and the protection of
erring f-—ily members. It results in lack of concern for the common
good, acts as a block to national consciousness. The Filipino
character has
E..Mreme personalism — "Takes things personally, " cannot weaknesses:
separate c&jective task from emotional involvement. Because of this 1) extreme
the Filipino uncomfortable with bureaucracy, with rules and family
regulations and with ÆÜ',dard procedures. He uses personal contacts centeredness,
and gives preference E family and friends in hiring, services and 2) extreme
personalism,
even voting. Extreme ;ersonalism leads to the grgfi and corruption 3) lack of
evident in Philippine discipline, 4)
passivity and
lack of
Lack of discipline - A casual attitude toward time and space, initiative, 5)
•mifested in lack of precision and compulsiveness, in poor time colonial
•ztagement and procrastination. Aversion •to following procedures mentality, 6)
æictly results in lack of standardization and quality control. kanya-kanya
Ævatience results in short cuts, palusot, ningas cogon. Lack of syndrome,
talangka
—cipline often results in inefficient work systems, the violation of mentality, 7)
rules a casual work ethic lacking follow through. lack of self-
4 Passivity and lack of initiative - Waiting to be told what to do, reliance analysis and
others (leaders and government), complacence, lack of a sense of selfreflection
and 8)
•gency. There is high tolerance for ineficiency, poor service, and emphasis on
even *EÆations of one's basic rights. Too patient and matiisin, too porma rather
easily æsigned to his fate, the Filipino is easily oppressed and than
exploited. substance.
Cdonial mentality - Lack of patriotism, or of an active awareness, —
preciation and love of the Philippines and an actual preference for
*ngs foreign
Kava-kanya syndrome, talangka mentality - Done by tsismis, intriga,
Atonstructive criticism It is evident in the personal ambition that
completely insensitive to the common good, e.g., the lack of a sense
service among people in the government bureaucracy. This results
the dampening of cooperative and community spirit and in the
•ampling upon other Is rights.
Zack of self-analysis and self-reflection - The tendency to be
and somewhat flighty. In the face of serious personal and •-ial problems,
there is lack of analysis or reflection and instead szisfaction with
superficial explanations and solutions.
E.vhasis on porma rather than substance - This lack of analysis
emphasis on form is reinforced by an educational system that is
48
moreform than substance...

These weaknesses are rooted in many factors: home, social and

economic environment; culture and language; history; religion;
educational system; mass media; leadership and role models.
Change is possible, however, and thefollowing goals are proposed
to develop in the Filipino: (1) a sense ofpatriotism and national
pride; (2) a
The strengths sense of the common good; (3) a sense ofintegrity and accountability,
Ofthe Filipino (4) the values and habits of discipline and hard work; (5) the value
character are;
1) paklklpag. and habits of self-reflection and analysis; the internalization of
kapwa-taq spiritual values and the emphasis on essence rather than on form.
2) family (Shahani, Leticia. (1988). A Moral Recovery Program: Building a
orientation, 3) People, Building a Nation.)
joy and humor, In the same report in 1988, Senator Leticia Shahani said, The
4) flexibility, strengths of the Filipino character are: l) pakikipagkapwa-tao, 2)
adaptability family orientation, 3) joy and humor, 4) flexibility, adaptability and
and creativity, creativity, 5) hard work and industry, 6) faith and religiosity and 7)
5) hard work and ability to survive.
indusfry,
6) faith and There is so much good in the Filipino but so much needs to be
religiosity and changed, too. Many of our strengths as a people are also sources of
7) ability to our weaknesses. Shahani's report explains that "family orientation
survive. becomes in-group orientation that prevents us from reaching out
beyond the family to the large community and the nation." For the
Filipino, charity begms at home and at the same time ends there.
Values Education in Schools
Senator Shahani's Report was given in 1988, But its findings as
reported may still be true today. If the Department of Education has
to be true to its vision to help develop "Filipinos who passionately
love their country and whose values and competencies enable them
to realize their full potential and contribute meaningfully to building
the nation" and to its core values - maka-Diyos, maka-tao,
makakalikasan and makabansa — it is an uphill battle for Philippine
schools to realize these considering the weaknesses of the Filipino
character:
l) extreme family centeredness, 2) extreme personalism, 3) lack of
discipline 4) passivity and lack of initiative, 5) colonial mentality, 6)
 ETHICS: LIFE AS IT OUGHT TO BE
kanya-kanya syndrome, talangka nteutality, 7) lack of ser-analysis
and self-reflection and 8) emphasis on porma rather than substance.
So that it will not be 'Smore form than substance" as described in
Senator Shahani's Report, Philippine schools have to intensify values
education in the curriculum which in essence is moral education, In

Chapter I: Understanding Morality and Moral Standards

Lesson 8: The Filipino Character
in response to this Report, Values Education now Edukasyon sa 49
in the K to 12 Curriculum was introduced as a separate in the
basic education curriculum under the Values Education
L*ærwork program of Dr. Lourdes Quisumbing, then Department of
E.h=ation, Culture and Sports Secretary in 1988-1990. The Values
Framework was conceptualized in 1987. In 2002, the
Basic saxation Curriculum (Grade 1-6, and First-Fourth Year High
School) zrgated values in the major learning areas or subjects.
Beginning the K to 12 Curriculum in 2013, Values Education was
renamed :.-åå-zsyon sa Pagpapakatao (ESP) for Grades 1-10. In the
Senior Cun-iculum (Grades 11-12), there is no course with the title,
Qi.æs Education or Edukasyon sa Pagpapakatao but core courses as
Introduction to the Philosophy of the Human Person and
Development, are in essence Values Education subjects and To help every
Filipino child
Education subjects themselves. grow morally
and ethically,
help every Filipino child grow morally and•ethically, he/she must
he/she must acquire the strengths of the Filipino be helped
character at the same time, must be made to realize that acquire the
his/her strengths also become his/her of weaknesses. strengths of
the FITpino
character. At
Studies on Filipino Moral Character æ:re had been studies of the the same
Filipino moral life, the more popular were those Fr. Jaime Bulatao, time, he/she
must be made
Fr. Leonardo Mercado, Fr. Francis and Fr. Vitaliano to realize his/
Gorospe. Fr. Bulatao's research identified the mentality her strengths
of Filipinos. In ''kami" (a Filipino term which means which also
says, "I identify with my family and relatives...We are opposed •ho become his/
are not kami." Fr. Vitaliano Gorospe, SJ referred to this way as her source of
"group-centeredness" or "group thinking" characterized as weaknesses.

One norm of morality in the Philippines is based on

"groupor "group-thinking." One's in-group determines the
individual what is right or wrong. The individual who not yet
attained moral independence and maturity will ask: "*hat will
my family, or my relatives and friends, or my barkada or say?"
"What will others say" usually determines Filipino oral behavior;
it is "conscience from the outside. "For instance, tell their
daughter who is being courted: "Iha, please your boyfriend at
home. Do not go outside. What will neighbors say?
Nakakahiya naman. "Shame or hiya makes parents and the girl
conform to the social expectations of neighbors lest they become
the object of tsismis or gossip.

50
Here again there is a conflict between the individual and social
morality, between internal and external morality. The norm of morality
should be internalized so that the mature individual
The norm should form his own moral "conscience from the inside."
ofmorality should (Gorospe, 1977)
be
intemalized so
that the The "group thinking" cited by Fr. Gorospe is called "sakop mentality"
mature by others like Fr. Leonardo Mercado. (1977) The sakop may refer to
individual "person's relatives, peers, classmates, townmates, officemates, etc," This
thinking or mentality explains the "pakikisama" in both positive and
form his negative sense; it explains the barkada attitude, euphemism, the laughter
own moral Of affrmation of gutter language; it explains subservience to an illegal or
"conscience immoral order. Hence, Dr. Brenda B. Corpuz (1986) observed in her article
from the published in the St. Louis University Research Journal:
inside."
One can estimate the consequences of this sakop mentality by
imagining how it works in decision making. Since sakop welfare is
the ultimate value, then a lot of principles may be sacrificed for the
sake of it. One can kill and hide the body of the crime by reason of
being part of the sakop. One can tell a lot of lies for the sake ofthe
sakop. One can pick some vegetable from his neighbors backyard
and is.„ not bothered by a sense of guilt because one does not
 ETHICS: LIFE AS IT OUGHT TO BE
stealjiom a member of the sakop. The sakop determinesfor the
individual what is right or wrong

Impact of Culture on Morality

Speaking of the significant impact of culture on the morality of people,
let us think of the Japanese "shame culture." "Guilt cultures emphasize punishment
and forgiveness as ways of restoring the moral order; shame cultures stress self-
denial and humility as ways of restoring the social order." What keeps Japanese
from acting contrary to moral standards is the fear of being put to shame. At most
they would do when put to shame is hara-kiri, (suicide). Contrast this to the "guilt
culture" in the Philippines. When a Filipino commits an immoral act, he would Of
course feel guilty, but after confessing his sin, he may feel as if he is back to the
normal thing and can sin again.
Can it be said that a society that easily resorts to mob rule, mob
mentality, where only a few have the guts to stand up and insist on what
conscience dictates, is in need of moral development? Filipino homes and
schools have to do something, to teach the moral development they want or
hope to see.
 Chapter l: Understanding Morality and Moral Standards
Lesson 8: The Filipino Character
51

APPLICATI
ON
-4.:cording to the report, one weakness of the Filipino character is lack of
and emphasis on form (porma). The report states that this lack ai ealysis
and emphasis on form is reinforced by an educational system
•s more form than substance.
• What is meant by an educational system that is more form than substance?
Do you agree that the Philippine educational system is more form than
substance? If yes, why? if not, why not?

Zz:her observes that when students submit report, the more ornate and
r=stic the folder is, the less substantial the report. Which weakness in
Filipino character is pointed to? If you were the teacher how do you
amteract such?

Ene with the government S austerity program, DepEd Order # 2,

s. -c 19, reiterates thefollowing policies:
c Graduation rites should be simple but meaningful to encourage civil
rights, a sense of community, and personal responsibility. While these
rites mark a milestone in the ltfe of the learners, these should be
conducted without excessive spending, extravagant attire or
extraordinary venue.
Moving Up or Completion Ceremonies should be simple, involving only
the learners, their parents and the school...

of the weaknesses of the Filipino does this DepEd Order wish to

eliminate? Explain.
Cræp A reported in class first while the other groups listened. The other
gy•ps were asked to raise questions and comments. Group B gave a of
not-so-good comments and many points for improvement. Group A
concluded Group B is biased against their group. Which Filipino
•eakness is revealed? What should be done?
instances where 1) extreme family centeredness, 2) lack of 3)
passivity and lack of initiative, 4) colonial mentality, 5) ka:su-kanya
syndrome, talangka mentality, 6) lack of self-analysis and *if-reflection
are manifested in Philippine society. When can we say that F*ino has
developed an integrated personality?
is meant by integrated personality? Or what is integrity?
mathematics, an integer is a whole number. Does this help in B±rstanding
the meaning of integrity? When can we say
¯ Taoist principle states: "What I think must be the same as what I say what I
say must be the same as what I do." What does this principle can?
ETHICS: LIFE AS IT OUGHT TO BE
52
KEY TAKEAWAYS
• The Filipino has a number of strengths. His/her
become extreme, however, also become his/her w
• His/her strengths help him/her become ethical an
weaknesses obstruct his/her moral and ethical g
• Culture has a significant impact on morality.
• The Filipino group-centeredness and "kami"- ment
for the Filipino to stand up against the group wh
thing to do.
I
• There is much need for home, school and society a
every Filipino grow into the strong moral person ev
become.
• For the Filipino to become the moral and ethical pe
capitalize on his/her strengths and eliminate his/he
ETHICS: LIFE AS IT OUGHT TO
BE

CHECK FOR UNDERSTANDING

Accomplish this Table.

Filipino trait What is positive What is negati
about it about it

2.

3.

4.

5.

REFLECTION
Among the weaknesses of the Filipino charac
What have you done to counteract such to b
you are called to be?
 Understanding Morality and Moral
Standards
Lesson 9: Universal
Values

53
Chapter
i:

Learning Outcomes:
1. Identify universal values
2. Explain why universal values are a necessity for human
survival
A
re
there
a
lesson
on
cultur ACTIVIT
al Y
relativ
ism
and
after a
discus
sion
on the
univer
sal
values
? Is
streng
ths
and
weakn
esses,
ETHICS: LIFE AS IT OUGHT TO
BE
let us
find•
out if
there
are
univer
sal
honest
y a
univer
sal
value?
Plato
talked
about
the
values

Read then answer the questions.

Es honesty or truth telling considered a universal value?

courage,
and
wisdom.
Jesus
Christ
preached
the value
of love
from
which
springs
patience,
kindness
,
 Understanding Morality and Moral
Standards
Lesson 9: Universal
Values
forgiveness, and compassion

2 are possible consequences of dishonesty?

ABSTRACTION
h
umanh
eartedn
ess,
filial
piety.

the
claims
of
cultura
l
relativi
sm, the
concep
t on
the
reality
of —
ser-sal
values
persist
s. Are
there
univers
al
values
? Is
honest
y a
univers
al
P
lato
ETHICS: LIFE AS IT OUGHT TO
BE
talked
about
the
values
or
virtues
of
temper
ance,
courag
e,

be
wish
ed to
be
the
value
V s of
am
u

Usin
g
Kant
's
crite
ria,
univ
ersal
valu
es
are
valu
es
that
 Understanding Morality and Moral
Standards
Lesson 9: Universal
Values
a d
T o
U
R
D t
O o
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O y
H o
A u
R .
M D
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ot
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c
ETHICS: LIFE AS IT OUGHT TO
BE
h m
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te e
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D a
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ot y
c
o a
m b
 Understanding Morality and Moral
Standards
Lesson 9: Universal
Values
u r
s o
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ot m
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D
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n
vi
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a
55
p
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ETHICS: LIFE AS IT OUGHT TO
BE
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 Understanding Morality and Moral
Standards
Lesson 9: Universal
Values

t
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ETHICS: LIFE AS IT OUGHT TO
BE
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 Understanding Morality and Moral
Standards
Lesson 9: Universal
Values
s
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ETHICS: LIFE AS IT OUGHT TO
BE
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 Understanding Morality and Moral
Standards
Lesson 9: Universal
Values

o
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ETHICS: LIFE AS IT OUGHT TO
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 Understanding Morality and Moral
Standards
Lesson 9: Universal
Values
t

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ETHICS: LIFE AS IT OUGHT TO
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 Understanding Morality and Moral
Standards
Lesson 9: Universal
Values
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ETHICS: LIFE AS IT OUGHT TO
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 Understanding Morality and Moral
Standards
Lesson 9: Universal
Values
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ETHICS: LIFE AS IT OUGHT TO
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 Understanding Morality and Moral
Standards
Lesson 9: Universal
Values

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ETHICS: LIFE AS IT OUGHT TO
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 Understanding Morality and Moral
Standards
Lesson 9: Universal
Values
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ETHICS: LIFE AS IT OUGHT TO
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 Understanding Morality and Moral
Standards
Lesson 9: Universal
Values
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ETHICS: LIFE AS IT OUGHT TO
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 Understanding Morality and Moral
Standards
Lesson 9: Universal
Values
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 Understanding Morality and Moral
Standards
Lesson 9: Universal
Values
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 Understanding Morality and Moral
Standards
Lesson 9: Universal
Values

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 Understanding Morality and Moral
Standards
Lesson 9: Universal
Values
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 Understanding Morality and Moral
Standards
Lesson 9: Universal
Values
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ETHICS: LIFE AS IT OUGHT TO
BE
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 Understanding Morality and Moral
Standards
Lesson 9: Universal
Values
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 Understanding Morality and Moral
Standards
Lesson 9: Universal
Values
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 Understanding Morality and Moral
Standards
Lesson 9: Universal
Values
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 Understanding Morality and Moral
Standards
Lesson 9: Universal
Values
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 Understanding Morality and Moral
Standards
Lesson 9: Universal
Values
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 Understanding Morality and Moral
Standards
Lesson 9: Universal
Values
b
l
e
12. En
su
re
su
sta
in
ab
le
co
ns
u
m
pti
on
an
d
pr
od
uc
tio
n
pa
tte
rn
s
13. Ta
ke
ur
ge
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act
io
n
to
co
m
ba
t
cli
ETHICS: LIFE AS IT OUGHT TO
BE
m
ate
ch
an
ge
an
d
its
im
pa
cts
(in
lin
e
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th
th
e
U
nit
ed
Na
tio
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Fr
a
m
ew
or
ks
Co
nv
en
tio
n
on
Cl
im
ate
Ch
an
ge
)
Understanding Morality and Moral
Standards
Lesson 9: Universal
Values
14. Co
ns
er
ve
an
d
su
sta
in
ab
ly
us
e
th
e
oc
ea
ns,
se
as
an
d
m
ari
ne
res
ou
rc
es
for
su
sta
in
ab
le
de
ve
lo
p
m
en
t
ETHICS: LIFE AS IT OUGHT TO
BE

56

15. Pr
ot
ec
t,
re
st
or
e
an
d
pr
o
m
ot
e
su
st
ai
na
bl
e
us
e
of
te
rr
es
tri
al
ec
os
ys
te
m
s
su
st
Understanding Morality and Moral
Standards
Lesson 9: Universal
Values
ai
na
bl
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ag
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an
ETHICS: LIFE AS IT OUGHT TO
BE
d
ha
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od
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o
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e
pe
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us
iv
e
so
ci
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es
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r
su
st
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Understanding Morality and Moral
Standards
Lesson 9: Universal
Values
ve
lo
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m
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ETHICS: LIFE AS IT OUGHT TO
BE
iv
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tu
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ns
at
all
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ve
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re
ng
th
en
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e
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ea
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of
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pl
e
m
en
ta
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n
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d
re
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ali
ze
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gl
 Understanding Morality and Moral
Standards
Lesson 9: Universal
Values
ob
al
pa
rt
ne
rs
hi
p
fo
r
su
st
ai
na
bl
e
de
ve
lo
p
m
en
t

what
univer
sal
values
are
these
17
SDG
2015-
2030
found
ed?
ETHICS: LIFE AS IT OUGHT TO
BE
2. Explain
why
universal
values are
a
necessity
for
human
survival.

3. What are
the 30-UN
declared
human
rights?
(Hint:
Google)
Are these
universal
values?

KEY TAKEAWAY
Universal values are for human surviva
Universal values are the ultimate bases
how to live together. Without respect fo
will just kill each other. If honesty or t
there will be endless lack of trust among

• In spite Of cultural relativism, there ar

human survival.

REFLECTION
What if there were
no universal
values?
 Understanding Morality and Moral
Standards
Lesson 9: Universal
Values
C

h
a
p
t END-OF-THE-CHAPTER ACTIVITIES
57
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Standards
Lesson 9: Universal
Values
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ETHICS: LIFE AS IT OUGHT TO
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 Understanding Morality and Moral
Standards
Lesson 9: Universal
Values
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 Understanding Morality and Moral
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Lesson 9: Universal
Values
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Lesson 9: Universal
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Lesson 9: Universal
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Lesson 9: Universal
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Lesson 9: Universal
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Standards
Lesson 9: Universal
Values
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Lesson 9: Universal
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Lesson 9: Universal
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Lesson 9: Universal
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Lesson 9: Universal
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ETHICS: LIFE AS IT OUGHT TO
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Chatting,
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 Understanding Morality and Moral
Standards
Lesson 9: Universal
Values

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58

Ch
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TH
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ETHICS: LIFE AS IT OUGHT TO
BE

Focus Questions:
• Man is a moral agent. What doe

• How does the moral character o

• What are the stages of moral deve

• To explain what moral agent me

• To discuss the meaning of fundam

INTRODUCTION
After
learning the
basic
concepts of
morality
and ethics,
let us now
tum our
attention to
the in moral
agent who
is expected
to develop
in moral
and ethical
character.

ACTIVITY
1. Can a dog be a
moral agent?
Why or why not?
Understanding Morality and Moral
Standards
Lesson 9: Universal
Values
2. Can a robot be a
moral agent?
Why or why not?

ANALYSIS

1. Why can't a
dog and a
robot be
moral
agents?
2. What must
a moral
agent have
for him/her
to be a
moral
agent?
 Phapter The Moral Agent
Lesson Man as a Moral
Agent

ll.'

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 Chapter Il: The Moral
Agent
Lesson 1: Man as a Moral
Agent
f o
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ETHICS: LIFEAS IT OUGHT TO BE
A c
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 Chapter Il: The Moral
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Lesson 1: Man as a Moral
Agent
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Lesson 1: Man as a Moral
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 Chapter Il: The Moral
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Lesson 1: Man as a Moral
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ETHICS: LIFEAS IT OUGHT TO BE
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 Chapter Il: The Moral
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Lesson 1: Man as a Moral
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ETHICS: LIFEAS IT OUGHT TO BE
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Lesson 1: Man as a Moral
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Lesson 1: Man as a Moral
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h h
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62

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Lesson 1: Man as a Moral
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ETHICS: LIFEAS IT OUGHT TO BE
63
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Lesson 1: Man as a Moral
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64
 Chapter Il: The Moral Agent
Lesson 1: Man as a Moral Agent
TO B
ETHICS: LIFEAS IT OUGHT
 ETHICS: LIFE AS IT OUGHT TO BE
TAKEAWAYS KEY
• A moral agent is one who performs an act in accordance with moral standards.
• A moral agent should have the capacity to rise above his/her feelings and
passions and acts in accordance with the moral law.
• A moral agent has the capacity to conform to moral standards, to act for the
sake of moral considerations, that is, for the sake of moral law.
• An insane person, who does not have the capacity to think and choose, cannot
• A dog is, therefore, not a moral agent because it doesn't have the capacity
to conform to moral standards. It cannot knowingly, freely and voluntarily
act. It does not have a mind and freewill.
• Like the dog, a robot cannot be a moral agent.
• The moral agent is purpose-driven or end-driven. That end is sought for its own
sake, an end no longer sought for the sake of another end, the highest

• From the Christian point of view, a human person's destiny in the world is not
only to achieve cultural and moral perfection, but to attain the eternal
happiness of the soul after death of the body. As a moral agent his duty is to
know, to love, and to serve God, his ultimate end.
• Fundamental option is a human person's basic choice or inner orientation either
for a good life (directed towards others and God) or for a bad life (directed
towards himself/ herself and cut off from others and God.
• Man as a moral agent adopts the "fundamental' option," a free choice to say
"yes" to God's invitation to follow His way.
• There is no pre-fixed plan for the human person as a moral agent.
• For the existentialist, like Jean Paul Sartre, the human person, the moral agent,
becomes what he/she makes of himself/herseif by choice. He/she is nothing, no
"essence" until he/she starts his/her "existence" by making choices.
• To the process philosophers like Teilhard de Chardin and Alfred North
Whitehead, whatever a human person, the moral agent, is or will be is a result
of a creative process. The moral agent has to create his/her end, purpose, o r
directions. Helshe has to invent his/her destiny. Since there is no goal or en d
designed for him/her, he/she would completely be the author of what he/sh e
turns out to be. He/she will be totally responsible for what he/she will be.
• Other groups, like Martin Heidegger, Gabriel Marcel and Martin Buber see t he
moral agent as a being-with-others, who is inseparably related to his/her fello w
man. Together with other moral agents, the human person goes through lif e,
designing his/her end guided by messages unveiled in a life of dialogue wi th
others and with the world.
• For Brabander, the moral agent directs his/her life to improve, refine,
developS this world in order to bring out the world to come.
• R. Franceur likewise claims that the moral agent should direct his/her life to t he
spritualization of this material world.
 Chapter Il: The Moral Agent
Lesson 1: Man as a Moral Agent
 ETHICS: LIFE AS IT OUGHT TO BE

65
L Why can't the lower forms of animals be considered as moral agents?

For a person's fundamental option either he/she chooses between two.

Who or which are these two options?

3- Study the picture in the cover of this book. Does the picture suggest fundamental
option? How?

REFLECTIO
N
From the innermost core of your being, whom have you chosen —
God (goodness) or not God (the evil). How true have you been to
your fundamental option? Is your life one of.communion with God
or one of isolation?

66

Intended Learning Outcomes:

• •
• State defining moments in your moral formation
• Explain the relationship between moral acts and character

INTRODUCTION
How does the moral agent, the human person, develop his/her moral
character This is the concern of this Lesson,

Share an experience that shaped your values and moral formation. It

may be a conversation that determined your career, an event that changed the
course of your life or anything else that you believe has determined what you
have become.
 Chapter Il: The Moral Agent
Lesson 1: Man as a Moral Agent

ANALYSI
S

What you shared is called defining moment in one's life. What is meant
by defining moment?

Defining is a ABSTRACTIO
significant
life-changing
N
Meaning of Defining Moment
event in a What is meant by the defining moments in one's life. Defining moment
person's life. refers to a significant life-changing event or moment that reverberates
throughout your career and personal life and so changes everything.
o moment
ETHICS: LIFE AS IT OUGHT TO BE
Lesson 2: The Development of Moral Character of the

of moment can change who city

we are and what we value, ,
with reverberations the
throughout our careers and y
personal lives. wer
While it's still up e
for debate exactly how sud
much of our morality den
comes from personal ly
experiences, many of us surr
can think of at least one oun
experience that has ded
defined us and our by
beliefs. a
Lain Hensley, chief ligh
operating offeer at t so
Odyssey Teams, recalls brig
the fear and loneliness he
ht
felt when he was
diagnosed with cancer,
it
for example. His illness
exposed weaknesses in kno
his leadership and as a cke
result, he writes, he has d
become "a better man, Sau
husband, father, l to
employer, speaker and the
friend." gro
Other influential und
moments can come down to a .
single conversation.... "Th
ey
Tie Defining Moments of the hea
Saints rd a
St. Paul's defining moment voi
was when suddenly a light from ce
heaven Sßhed around him on fro
his way to Damascus. When he m
and his men were near the hea
 Chapter Il: The Moral
Agent
Moral Agent
ven that wd: 'Saul, Saul, why do p
you persecute Me?' And Saul a
said, 'Who are Lord?' And s
He said, 'I am Jesus, Whom you s
are persecuting; but rise Ed a
enter the city, and you will be g
told what you are to do.' (Acts e
of the
Apstles, Chapter 9). From that h
time on, Paul preached Jesus to e
all men, the
s
•e whose followers he persecuted
a
and became one of greatest
disciples of w
.
St. Augustine's defining
moment came while spending I
time in Milan in 3S8 AD. Here is t
the story of his conversion:
While outdoors, w
he heard the voice of a a
child singing a song, the s
words of which were,
f
"Pick it up and read it,
r
Pick it up and read it. "
o
He thought at first, that
m
the song was related to
some kind of children t
{s game, but could not h
remember ever having e
heard such a song
before. L
Then realizing that e
this song might be a t
command from God to t
open and read the e
Scriptures, he located a r
Bible, picked it up,
opened it and read the first
ETHICS: LIFE AS IT OUGHT TO BE
ofPaul to the Romans,
Augustine read:
Not in carousing
and drunkenness, not in
sexual excess and lust,
not in quarreling and
jealousy. Rather put on
the Lord Jesus Christ,
and make no provision
for the desires of the
flesh. (Romans 13:13-
14)
While he read the
scripture, Augustine felt as
if his heart were flooded
with light. He turned totally
from his life of sin. He was

67

St. Paul's defining moment was when

suddenly a light from heaven flashed
around him on his way to Damascus.

St Augustine's defining moment was when

while outdoors he heard the voice of a
child singing a song, the words of which
were, "Pick it up and read it Pick it up and
read it "
 Chapter Il: The Moral
Agent
Moral Agent
68

baptized by
Bishop
Ambrose
during the
Easter Vigil,
April 24, 287.
Later,
St Augustine wrote hisfamous
prayer: "You have made as for
yourself, Lord, and our hearts
are restless until they rest in
you.
character Relationship Between Moral acts and Chara
is
necessary
for moral
behavior. The following essay serves as good expl
between moral acts and character:
character This essay examined the question ofw
facilitates is necessary for moral behavior. I mgued
doing the televant to moral behavior in two importan
moral action. I am already aware of what I ought to do (i
action is), moral characterfacilitates doing
who has moral character does moral actio
easily and
more willingly
than one who
does not. I also
argued that
moral character
matters in a
second, much
more
fundamental
way: the
person who has
ETHICS: LIFE AS IT OUGHT TO BE
moral character
is able to
recognize what
is moral and
occasions for
moral behavior
in a way that
those who lack
moral character
cannot. Those
who lack moral
character often
fail to act
morally
because they
simply fail, in
many
instances, to
recognize the
morally
relevant
aspects of the
situations they
find
themselves in
(Knobel, 2019)

APPLICATIO
N

1. Illustrate this with a

diagram. Do you
agree with this?
Watch your
thoughts; they
become your words.
Watch your words;
they become your
actions. Watch your
actions; they
become your habits.
 Chapter Il: The Moral
Agent
Moral Agent
Watch your habits;
they become your
character; Watch
your character; they
become your
destiny. Lao-Tzu
Lesson 2: The Development of Moral Character
of the 69

2. Show the
relationship of
individual acts and
moral character by
means of a
mathematical
formula. e.g.
individual moral
act + individual
moral act +
individual moral
act = moral
character. Improve
on the given
formula.
 ETHICS: LIFE AS IT OUGHT TO BE

3. Based on the
narration of St.
Paul's and St.
Augustine's
conversion can
we say one's
defining moment
is one's moment
of conversion?

L Define defining

TAKEAWAYS
KEY
life-changing event or moment
Defining moment refers to asignificant
of
conversion in a person's life. A
person who has moral more
character does moral actions more readily and
willingly than one who moral does not. Therefore, it is good to develop
character.
• It is, therefore, best for all character personsto develop moral character. Moral
is formed by repeatedly doing moral acts.

moment in a person's
life.
Explain the
relationship between
moral acts and moral
character.
 Chapter Il: The Moral
Agent
Moral Agent

EFLECTION
V.hat was a defining
moment in your life?
What do you do to
form 'our moral
character?

O Lesson 3
The Stages of Moral
Development

Intended
Learning
Outcomes:
Describe each
stage of moral
development
• Evaluate one's
personal growth
against the
stages of
personal
development

INTRODUC
TION
If a human person
has developed a moral
character, the facility to
70 ETHICS: LIFE AS IT OUGHT TO BE
act morally and ethically
is in his/her hands. What
are the stages of moral
development that the
human person as a
moral agent undergoes?

ACTIVITY
1. Answer this
question:
What makes you
come to school
everyday? Check
that/those which
applies [apply to
you
Teachers
tell me
SQ
(school
policy)
I am
afraid to
be
dropped
and fail.
To show
to my
parents
and
teachers
that I am
a good
student I
promised
my
parents
never to
 Chapter Il: The Moral
Agent
Moral Agent
be
absent.
I
t is
the
right
thing
to do;
schoo
l
rules
say
so. I
want
to
beco
me a
profe
ssion
al. 2,
Share
your
answ
ers
with
your
partn
er.

ANALYS
IS

1. Among the
reasons given,
agree as partners
on the best reason
for coming to
ETHICS: LIFE AS IT OUGHT TO BE
school everyday
and why.

2. What are very

adequate
reasons? What
are not very
adequate
reasons?
71

I
As previously explained,
the moral agent, the human
person, is a being capable of
acting "with reference to right
and wrong," that is, one who is
capable of being moral, having a
moral character.
Social psychologists look
at the moral agent as he is,
where he is, the society
where he lives. From birth,
he/she is cared, nurtured and
±uenced by the world around
him/her. He/she grows up in a
family, &velops in a society,
and thus he/she is exposed to
all the do's and dont's ef his/her
family and his/her society.
His/her moral life, his/her
norms and •ral standafds, are
shaped by the prevalent
cultural influences, In other
 Chapter Il: The Moral
Agent
Moral Agent
•ords, as disclosed and unveiled as
he/she is, the moral agent undergoes
±velopment.

Moral development refers to the "process through which a human *

gains his/her beliefs, skills and dispositions that make him/her a arally m
person. William A. Kay (1970) has the following to say æ•garding the n
of moral development.
Just as the pattern of intellectual growth can be simply des
passing through stages of animal behavior, pre-logical thinking
governed by empirical logic and finally by formal logic, so mor
be described as passing through stages of behavior controlled
taboo; then second, by law; third by conscience (i.e. i
intrajected values); fourth, by reciprocity; fifth, by social conse
finally by personal moral principles, though not necessarily
order.
Stated differently, the five stages may be reduced to three as f
• The amoral stage egocentric, hedonist and prudential consid
The pre-moral stage - authoritarian, ego-idealist, social and r
considerations.
The moral stage-personal, autonomous, altruistic, rational, ind
and responsible considerations
Lets analyze your answers in the Activity phase of this lesso
your —ons to go to school are "I am afraid to be dropped and fail"
"to z:pw to my parents that I am a good student" you are in the a-mo
ego•±alist stage. If you go to school everyday because "I promised to
Fents I will never be absent" that is William Kay's pre moral stage (so
Mora/ Moral development refers to the 'process through which a human
development reciprocal consideratiom) If your reason is "it is the right thing to
person, gains his/her beliefs, skills and dispositions that makes him/her a
refers to the morally have reached
mature Kay's
person". moral stage
Kohlberg (2013)personal, autonomous,
describes the stages rational,
of moral
"process development in 3 stages, namely: Level 1 — Preconventional morality, Level
through which
a human
2 — Conventional morality, and Level 3 — Post-Conventional morality. Each
person, gains level has72
two stages each so that there are six stages of moral development.
his/her beliefs, They are described in detail below:
independent and rational considerations.
skills and
dispositions Level 1 - Pre-conventional morality
that makes This is the lowestKohlberg's Stages
level of moral of
development in Kohlberg's theory. At
him/ her a Moral
the pre-conventional level Development
children don't have a personal code of morality.
morally Instead, their moral code is controlled by does
pen. Mario the standards
not reportof
theadults andtothe
incident the
mature consequences of following or breaking adults' rules, Authority is outside the
person". individual and reasoning is based on the physical consequences of actions.
There is no internalization of moral values.
Stage 1. Obedience and Punishment Orientation. The child/individual does
good in order to avoid being punished. If he/she is punished, he/ she must
have done wrong. Children obey because adults tell them to
ETHICS: LIFE AS IT OUGHT TO BE
Throughout the
conventional involve equal exchanges.
level, a child's

sense of morality Level 2: Conventional

is tied
to personal Throughout the conventional level, a child
and societal tied to personal and societal relationships. Children conti
relationships. the rules of authority figures, but this is now due to their

'

At the obey. Moral decisions are based on fear of punishm

preconventional obey or you get punished. e.g. Josef does not cheat b
level children a punishment, a failing grade and "I go to school bec
don} have a dropped and fail.
personal code of
morality. • Stage 2: Instrumental Orientation. Right behavior is
Instead, their the individual believes to be in his/her best interest. "
moral code is In this stage there is limited interest in the needs o
controlled by
point where it might further the individual's own inte
the standards of
adults and the "you scratch my back, and I'll scratch yours"mentalit
consequences of be when a child is asked by his parents to do a c
following or "what's in it for me?" and the parents offer the chil
breaking adults' him a treat.
rules.
In this stage, right involves equal exchange. e.g
Miguel's pen. Soon he sees Miguel retaliate by
 Chapter Il: The Moral
Agent
Moral Agent
s necessary to ensure positive
relationships and societal order.
Adherence rules and conventions is
somewhat rigid during these stages and a
rule's .propriateness or fairness is seldom
questioned.

• Stage 3: "Good Boy, Nice

Girl" Orientation
In stage 3, children want
the approval of others and
act in ways to avoid
disapproval. Emphasis is
placed on good behavior
and people being "'nice" to
others. The individual is
good in order to be seen as
being a good person by
others. Therefore, answers
relate to the approval of
others. The individual
values caring and loyalty
to others as a basis for
moral judgments. E.g. if a
politician is around in
times of calamities
primarily because he
wants to appear "good
boy" or "good girl" to
electorates, he displays
stage 3 moral
developmental stage.
"To show to my parents
and teachers that I am a
good student" and "I
promised by parents never
to be absent fall under this
stage of good boy, nice
girl orientation.
ETHICS: LIFE AS IT OUGHT TO BE

• Stage 4. Law and Order

Orientation. The child/individual
becomes aware of the wider
rules of society, so judgments
concern obeying the nales in
order to uphold the law and to
avoid guilt. It is a matter of "I
have to do this because the law
says so." It is still blind
obedience to the law so morality
still lacks internalization. "It is
the right thing to do; "school
rules say so" as reasons for
going to school are in stage 4.

Level 3 - Post-conventional Morality

This is the level of full internalization. Morality is complete

zernalized and not based on external standards. Individual judgment
on self-chosen principles and moral reasoning is based on individu
—Sts and justice. Acgording to Kohlberg this level of moral reasoning i
as most people get.

• Stage 5. Social contract orientation — The child/individual becomes

aware that while rules/laws might exist for the good of the greatest
number, there are times when they will work against the interest of
particular individuals. In this level, individuals reason out that values,
rights and principles transcend the law.
Laws are regarded as social contracts rather than rigid orders. Thos
that do not promote the general welfare should be changed whe
necessary to meet the greatest good for the greatest number of people.

• Stage 6. Universal, ethical, principle orientation. Individuals at th

andjustice.
 ETHICS: LIFEAS IT OUGHT TO BE
ed moral judgments that are based on universal human rights .The
principles apply to everyone.
74
e.g., human rights, justice, and equality. The person will be prepared to
act to defend these principles even if it means going against the rest of
society in the process and having to pay the consequences of
disapproval and/or imprisonment. When faced with a dilemma
between law and conscience, the person follows his conscience.
Kohlberg doubted few people reached this stage. (McLeod, 2013)

Development of conscience-based moral decision

Conscienceba
sed moral Moral development includes development of conscience-based moral
decision is "an decision. This is in the post-conventional level of Kohlberg's stages of
act of the moral development. Panizo defines conscience as "an act of 'the practical
practical judgment of reason deciding upon an individual action as good and to be
judgment of
reason
performed and as evil and to be avoided." It is metaphorically referred to
deciding upon as the "inner or little voice of God." Panizo (1964) quotes St. Thomas
an individual regarding the obligatory force of conscience: "Every conscience, whether
action as good right or erroneous, whether with regard to acts which are evil in
and to be themselves or acts which are indifferent, is obligatory, so that he who acts
performed and
in opposition to his conscience, does wrong."
as evil and to
Rev. Thomas V. Berg, (2012) defines conscience as follows:
In the NL (natural law) tradition, conscience is understood
stage to be a judgment emanating from human reason about choices and
have actions to be made, or accomplished, or already opted for and
develop performed...
ed their Aquinas held that conscience, in the strict sense, was as an
own set act of human reason—called a judgment—following upon, and
of concluding, a time of deliberation. In this sense, conscience is the
moral interior resounding of reason. Conscience is reason's awareness
guidelin of a choice, or an action's harmony or disharmony, with the kind
es of behavior which truly leads to our genuine well-being, and
which flourishing.
may or If our choice or action is not in accord with the judgment of a
may not rightly fomed and active conscience, then that judgment will
fit the linger in our conscious awareness, presenting itself as a felt
law disharmony between the choice, and the moral norm (and
They corresponding virtue), being violated. While such felt
have disharmony is indeed of an emotive nature (e.g. a healthy
develop emotional guilt), the judgment of conscience remains something
di
sti
nc
t
an
d
irr
ed
uc
ibl
e
 Chapter Il: The Moral Agent
esson 3: The Stages of Moral Development

The formation of conscience

Corresponding therefore to the prior discussion on moral development s the
formation of conscience. What then is meant when it is said that the conscience must be
"formed"?
First, conscience formation begins with the deep-seated decision to seek
moral truth, One adopts, as a way of life, the habit of seeking out answers to
questions about right and wrong, persevering in that quest until one arrives at a
state of moral certainty, åfter having made the most reasonable effort possible
to arrive at those answers. Second, a sound conscience must stand on the firm
foundation of integrity, sincerity and forthrightness. Duplicity, personal
inconsistency and dishonesty undermine any hope of forming a properly
functioning conscience. Third, conscience formation is sustained by the habit of
consistently educating oneself by exposure to objective moral norms and the
rationale behind those norms.
Conscience needs a guide.... The Church's moral teaching, while certainly
enlightened by divinely revealed law, is, at its core, the application Of what this
tradition has discovered over the centuries about the kinds of behavior that lead
us to live genuinely fulfilling, human lives. You do not place yourself at odds
with such a tradition lightly.
Consequently, conscience formation requires a habit of on going self-
formation (what we might call moral information gathering) through study,
reading, and other types of inquiry. This includes consultation with persons
whose moral judgment we know to be sound and in accord with the Church's
moral tradition. Finally, conscience, if it is to be correct, needs the assistance of
the virtue of prudence. By "prudence,''we mean the virtue as understood within
the NL (natural law) tradition. This should not be confused with timidity,
"covering one's back"or dissimulation (hiding the fruth). Berg, 2012.
It may be added, as clarified in Fr. Vitaliano Gorospe (1974), that Fing to the
highest-level, conscience-based moral decision can mean the Widening human
consciousness. It is a growth or development from family a:nsciousness to clan
consciousness, community consciousness, town a:nsciousness, provincial, regional,
national, and international or global consciousness. As one's consciousness widens, the
moral parameters
 ETHICS: LIFE AS IT OUGHT TO BE

or standards of one's decision making widens, one's moral conscienc

widens, one matures.
76
APPLICATI
ON

1. The Heinz dilemma

A woman was on her deathbed. There was one drug that the
doctors thought might save her. It was a form of radium that a druggist
in the same town had recently discovered. The drug was expensive to
make, but the druggist was charging ten times what the drug cost him
to produce. He paid $200 for the radium and charged $2,000 for a
small dose of the drug. The sick woman's husband, Heinz, went to
everyone he knew to borrow the money, but he could only get together
about $1,000 which is half of what it cost. He told the druggist that his
wife was dying and asked him to sell it cheaper or let him pay later.
But the druggist said: "No, I discovered the drug and I'm going to
make money from it."So Heinz got desperate and broke into the man's
laboratory to steal the drug for his wife. Should Heinz have broken
into the laboratory to steal the drug for his wife? Why or why not?
From a theoretical point of view, it is not important what the
participant thinks that Heinz should do. Kohlberg's theory holds that
the justification the participant offers is what is significant, the form of
their response. Below are some 07 many examples of possible
arguments. Based on the given arguments, identify the stage among
Kohlberg's six stages of moral development:
• Heinz should not steal the medicine because he will consequently
be put in prison which will mean he is a bad person.
• Heinz should steal the medicine because he will be much happier if
he saves his wife, even if he will have to serve a prison sentence.
• Heinz should not steal the medicine because prison is an awful
place, and he would more likely languish in a jail cell than over his
wife's death.
• Heinz should steal the medicine because his wife expects it; he
wants to be a good husband.
• Heinz should not steal the drug because stealing is bad and he is
not a criminal; he has tried to do everything he can without
breaking the law, you cannot blame him.
• Heinz should not steal the medicine because the law prohibits
stealing, making it illegal.
 Chapter Il: The Moral Agent
esson 3: The Stages of Moral Development 77
• Heinz should steal the drug for his wife but also take the prescribed
punishment for the crime as well as paying the druggist what he is owed.
Criminals cannot just run around without regard for the law; actions have
consequences.
• Heinz should steal the medicine because everyone has a right to choose life,
regardless of the law.
• Heinz should steal the medicine, because saving a human life is a more
fundamental value than the property rights of another person.
• Heinz should not steal the medicine, because others may need the medicine
just as badly, and their lives are equally significant.

Give reasons why students cheat [don't cheat. Classify the given reasons based on
Kohlberg's six stages.
Longitudinal data on studies of Kohlberg's theory show a relation of the stages to
age, although a few people ever attain the two highest stages. Only 10-15%
are capable of the kind of abstract thinking necessary for stage 5 or 6 (post-
conventional morality). That is to say, most people take their moral views from
those around them and only a minority think through ethical principles for
themselves. What should be done in values education/character education classes
to help students advance in their moral development and reach the 2 highest
stages?
4. level of Kohlberg's moral development did the Greatest Teacher, Jesus Christ,
reach? Explain your answer,
Acting in accordance with the dictates of your conscience is in which
evelopmental Stage of Kohlberg.
 ETHICS: LIFEAS IT OUGHT TO BE
AS

78

KEY TAKEAWAYS
According to William Kay, human persons go through three stages of moral development:
1) the amoral stage-egocentric, hedonist and prudential considerations; 2) the pre-moral
stage — authoritarian, ego-idealist, social and reciprocal considerations, and 3) the moral
stage personal, autonomous, altruistic, rational, independent and responsible
considerations. According to Kohlberg human persons go through three levels of moral
development: 1) preconventional, 2) conventional, and 3) postconventional. Each level has
two distinct stages and so Kohlberg has six stages of moral development,
During the preconventional level, a child's sense of morality is externally controlled.
Children accept and believe the rules of authority figures, such as parents and teachers,
and they judge an action based on its consequences.
During the conventional level, an individual's sense of morality is tied to personal and
societal relationships. Children continue to accept the rules of authority figures, but this is
now because they believe that this is necessary to ensure positive relationships and
societal order.
During the postconventional level, a person's sense of morality is defined in terms of
more abstract principles and universal values which are now internalized
For William Kay and Kohlberg, every person is meant to grow into moral maturity. Moral
maturity is evident in a person who acts based on his conviction rooted on universal
ethical principles not because his act will bring him/her pleasure or pain, or that his/her
act is in accordance with the laws or expectations of his/her particular group or society as
a whole. Genuine moral development, which is attaining the post-conventional stage, the
highest stage in Kohlberg's, is essentially development of,conscience.
Conscience formation begins with the deep-seated decision to seek moral truth. It must
stand on the firm foundation of integrity, sincerity, and forthrightness and must be
sustained by the habit of consistently educating oneself by exposure to objective moral
norms, and the rationale behind those norms.

• For conscience to be formed, it needs a guide, for Christians, the Church's moral teaching
and persons whose moral judgments are sound and in accordance with the Church's
moral tradition.
Conscience formation requires a habit of on-going self-formation (moral information
gathering) through study, reading and other types of inquiry,
Conscience-based moral decision means the widening of human consciousness from
family consciousness to clan consciousness, community consciousness, town
consciousness, provincial, regional, national and international or global
consciousness.
 Chapter Il: The Moral Agent
esson 3: The Stages of Moral Development
• As one's consciousness widens, the standards of one's decision making widens, one's
moral conscience widens, one matures.

• Moral development is internalization of moral norms. One acts morally based on his/her
convictions not because the law says so or a person in authority orders so.
79
CHECK FOR
UNDERSTANDING

i. Do a tabular comparison of the stages of moral development from the

points of view of William A. Kay and Lawrence Kohlberg. Two items
are done for you.
Stages of Moral Development
William Kay Kohlberg
Pre-conventional obedience
and punishment orientation
Conventional — maintaining
the social order

%hat is the ideal stage of moral development in Kohlberg?

REFLECTIO
N
Based on Williams Kay's and Kohlberg's stages of moral development point,
in which stage are you?
What are you doing for genuine conscience formation to reach post
conventional level of moral development, the full internalization of
universal ethical principles?
 ETHICS: LIFEAS IT OUGHT TO BE

00 "0 END-OF-THE-CHAPTER
ACTIVITIES
Conduct a research on the level of moral development of a group of
aöennials of your choice. Base your tool on Kohlberg's stages of moral
&selopment. Have your questionnaires checked by your teacher.

your findings in class.

AS
80
Chapter Il l HUMAN ACT
Focus Questions:
• How does human act differ from act of man? What
are the three bases of moral accountability?
Which can modify moral accountability?
• How can feeling be a modifier in moral decision-
making? What is meant by reason and impartiality as
minimum requirements for morality?

INTRODUCTI
ON
€ot all acts of the human person as a moral agent are considered human act.
Some may be classified as acts of man. This is what you will learn in this Lesson
in addition to the determinants of the morality of the human act.

ACTIVITY
I. Classify the items either as human act or act of man. Write 1 for human
act and 2 for act of man.
I. breathing
 Chapter Il: The Moral Agent
esson 3: The Stages of Moral Development
2. blinking of the eyes
3. observing diet
4. dilation of the pupils of the eyes
5. perspiring
6. tutoring the slow learners
7. preparing for board exams

8. jerking of the knee

Human Act i: The Meaning of Human Act

81 whol
ly
ANALYSIS so; it
Study your list. What is common to the items under acts of man?
is
human act?
not
vitiat
ed
by
Act of Man versus Human Act any
defe
After studying the nature of the moral agent, the next thing to do is
ct."
gudy the nature of human act itself. Says Fr. Coppens, (2017) "(h)uman
T
are those of which a man is master, which he has the power of doing not
he
doing as he pleases." In the words of Panizo, (1964) "(h)uman acts re those
obje
acts which proceed from man as a rational being." Observing diet, tutoring
ct of
the slow learners and preparing for board exams re examples of human acts.
an
In other words, human acts are the acts of a moral agent. Hence, "actions
act
committed by unconscious and insane —sons, infants, or by those who are
is
physically forced to do something, are considered as human acts but acts
the
of man." Likewise, "actions which
thin
*tely happen in the body or through the body without the awareness Of
g
mind or the control of the will are not human acts but merely acts of zz"
done
Examples of acts of man are breathing, blinking of the eyes, dilation at pupil
. In
of the eye, perspiring and jerking of the knee.
reali
Tie Determinants of the Morality of Human Act ty, it
is
In his book earlier cited, Rev. Coppens, S.J. says that to know •±ther an not
individual human act is morally good, three things are a:nsidered. These are disti
called the determinants of morality, namely, a) the of the act, b) the nct
end, or purpose, and c) its circumstances. from
For an act to be morally good, all three determinants must be the
without a flaw, according to the received axiom: "Bonum ex integra act
causa, malum ex quocumque defectu " "A thing to be good must be itsel
 ETHICS: LIFEAS IT OUGHT TO BE
f; for we cannot act without doing something, and that thing
82 that is done is the object of the act; say, of going, eating,
praising, etc. The act or object may be viewed as containing which merely
happen in the
a further specification — e. g., going to church, praising body or through
God, eating meat. Now, an act thus specified may, the body
when considered in itself, be good, bad, or indifferent; thus, to praise without the
awareness of
Human acts are those of which a man is master, which he has the power of doing or not doing as the mind or the
he pleases. control of the
will are not
human acts but

... "actions committed by unconscious and insane persons, infants, or by those who are physically
forced to do something, are not considered as human acts but acts of man. " Likewise, "actions

in itself, to blaspheme is bad in itself, and to eat meat is in itself an indifferent act. But
for an individual human act to be good, its
ts
e
object, whether considered in itself or as further specified, must be
t,
e free from all defect; it must be good, or at least indifferent.
e The end, or purpose intended by the agent is the second
he determinant of an act's morality. The end here spoken of is not the end
of the work, for that pertains to the object, but the end of the workman
or agent. No matter how good the object of an act may be, if the end
ood the intended is bad, the act is thereby vitiated, spoiled or impaired. Thus, to
may be, praise God is good in itself, but, if in so acting the intention would be
ded is
thereby to play the hypocrite, the act is morally bad. This holds true whether
ed or the vicious end is the nearest, remote or last end; whether it be actually
s, to
ood in or only virtually intended. On the other hand, a good end, though ever
o acting so elevated, cannot justify a bad act; in other words, we are never
ould be
pocrite, allowed to do evil that good may result from there. Robin Hood robbed
y bad. the rich and distributed the money to the poor. No matter how noble
Robin Hood's intention was for robbing the rich, his act of robbing the
rich is not morally acceptable.
The circumstances of time, place and persons have their part
in determining the morality of an individual act. The moral
character of an act may be so affected by attendant
circumstances, that an act good in itself may be evil when
accompanied by certain circumstances; for instance, it is good to
give drink to the thirsty, but if the thirsty man is morally weak,
and the drink is intoxicating, the act may be evil. (Coppens,
2017)
 Chapter Il: The Moral Agent
esson 3: The Stages of Moral Development
The object of the act is the act itself. The following are instances: using the name of God
with reverence; sincerely invoking God's name or the names of saints (the evil object is using
the name of God and the saints in vain), honoring one's parent, going to Mass on days of
obligation, saving human life, respecting other's rights and property, having pure acts and
thoughts, being frue to marital commitments, telling the truth, etc.
The end, or purpose is the intention of the acting subject, or what inspires the acting
subject. For example, rendering free service to a neighbor with the intention of boasting about
it. Or helping a neighbor inspired by love of God. The first instance is immoral, while the
second is moral. The guiding rule is the end does not justify the means. The intention of
helping a neighbor, say giving food, by stealing the food from another neighbor, is never
justified. This is what Robin Hood did. He stole from the rich and gave it to the poor. Of
course no matter how good his
Human Act 1: The Meaning of Human Act

—ion was, i.e. to help the poor, his stealing is not made right by his (Mat
intention. thew
The circumstances, including the consequences, refer to the time, 6:
person, and conditions surrounding the moral act. They either 16)
or diminish the moral goodness or evil of human acts. • "So
A morally good act requires the goodness of the object, of the end, and whe
circumstances together. An evil end corrupts the action, even if the n
met is good in itself (such as praying and fasting "in order to be seen by you
give
to
the
APPLICATI need
ON y, do
not
L Can an act of man be considered human act if the action is carried out soun
with malice? Why or why not? d a
Illustrate with at least 3 examples "the end does not justify the trum
pet
befo
Robin Hood robbed the rich and gave the money to the poor. Was his
re
act justified? Explain your answer.
you,
Relate an instance when you acted like Robin hood, Was your act as
justified? the
Among the three determinants of the morality of the human act, *hich hypo
did the Greatest Teacher focus on when taught his followers crite
following: s do
• ..when you fast, don't be like the hypocrites, with sad faces; they in
disfigure their faces, that they may be seen by men to be fasting. the
 ETHICS: LIFEAS IT OUGHT TO BE
synagogues and on the streets to be praised by men." (Matthew character of an act
may be so affected
6:2) by attendant
• ...when you pray, go into your room, close the door and pray to circumstances, that
an act good in itself
your Father, who is unseen... (Matthew 6:6) may be evil when
accompanied by
certain
83 circumstances.

The circumstan-
ces of time, place and persons have their pad in determining the morality of an individual act. The moral
Time, place, person, and conditions surrounding the moral act may either
increase or diminish the moral goodness or evil of a human act. Illustrate
this with at least 3 examples.
e.g. stealing money from your mother's wallet and stealing money (wallet) inside
the church or a place of worship.
AS

84
KEY TAKEAWAYS
• A human act is an action that is considered to be carried out voluntarily, whereas
an act of man is an involuntary action.
• A human act is an act on which an individual can make a conscious decision
whether or not to carry out that act. An act of man is the natural act of
vegetative and sense faculties such as digestion, the beating Of the heart,
growing, bodily reactions and visual or auditory perceptions.
• For an individual human act to be moral, its object must be free from all defect;
it must be good, or at least indifferent. The end or purpose intended by the
agent for that act must likewise be good.
• Circumstances surrounding the human act such as time, place, person, and
conditions surrounding the moral act may either increase or diminish the moral
goodness or evil of a human act.
• A morally good act requires the goodness of the object, of the end, and of the
circumstances together. An evil end corrupts the action, even if the object is
good
...t in itself.

Direction: Classify whether the given phrase refers to act of man ot human act.
Write 1 for act of man and 2 for human act.
I. Deliberate
 Chapter Il: The Moral Agent
esson 3: The Stages of Moral Development
2. Happen "naturally"
3. Without reflection
4. Freely chosen
5. Automatic
6. Performed in freedom
7. Done voluntarily
8. Without consent
9. Thought out
10. Judgment of conscience

As a moral person, you perform human acts. What human act/s do you
frequently perform?
 Chapter Ill: Human Act
Lesson 2: Accountability of Moral Act

85

Intended Learning Outcomes:

• Discuss the three bases of moral accountability
• Give examples of modifiers of human act
INTRODUCTIO
N
 What is the moral agent's accountability over his/her act? On what Every
human act is
hismer accountability depend?
a free act so
ACTIVIT is imputable
to him/her
Y who
L Read the story of Judas' betrayal of Jesus in Luke 22:1-53. pedorms it.

ANALYSIS

I. Could Judas be held answerable/accountable for having betrayed

Jesus?
2- On what factors (at least three) would you base Judas accountability?
ABSTRACT
ION
•ses of Moral Accountability says
Fr. Coppens (2017):
When I perform afree act — one which I am able.to do or not to
do, as —ose the act is evidently imputable to me: if the thing is
blameworthy, the blame belongs to me; if it is praiseworthy, I am
entitled to the praise. Every human act therefore, since it is a free
act, is imputable to him who performs it.
To whom are we accountable? For violation of government laws, are
held accountable directly to the government, and indirectly to

of
o
r
 ETHICS: LIFE AS IT OUGHT TO BE

86
the people. How about violations of moral standards? Under Christian
natural law ethics, God is deemed the author of the law, hence violators are
Under
accountable to God. For non-theistic morality, violators are accountable
Christian solely to themselves.
natural law
ethics, God is There are three bases for moral accountability, namely: knowledge,
deemed the
author of the freedom and voluntariness. These are the necessary conditions for the
law, hence accountability of actions. First, a human act must be done knowingly;
violators are
accountable to second, it must be done freely and third, it must be done voluntarily
God. For
nontheistic
(intentional or negligent). To be credited for a good act or held morally
morality, liable or responsible for an evil act, a person must have done it knowingly,
violators are
accountable willingly and voluntarily. Determining moral liability is analogous to
solely to determining criminal liability. In criminal law, for instance, for you to be
themselves.
liable you must have done the criminal act knowingly, freely and willingly.
So similarly, in ethics, for you to be morally liable, you must have done the
There are unethical act knowingly, freely and willingly or voluntarily.
three bases for
moral In other words, for you to be morally responsible for your act, you
accountability, must, first, have knowledge, that is, you are in possession of a
namely: know.
ledge, freedom
and voluntari• normal mind; you are not insane or totally ignorant, sleep-walking due to
ness.
somnambulism. Knowledge is "the awareness of or familiarity with a fact,
situation, or truth, unveiled through experience or disclosed in dialogue or
Knowledge is
Ihe awareness encounter with persons or things." Knowledge that stealing is wrong is the
of or
familiarity
awareness of what stealing is all about, that is, taking the property of another
witha fa4 without consent, as well as the awareness of violating property rights, and
situation, or
truth, unveiled all other unpleasant consequences of violating other's rights. Knowledge that
through
experience or stealing is wrong is the awareness of what makes stealing wrong.
disclosed in To have genuine knowledge, your mind must be normal, not impaired
dialogue or
encounter with or vitiated, by mental condition or ignorance.
persons or
things.' Secondly, the act is freely done. This happens when you can exercise
your power of choice. If the act you intend to do is a choiCe between
stealing or not stealing, then you must have the freedom to choose which to
do. Your freedom should not be impaired by an irresistible force or
uncontrollable fear. If the act you intend to choose is testifying as to your
personal knowledge, what you saw, heard, etc, you should be free to do so,
without being subjected to an uncontrollable fear of being silenced by death.
Thirdly, the act must be voluntary, that is, the act is either intentional or
negligent. An act is voluntarily intended when it is done with the am,
purpose, or goal Of attaining a result. An act is negligent when it is done
voluntarily, but with out care or precaution in avoiding the happening a
foreseeable event. You can be morally liable either by intentional act
 Chapter Ill: Human Act
Lesson 2: Accountability of Moral Act

87

An act is
voluntarily
intended when
it is done with
41igent failure to exercise care and precaution. "A voluntary act proceeds the aim,
purpose, or
the will and depends upon the will for its performance." When synething is goal of
done purely by accident, this is referred to as fortuitous event, of God. attaining a
result.
Judas was morally accountable for having betrayed Jesus. He had
i:mwledge. He knew what he was doing. Jesus said "one of you will
betray :æ." He freely chose to betray Jesus tempted by the thought of 30
pieces silver. He voluntarily and intentionally did it. He led the soldiers to
the Czden of Gethsemane and kissed Jesus to signify to the soldiers that he
the one to be arrested. ..yourdegree
ofmoral
For instance, *stealing is immoral. To be liable for this immoral act, accountability
must do it knowing that it is immoral, you do it freely, that is, you re not depends on the
degree or extent
forced or coerced, and voluntarily, that is, with intentions to do ofknowledge,
Sideswiping a pedestrian causing his death is immoral if the incident *pens freedom and
due to your negligence, like driving under the influence of liquor, •rting voluntariness.

while driving, or driving without liceQse. Accidentally dropping a causing

the gun to fire and hit and kill someone won't make anyone ecountable,
unless you have been negligently playing with the gun. %discriminate
firing of gun during New Year merry making leading to of someone is
criminal negligence and immoral.
Modifiers of
Ultimately, it can be said that your degree of moral accountability *ends the human act
on the degree or extent of knowledge, freedom and voluntariness. either increase
.4Sdiction of whatever kind, e.g. drugs, sex, power, money or property, or decrease
•eaken all three bases: knowledge, freedom, and voluntariness, so that — accountability.
tead of eliminating them "like dregs of civilization," they should be rated
with compassion, however, not condoning their acts.

kiifiers of Human Act

There are various factors which either increase or decrease
wzountability. They are called modifiers of human acts. These are Bilogous The basic rule is
invincible
to exempting, mitigating, aggravating and justifying c*eumstances in Ignorance is
criminal law. "They affect the mental or emotional state a person to the entirely
voluntary, hence
extent that the voluntariness involved in an act is either 3xreased or removes moral
decreased." They are as follows: I) ignorance, 2) passions, 3) and 4) responsibility;
vincible
violence. (Panizo, 1964) ignorance does
Ignorance is the "absence of knowledge." There are various degrees •i not remove
moral
ignorance. Traditional ethics classifies them as vincible, invincible, dected, responsibility
and supine or gross ignorance. "Ignorance, whether orthe law or facts, is
either vincible or invincible. When it cannot be overcome by due amount of
diligence, it is invincible; otherwise, it is vincible. The is said to be gross or
supine when scarcely an effort has been made
 ETHICS: LIFEAS IT OUGHT TO BE
88 to remove it; and if a person deliberately avoids enlightenment in order
to sin more freely, his ignorance is affected, " The basic rule is invincible
ignorance, one that is beyond one's ability to overcome, is entirely
Antecedent involuntary, and hence removes moral responsibility; vincible ignorance
passions that does not free us from responsibility.
precede the act Passion refers to positive emotions like love, desire, delight, hope,
do not always
destro and bravery and negative emotions like hatred, horror, sadness, despair,
voluntariness, fear and anger. "Antecedent passions those that precede the act, do not
but they diminish
accountability for always destroy voluntariness, but they diminish accountability for the
the resultant act. resultant act. In criminal law, the commission of a criminal act "with
passion and obfuscation" means the perpetrator is blinded by his emotions
lessening his accountability from maximum to medium or from medium to
minimum. Consequent passions are those that are intentionally aroused
and kept. They do not lessen voluntariness, but may increase
Consequent
passions are accountability." (Panizo, 1964).
those that are Fear is the disturbance of the mind of a person due to an impending
intentionally danger or harm to himself or loved ones. Acts done with fear is
aroused and
kept. They do voluntary, but acts done because of intense or uncontrollable fear or
not lessen panic are involuntary.
voluntariness, Violence refers to any physical force exerted on a person by another
but may
increase free agent for the purpose of compelling said person to act against his
accountability" will. Actions performed by person subjected to violence or irresistible
. force are involuntary and not accountable.

Whatever one Moral Accountability for What Could Have Been

fails to do but
which should It is termed as sin of omission. Whatever one fails to do but which
have been done should have been done is also imputable to him. This refers to failure to
is also imputable
to him. This act despite knowledge of being free, therefore different from negligence
refers to failure or lack of foresight. It is intentionally not doing same thing when one
to act despite should have done it. It is failing to act as a Good Samaritan when one
knowledge of
being free, should have acted as such. Pilate had the case of Jesus Christ investigated
therefore and found Him innocent. He could have set Jesus free but he did not.
different from
negligence or Withholding an information could have prevented a disaster. Damaging
lack of foresight. consequences could have been avoided.
This is sin of
omissiom
 ETHICS: LIFE AS IT OUGHT TO BE

90
 to sin more freely.
Antecedent passion decreases moral accountability while consequent passion does not
decrease voluntariness so increases moral accountability.
Acts done with fear is voluntary, but acts done because of intense or uncontrollable fear or
panic are involuntary.
Actions performed by person subjected to violence or irresistible force are involuntary
and, therefore, the person is not accountable.

Illustrate with appropriate separate graphic organizers:

• the three bases of moral accountability.
• modifiers of the human act, their effect on accountability and a
concrete example for each.

What are you doing to grow continuously in knowledge, in freedom

and voluntariness to be the moral person you are meant to be? Write your
reflections here.
Chapter Ill: Human Act
Lesson 3: Feeling as a Modifier of Moral Decision-Making
91

t htended Learning Outcome:

• Explain the role of feelings in moral decision making

INTRODUCTION
In Lesson 2 we talked about human act and the modifiers of human
act ignorance, passion, fear, violence. In this Lesson we will discuss
feeling modifier of moral decision making,
l. One sticker in a truck says: "If it feels good do it." What does this
mean? Is this always right?
Here are statements from a Filipina OFW in the USA. Read then answer the
questions below.
"I will never be able to forgive myself if I won't fly home to be
with my family in my father's death. I may not be able to talk to him
anymore, you may find it impractical and unreasonable but I have to
dy home. If I don't, I will not feel whole at all."
If you were the Filipina nurse, would you decide and act the same
way? Why?

ANALYSIS
i
L S ,hat's wrong with "If it feels good, do it."?
: Would you consider the Filipina nurse's decision to fly home right?
or why not?
ETHICS: LIFE AS IT OUGHT TO BE
92
Researches... Feelings in Decision-making
show that Feeling, in general, is an emotional state or reaction, experience of
"actual physical sensation, like feeling of joy, feeling of warmth, love, affection,
emotional tenderness, etc. How do they affect moral decision-making? "Several
states can studies conclude that up to 90 percent of the decisions we made are based
influence on emotion. We use logic to justify our actions to ourselves and to others."
the process Researches also show that "actual emotional states can influence the process
of moral of moral reasoning and determine moral judgment."
reasoning and Feelings are instinctive and trained response to moral dilemma. They
determine can be obstacles to making right decisions but they can also help in making
judgment. " the right decisions.
Are there advantages of emotional decision making? According to
recent research, feelings or emotions have positive effects on decision
making. Some are identified as follows:
According
to recent • A totally emotional decision is very fast in comparison to a rational
research, decision. This is reactive (and largely subconscious) and can
feelings or be useful when faced with immediate danger, or in decisions of
emotions minimal significance.
have positive • Emotions may provide a way for coding and compacting
effects on experience, enabling fast response selection. This may point to why
decision expert's "gut" level decisions have high accuracy rates.
making. • Decisions that start with logic may need emotions to enable the final
selection, particularly' when confronted with near equal
options.
Emotional
decision- • Emotions often drive us in directions conflicting with self-interest.
making can
also come Emotional decision making can also come with a number of negatives.
with a number We make quick decisions without knowing why, and then create
of negatives. rational reasons to justify a poor emotional decision.
Intensity of emotions can override rational decision-making in cases
where it is clearly needed.
Immediate and unrelated emotions can create mistakes by distorting
and creating bias in judgments. In some cases this can lead to
unexpected and reckless action.
Projected emotions can lead to errors because people are subject to
systemic inaccuracy about how they will feel in the future."
(Source: Decisionlnnovation (filg:/UUsers/macos/Downloads/
Emotiona120Decsion20Making.htmlaccessed, 2-3-2018)
 Chapter Ill: Human Act

94

T
O

taken someone's property with the latter's co

act may be judged as wrong?
The emotivist will still argue that suc
certain individual act has characteristic that
does not make the statement "stealing is w
which is correct, since all maxims or rules ar
The moral the particular instances evaluated on the basi
person considered as factual.
manages his/
her feelings
Managing Feelings
Aristotle wrote:
"Anyone can get angry---that is easymb
to the right extent, at the right time with th
way, that is not for everyone, nor is it easy.
In other words your anger should not be
manages his/her feelings well.
s
o
m
e
o
n
e
'
s

a
c
t

o
f
ETHICS: LIFE AS IT OUGHTTO
BE
s
t
e
a
l
i
n
g

b
e

v
e
r
i
f
i
e
d

b
y

f
i
n
d
i
n
g

o
u
t

i
f

t
h
 Chapter Ill: Human Act
e

a
c
t
o
r

h
a
s

i
n
d
e
e
d
APPLICATION

1. Teaching
and
learning in
the
affective
domain
involve
feelings.
Can you
succeed
teaching in
the
affective
domain
devoid of
feeling?
2. Recall one
thing you
learnéd
which you
ETHICS: LIFE AS IT OUGHTTO
BE
clearly
remember
up to this
moment. Is
it correct to
say that if
ever you
remember
that which
you learned
up to now,
it is
because it
touched
you
somehow?
What does
this tell you
about
emotion in
relation to
learning?
3. In logic,
there is a
fallacy on
"appeal to
pity"
(argumentu
m ad
misericordi
am). What
does this
tell you
regarding
the _roles
of feeling
and reason
in making
 Chapter Ill: Human Act
moral
decision?

1. D
o

f
e
e
l
i
n
g
s
s
e
r
v
e

m
o
ETHICS: LIFE AS IT OUGHTTO
BE
r
a
l
d
e
c
i
s
i
o
n

m
a
k
i
n
g
?

E
x
p
l
a
i
n

y
o
u
r
a
n
s
w
e
r
.
 Chapter Ill: Human Act
2. W
h
e
n

d
o

f
e
e
l
i
n
g
s
w
o
r
k

a
g
a
i
n
s
t
m
o
r
a
l
d
e
c
i
s
i
o
n

m
a
ETHICS: LIFE AS IT OUGHTTO
BE
k
i
n
g
?

E
x
p
l
a
i
n
.

R
e
c
a
l
l

m
o
r
a
l

d
e
c
i
s
i
o
n

y
o
 Chapter Ill: Human Act
u

m
a
d
e
.

D
i
d

y
o
u

c
o
n
s
i
d
e
r

y
o
u
r

f
e
e
l
i
n
g
s
?

Z
Y
.
d
ETHICS: LIFE AS IT OUGHTTO
BE
y
o
u

e
n
d

u
p

d
o
i
n
g

t
h
e

r
i
g
h
t

t
h
i
n
g

o
r

t
h
e

w
r
o
n
 Chapter Ill: Human Act
g

t
h
i
n
g
?

I
f

y
o
u

e
n
d
e
d

u
p

w
r
o
n
g
l
y
,

w
h
y
?

A
n
y

l
e
ETHICS: LIFE AS IT OUGHTTO
BE
s
s
o
n

l
e
a
r
n
e
d
?

Reason and
Impartiality as
Minimum
Requirements for
Morality
Intended Learning Outcomes:
• To define reason and impartiality as min
• To apply the 7-step moral reasoning m
clarification process

ACTIVITY
Read these
arguments.
Are these
based on
reason?
Defend your
answer.
1. "You didn
even finish
high school.
How could
 Chapter Ill: Human Act
you possibly
96
know about
this? "
2. I am filing
for
reconsiderati
on of the
offenses
complained
about. Since
I am a well-
known
athlete, I can
make your
University
great again.
3. Oh, Officer,
there's no
reason to
give me a
tragic ticket
for going too
fast because I
was just on
my way to
the hospital
to bring
blood bags to
my dying
child. They
are needed in
a few
minutes.
4. After Sally
presents an
eloquent and
compelling
case for a
more
equitable
taxation
ETHICS: LIFE AS IT OUGHTTO
BE
system, Sam
asks the
audience
whether we
should
believe
anything
from a
woman who
isn 't
married,
wasonce
arrested, and
smells a bit
weird.
5. Linus
Pauling,
winner of•
two unshared
Nobel prizes,
one for
chemistry,
anotherfor
peace, stated
his daily
medication
of Vitamin
delayed the
onset of his
cancer by
twenty years.
Therefore,
vitamin is
effective in
preventing
cancer
6. "UFOs are
not real,
because the
great Carl
 Chapter Ill: Human Act
Sagan said
so." You
haven't held
a steady job
since 1992.
Worse than
that, we
couldn't find
a single
employer
who'd
provide you
with a good
reference."
7. "People like
you don't
understand
what it's like
to grow up in
the slums.
You have no
right to argue
about the
gang
violence on
our streets."
8. "Well, it's not
like you
graduated
from a good
school, so I
can see why
you wouldn't
know how to
properly
grade a
writing
assignment."
9. "You're
clearly just
ETHICS: LIFE AS IT OUGHTTO
BE
too young to
understand."
 Chapter Ill: Human
Act
Impartiality as Minimum Requirements for 97
Morality
Lesson 4: Reason
and

10. "H
ow
can
you
ma
ke
a
dec

ABSTRACTION

The minimum requirements of morality are reason and impartiality.

*Moral judgments must be backed up by good reason and impartiality.
*Morality requires the impartial consideration of each individual's Eterests."
Moral judgments, or resolving a dilemma of moral judgments aust be
backed by good reason.
Reason and impartiality refer to a mental activity following the
basic ;rinciple of consistency, the lack of contradiction between one idea and
—other. It is a process of deriving necessary conclusion from premises,
r•oiding all forms of deception or fallacy of reasoning. It avoids ad Ominem,
by not attacking the personality of the opponent and instead
Erecting one's argument against his idea. Examples of cogumentum ad
Ominem are # l, 4, 8 and 9 in the Activity phase of this Lesson. Reason
moids ad misericordiam, appeal to pity, since appearing miserable does not
mprove an argument. Reason does not resort to ad verecundiam, appeal to
Ethority, one's power and influence cannot make a wrong right' Examples ef
argumentum ad verecundiam are # 2, 5, 6, 7 and 10. In other words,
reasons include consistent and coherent reasons.
A logical, impartial, objective reason avoids ambiguities like
quivocation, circular reasoning, amphibology, etc. Coherent reasoning is
reded to establish truth and meaningfulness of moral judgments.
*Morality requires impartial consideration of each individual's interest." In Coherent
•riving at a sound moral judgment you must listen to everyone trying to reasoning is
•eak. Biases and prejudices must be placed between brackets, suspended. needed to
Everyone's message, silent or verbal, should be allowed to be unveiled. E establish truth
and meaning.
%eryone has always something to tell. No has a monopoly of the truth. A fulness of
BJral subject must be seen from various perspectives and standpoints, moral
judgments.
ETHICS: LIFE AS IT OUGHT TO
BE
isio
n
abo
ut
so
me
one
hav
ing
mar
ital
pro
 Chapter Ill: Human
Act
Impartiality as Minimum Requirements for
Morality
ble
ms
if
you
've
nev
er
bee
n
mar
ried
ETHICS: LIFE AS IT OUGHT TO
BE
you
rsel
f?"

ANALYSIS
1. Which
arguments are
attack on the
personality of
the source of
the argument?
 Chapter Ill: Human
Act
Impartiality as Minimum Requirements for
Morality
2. Which are
arguments are
an appeal to
pity?
3. Which
argument/s
is/are appeal
to authority?
4. Are these
arguments
ETHICS: LIFE AS IT OUGHT TO
BE
based on
reason?
 Chapter Ill: Human Act
Impartiality as Minimum Requirements for Morality
another sample method of arriving at an ethical or moral decision, the 7 steps of
Scott Rae's moral reasoning. (1996)
98 First, gather the facts, information. "The simplest way of clarifying an
ethical dilemma is to make sure the facts are clear. Ask: Do you have all the
7 Steps
facts that are necessary to make a good decision? What do we know? What
ofSocial do we need to know?"
Reasoning Second, determine the ethical issues, similar to "statement of the problem."
f. gather the 'v The competing interests are what create the dilemma. Moral values and
facts, virtues must support the competing interests in order for an ethical dilemma to
information 2 exist. If you cannot identify the underlying values/ virtües then you do not have
determine the an ethical dilemma. Often people hold these positions strongly and with passion
ethical issue because of the value/virtue beneath them."
3, determine Third, determine what virtues/principles have a bearing on the case. This is
the principles similar to identifying the relevant factors (intemal and extemal). "In an ethical
that have a dilemma certain values and principles are central to the competing positions.
teaming in the Identify these. Determine if some should be given more weight than others. Ask
case what the source for the principle is constitution, culture, natural law, religious
4. list the tradition... These supplement biblical principles."
alternatives Fourth, list the alternatives or develop a list of options. "Creatively
5. compare determine possible courses of action for your dilemma. Some will almost
the immediately be discarded but generally the more you list the greater potential for
altematives coming up with.a really good one. It will also help you come up with a broader
with the
selection of ideas."
virtues 6.
Fifth, compare the alternatives with the virtues/principles. "This step
consider the
eliminates alternatives as they are weighed by the moral principles which have
consequence
a bearing on the case. Potentially the issue will be resolved here as all alternatives
s.
except one are eliminated. Here you must satisfy all the relevant virtues and
7. make a values so at least some of the alternatives will be eliminated (even if you still
decision have to go on to step 6). Often here you have to weigh principles and virtues —
SCOTT make sure you have a good reason for each weighing."
RAE'S 7 Sixth, consider the consequences or test the options. "If you disclose the
STEPS OF information directly possible consequences include; - family feel alienated,
MORAL cultural values have been violated - family may take patient to another hospital -
patient may 'give up' - patient might be happy they are finally being told the
REASONIN
truth." If you continue withholding information possible consequences include; -
G patient continues to be fearful and anxious about the treatment - patient finds out
The somehow and trust is compromised family are happy cultural values are being
following is respected.

99

Lesson 4: Reason and

HICS: LIFE AS IT OUGHT TO BE
In general, • Harm test: Does this option do less harm than the alternatives?
the
• Publicity test: Would I want my choice of this option published
following
in the newspaper?
may be
used to test • Defensibility test: Could I defend my choice of this option
the options: before a congressional committee or committee of peers?
(Davis, • Reversibility test: Would I still think this option was a good
1999) choice if I were adversely affected by it?
• Colleague test: What do my colleagues say when I describe my
problem and suggest this option as my solution?
• Professional test: What might my profession's governing body
for ethics say about this option?
• Organization test: What does my company's ethics officer or
legal counsel say about this?

Seventh, make a decision. "Ethical decisions rarely have pain-free

Elutions it might be you have to choose the solution with the least amber of
problems/painful consequences. Even when making a "good" ecision you
might still lose sleep over it!"

Values Clarification
Moral reasoning either arrives at what is right or wrong, good or bad
{valuable or not valuable). The moral reasoning process may thus follow a
zodel called values clarification.
Values clarification method as a part of the moral reasoning model
consists of a series of questions which one may ask himself or others in
ader to arrive at one's true values, values that he really possesses and
acts .n. The following consists of the steps of the values clarification
model:
Baths, L. et al, 1978)
1. Choosing freely
Did you choose this value freely? Where do you suppose you
first got that idea?" or "Are you the only one among your friends
who feels this way?"
2. Choosing from alternatives
"What reasons do you have for your choice?" or "How long did
you think about this problem before you decided?"
3. Choosing after thoughtful consideration
"What would happen if this choice were implemented? If another
choice was implemented?" or "What is good about this choice?
 Chapter Ill: Human Act
Impartiality as Minimum Requirements for Morality
W
hat
100
co
uld
be Three big clarifying questions:
go 1. Did you choose your action freely from among altematives after thoughtfully
od considering the consequences of each alternative? 2 Doyou prize or cherish your choice by
ab publicly affirming it and by campaigning for others to choose it. 3. Do you act on your
choice repeatedly and consistently? If the answers to the questions are a YES, then the
out
moral choice or moral decision can be said to be a product of reason.
the
"Are you happy about feeling this way?" or "Why is this important
oth
to you?"
er
5. Prizing and willing to affirm the choice publicly
ch
"Would you be willing to tell the class how you feel?" or
oic
"Should someone who feels like you stand up in public and tell
es?
people how he or she feels?"
"
6. Acting on the choice
4,
"What will you do about your choice? What will you do next?" or
Prizin
"Are you interested in joining this group of people who think the
g and same as you do about this?"
being
7. Acting repeatedly in some pattern of life
happy
"Have you done anything about it? Will you do it again?" or "Should
with you try to get other people interested in this?"
the
choice To discover whether or not one really values something, one may go
through the process of asking and answering the seven questions. First is
Values choosing freely. Are you free to choose? Are you not under duress? Second,
clarification are you choosing from alternatives? If there is only one option, you may not be
method as a pad able to really choose what you really value. Third, are you choosing with a
of the moral thoughtful consideration of the alternatives. Why are you considering one of
reasoning the alternatives as your choice and not the others? Fourth, after making a
model consists choice, are you happy with it? Or are you having second thoughts? Fifth, are
of a series of you willing to let others know about your choice, affrm your choice publicly,
questions which
and are happy to tell them about it? Sixth, are you acting on your choice. If it
one may ask
himself or is about a course in college, are you going to enroll and seriously pursue it? If
others in order it is about food, are you going to eat ite If it is about a game, are you going to
to arrive at play it? If it is a choice of principles or rules, are you going to follow it?
one's true Seventh, are you acting on it repeatedly? In other words, are you pursuing the
values, values course and make it as your career? Would you repeat eating the food? Would
that he really continue playing the game, gi€en the chance? And do you always abide by the
possesses and principle you have chosen to follow? The answers to these questions will
acts upon,
ultimately reveal what you really value in life, they will clarify your values.
The 7 questions can be summed up into 3 big clarifying questions:
HICS: LIFE AS IT OUGHT TO BE
l) Did prize or cherish your choice by publicly affirming it and by
you campaigning for others to choose it?;
choose 3) Do you act on your choice repeatedly and consistently? If the
your answers to the questions are a YES, then the moral choice or moral
action decision can be said to be a product of reason.
Lesson 4: Reason and

freely
As a result of the process, one may discover an ideal priority of Tilues. One
from
among may need to recollect and re-orient oneself to genuine moral values.
alterna
tives Critique: Creative Responsibility
after
When a moral problem comes one's way, which may be communicated E a
tho silent or verbal message, or through a happening or an incident, the *Hous
ug response would be a process of moral reasoning. One may use the aforementioned
htf reasoning models. One may automatically apply classic traditional frameworks
ull or norms. One may be legalistic or situationist. But one significant guide to the
y moral reasoning process is what ethicist Eke Fr. Gorospe (1974) termed as
co "creative responsibility," which has the %llowing characteristics:
nsi First, a creative and fitting response involves some form of
der positive human action... Second, to give a fitting human response in
ing some form of positive action inevitably means "create " a response.
the The creative responsibility is something to be discovered and
co created and is best envisioned in concrete cases
ns
eq Third, a creative response means one has to choosefrom
ue among many possible fitting responses. It is impossible to find only
nc one possible fitting response to a human situation.... Fourth, in
es order that cwative response of the individual be authentic he must
of be in constant dialogue with the community and culture in which he
ea lives. Creative responsibility is not only individual but collective; it
ch is co-responsibility.
alt Creative responsibility is responding silently or verbally to a call and
ern •±ress an ethical problem creatively by considering all possible points of view,
ati thinking outside the box, using relevant frameworks. There are always available
ve; norms or rules to follow, but one should apply them creatively, —ply them in the
2) D light situations and conditions and be ready to bend the ale where there is no other
o remedy in sight. It is easier to understand this ancept from a wider point of view,
like that of a ruler or government. For —tance, the response of govemment to the
y problem of drugs, like adopting Se policy of killing (murdering) the drug addict,
o upon the assumption that Eshe is dangerous and useless being, is uncreative and
u irresponsible.
 Chapter Ill: Human Act
Impartiality as Minimum Requirements for Morality
One
technique of
coming up 101
with 102 a
creative one significant guide to the moral reasoning process is what ethicist like Fr. Gorospe (1974)
response is termed as "creative responsibility,' A creative response:
applying I. involves
phenomenolo
human action; 2. creates a response; 3. means to choose from among many possible fiåing
gical method
responses; 4. individual must be in constant dialogue with the community.
of suspending
102
judgment,
One technique of a creative response is applying the phenomenological method
placing ofsuspending judgment, placing former knowledge, biases, prejudices, etc. between
former brackets, letting the thing be or show itself as itself.
imwledge, I. Group case analysis. Using Scott Rae's 7-step model on the business ethics
biases, case, how should the salaries and benefits of a star employee be
prejudices, determined?
etc. between 2. You are the newly elected mayor of your municipality. You got an IRA
brackets, amounting to 20 million pesos. You can work on 3 projects: l) extension of the
letting the municipal hall; 2) construction of a welcome arch boundary on the highway
thing be or and 3) scholarships for out-of-school youths for livelihood programs. Rank
itself as these 3 projects from the most important to the least important. Do you really
itself. value that which you ranked # 1? Ask yourself the value clarifying questions to
test if you really value most your rank l.
3. State in metaphorical statement Gorospe's creative responsibility as an
approach to a moral problem, e.g. Creative responsibility is thinking withou

the box for the solution to a moral problem.

• TheCHECK FOR UNDERSTANDING

minimum KEY TAKEAWAYS
requirements
Moral decisions of morality are
should
reason be arrived at by the
• The use of use exemplified in the 7-
reason is step and impartiality.
clarification of reason.
process. as ad hominem, admodel of Scott Rae and the value
Fallacious reasoning place in moral decisions.
such
miserecordiam has no verecundiam and ad
HICS: LIFE AS IT OUGHT TO BE
l. REFLECTIO
N
Why
are
argume
ntum
ad
homine
m, ad
verecu
ndiam,
ad
miseric
ordiam
out of
place in
moral
respons
e?
Chapter Ill: Human Act

Lesson 5:
The
Difference
Between
Reason and
Will
 ETHICS: LIFE AS IT OUGHT TO BE

104
1. In what sense is an indecisive person considered a driftwood?
The moral person is endowed with
an intellect

ABSTRACTIO
N
and will. The
"will" is what The moral person is endowed with an intellect and will. The ''wil
"disposes" is what "disposes" what the c'the intellect proposes." Reason conducts th
what the study, research, investigation, fact-finding. It uses logic, the principle of
"the intellect consistency, avoids fallacious reasoning to come up with a truthful and
proposes." accurate proposition. In a research study, the product or work of reason is th
body of facts gathered, organized, synthesized and evaluated. The job of th
will is to make a decisive conclusion,
The will is the faculty of the mind that is associated with decisio
The will is making. It's the one that says yes or no. This author says this, that author
the faculty of says that, all others are saying the same thing. Now, decide with your wi
the mind that what you yourself should say or think.
is associated
with decision Decision making which is an activity of the will can be developed
making. Early in life, like children, one should already be given the opportunity
exercise his will, like being trained to make choices from alternative. Do yo
want to eat or not? Rice or bread? Coffee or tea? This is true of societies whe
a culture of choice give opportunities for the development of the will. A cultu
'of spoon feeding does not develop the will. Banking education, a method
teachiflg where the teacher simply deposits facts
an and concepts and withdraw the same periodically during quizzes and tests
individual without encouraging the students to think and reflect, does not promote the
person is development of the will.
nothing until Jean Paul Sartre, the French Philosopher, and the most popula
he/she starts
making existentialist was saying that an individual person is nothing until he/she
decisions. starts making decisions. What ultimately constitutes who a person is a
his/her decisions. The essence of being a person equals his/her bundle o
decisions. Apparently, the mark of the maturation of culture is manifeste
through the development of a culture of moral strength or virtue, or will
The power, its free will. "Free Will" is the "capacity of rational agents
choose
essence a course of action from among various alternatives."
of being Free will is the ability to choose between different possible courses o
a person action unimpeded, the power or right to act, speak, or think as one wants. It
equals his/
her bundle of is the power of self-determination. When the will is free, there is freedom.
decisions.
Chapter Ill: Human Act
Lesson 5: The Difference Between Reason and Will

To Hornedo (1972), the stuff of the free will is a multi-dimensional

105
pwer, energy, or strength. One is free to the degree that he has energy,
that is, physically free to the degree that he is physically strong;
materially or —onomically free to the degree that he is materially or Free will is the
power of self-
economically strong, and so on.
determination...
Emphasis is made on what freedom is, and not on what it is note To
The stuff of the
say that one is free when there is an absence of obstacle is to give a free willis a
picture of a weak person who cannot walk to get out his room despite an multi-
open Sor. Freedom must not only be understood as the absence of dimensional
obstacle; i must be an autonomous energy. It is useless talking about power, energy
being free to move, walk, if you have not strength to move or walk. It is or strength One
useless saying you are free to go to Manila by bus, if you have no money is free
for your fare. Freedom implies power, energy, strength in all human
dimensions, as Se stuff of freedom. A free person is one who is to the degree
physically healthy and psychologically normal, financially stable. It that he has
is useless shouting in 'Se streets for "economic freedom" if one is energy, that is,
economically weak. In terms of morality, moral strength is moral physically free
freedom. Morally strong people would not allow a tyrant to thrive or last to the degree
long. In the words of Jose Rizal is the satement, "there can be no tyrants that
where there can be no slaves."
he is
physical/y
The Courage To Be strong;
"Purity of heart is to will one thing," says Kierkegaard. But to "will materially or
me thing" needs courage. According to Paul Tillich (1952), "(c)ourage is economi-
elf-affirmation 'in-spite-of,' that is in spite of that which tends to prevent
Se self from affirming itself." Courage is "the affirmation of being inspite callyfree to the
non-being." This implies affirming, accepting oneself inspite of one's degree that he
&fects, lack, or imperfections, affirming the world we live in inspite all is materially or
economically
that i lacks. In specific terms, courage is affirming, allowing the drug strong...
addict •r drug dependent to live inspite of his drug addiction. "Our
greatest glory not in never falling, but in rising every time we fall."
Courage is not cving up because of setbacks and failures. It is keeping
right on keeping •n. In politics, courage is affrming or accepting one's
people inspite of *zir ignorance, poverty: Political will means the Will needs
courage to promote the Fatest good of the greatest number inspite of their courage... ft..
implies
 ETHICS: LIFE AS IT OUGHT TO BE
selfishness, greed, and Üuly behavior. Commitment, engagement, affirming,
accepting
fidelity, authentic existence re all forms of "affirmation of being inspite oneself in spite
of non-being." Courage is riming the world inspite of its tragedies. The of one's
last line in Desiderata says i so, all its sham, drudgery and broken defects...
dreams, it is still a beautiful sodd."
106

I. St Paul said: "I know the good to do but why is it that I do

the opposite of the good that I know?"

a) Do you experience the same? Does this mean unity of

the intellect and will or lack of unity?
b) For individual persons to be truly moral, how should
their intellect and the will function?

KEY TAKEAWAYS
person is endowed with an intellect and will.
conducts the study, research, fact-finding, investigation, by using
logic, to arrive at a correct proposition.
• The will is the faculty of the mind that is associated with decision making.
It's the one that says yes or no.
• The "will" is what "disposes" what "the intellect proposes."
• Strengthening of the will calls for courage which is self-affirmation in
spite-of non-being (Paul Tillich). Purity of heart is to will one thing. (S.
Kierkegaard).
• The stuff of free will is a multidimensional matter (Hornedo) — physical,
economic, political, etc. It is autonomous energy.
ETHICS: LIFE AS IT OUGHT TO BE
2. When is a person said to be weak-willed? Would you
consider Governor Pontius Pilate weak-willed? Why?

3. Interpret Robert Frost's immortal lines in the context of making

moral decisions.
Two roads diverged in a wood, and I—
I took the one less traveled by,
And that has made all the difference.

4. Relate Kierkegaard's "purity of heart is to will one thing,"

Paul Tillich's "courage is self-affrmation 'in-spite-of,' and
Hornedo's stuff of free will as a multidimensional matter to
leading a moral life.
 CHECK FOR 107
UNDERSTANDING

l. Distinguish the roles of intellect and free will.

2. According to Tillich, Kierkegaard and Homedo, how can the will be

strengthened?

Like St. Paul have you also experienced knowing the good to do but
aded up doing the opposite Of the good that you know? What have you
doing to strengthen your will?
108
ETHICS: LIFE AS IT OUGHT TO BE

your presentation on the topic

Form groups of 5. Imagine you are
20-minute presentation before an Ethics
on one of the topics given below.
Prepare assigned and deliver your mini-
lecture in 20 minutes.
Intended Learning Outcome Topic
1. To distinguish between human act and act of The Meaning of Human
man Act
2. To discuss the meaning of accountability of Accountability of Moral
moral act Act
3. To explain feeling as a modifier of moral Feeling as a Modifier of
decision-making Moral decision-making
4. To distinguish between reason and will Reason and Impartiality
5. To define reason and impartiality as The Difference between
minimum requirements for morality Reason and Will
6. To apply the 7-step moral reasoning model Applying the 7-Step
and the value clarification process Moral Reasoning Model:
An example
109
ETHICS: LIFE AS IT OUGHT TO BE
Chapter IV: Frameworks and Principles Behind Moral
Frameworks
Lesson 1 : The Meaning of Ethical Framework
110

l. Match the items in Column I with Column 2, You may

repeat an answer.
Column 1 Column 2
Ethical Statements Ethical Frameworks
1. The ethical person develops good A. Virtue on Character Ethics of
character. Aristotle
2. An act is ethical if one gives the B. Natural Law or Commandment
other what he/she is due. Ethics of St. Thomas
3. An act is ethical if it is an C. Deontogical and Duty Framework
obligation expected of every man of Immanuel Kant,
or woman.
4. That which is right follows the rule D. Utilitarian, Teleological and
"do good and avoid evil." Consequentialist
5. That which is ethical is that which E. Love and Justice Framework
has good consequences.
6. An act is ethical if one gives the
other more than what he is due.
7. To act ethically, one must act in a
way that he wishes others to act
in the same way.
8. An act is ethical if it brings about
the greatest good for the greatest
number of those affected by the
act
9. What is good is written in a
person's very being

Compare your answers with your group. If in doubt,

compare your answers with the answer key on page 113.

The pretest is on
various ethical
 ETHICS: LIFE AS IT OUGHT TO BE
frameworks. Based on the pretest that you just did, what is meant
by ethical framework?

Chapter IV: Frameworks and Principles Behind Moral Frameworks

Lesson 1: The Meaning of Ethical Framework

111

ABSTRACTION
00

An ethical framework is a set of codes that an individual uses to guide

An ethical
his or her behavior. It is just another term for "moral standards" as discussed framework
in the early part of this text. It is what people use to distinguish nght from guides an
individual in
wrong in the way they interact with the world. It is used to &termine the answering these
moral object of an action. An ethical framework guides an hdividual in two questions:
answering these two questions: "What do I ought to do?" and do I ought to "What do I
ought to do?"
do so"? So ethical frameworks serve as guideposts in moral life. and Why do I
The various dominant mental frames may be classified as follows: ought to do so"?
So ethical
l) virtue or character ethics of Aristotle, 2) natural law or commandment frameworks
ethics of St. Thomas and others, 3) deontogical and duty framework of serve as
Immanuel Kant, 4) utilitarianist, teleological and consequentialist approach guideposts in
moral life.
md 5) Love and justice framework. They will be introduced here but will
discussed more in detail in the succeeding lessons.

or Character Ethics of Aristotle

Virtue ethics asks, who is the ethical person? For Aristotle, the ethical
verson is virtuous, one who has developed good character or has developed
virtues. One attains virtues when he/she actualizes his/her potentials or
For virtue
possibilities, the highest of which is happiness. Happiness is the joy of Elf- ethics
realization, self-fulfillment, the experience of having actualized one's (Aristotle) what
ptentials. is moral is what
a virtuous
person does.
Natural Law or Commandment Ethics of St. Thomas
For St: Thomas, what is right is what follows the natural law, the rule
•hich says, "do good and avoid evil." In knowing the good as distinguished For St. Thomas,
Som evil, one is guided by the Ten Commandments which is summed up as what is right is
w.ing God and one's fellowmen. what follows the
natural faw
which is "do
Deontological and Duty Framework of Immanuel Kant good and avoid
evil. '
Kant's framework is deon or duty or deontological framework.
Deontology centers on "the rights of individuals and the intentions —
sociated with particular behavior... equal respect... given to all persons."
The "deontological approach is based on universal principles such as
%oesty, fairness, justice and respect for persons and property." It is based
the categorical imperative, that is, one must act such that his/her maxim be
the maxim of all. This acting based on a maxim that can be the zaxim of all
is a duty, an obligation of every man or woman. Acting out of
(deon) is acting out of good will or intentions. Treating man as an end, a
means to an end is acting with good will or intentions.

112

Utilitarianist, Teleological and Consequentialist Framework

For the love and justice ethical framework, what is ethical is what are just
For the deonto• and loving.
logical and duty The utilitarianist teleological approach focuses on
framework, what consequences. "The decision maker is concerned with the utility
is right is based
Of decision. What really counts is the net balance of good
on the categorical,
imperative, that is,
consequences over bad." The rightness of an action depends on
one must act such the said net balance of good consequences.
that his/ her
maxim will be the
Love and Justice Framework
maxim of all.
What is ethical is that which is just and that which is loving.
Justice giving what is due to others (justice) while is giving even
For the more than what is due to others.
utilitarianist
,
teleological
and
consequenti I . Explain ethical framework by means of an analogy.
alist ethical e.g. Ethical framework is to ethical and moral behavior as
framework,
conceptual and theoretical framework is to a research
what is
paper.
ethical is
what has Other clues — What is an "ethical framework" for
good a guided tour?
consequenc — What is an "ethical framework"
es, of a functioning organization for a year or
more? Or think of words like guidepost,
blueprint.
 ETHICS: LIFE AS IT OUGHT TO BE
2. For e.g. Deontological framework — Duty framework
eas 3. For mastery, formulate a matching type of test like the one
ier you did in the Activity phase. Exchange test with your
rec seatmate and answer the test separately then correct
all answers together.
an
d 4. Compose a cinquain describing the ethical person based
for on any of the ethical frameworks. (Note: A cinquain is A
ma 5-line poem that consists of the following:)
ste Line one — one word
ry, Line 2 — 2 words that describe line one
de Line 3 3 action words (- ing verbs_ that relate to line
vel I)
op Line 4 4 words (feelings or a complete
at sentence) that relate to line
lea Line 5 — I word, synonym of line I or a word that sums it up
st
on Person
e Just, loving
mn Thinking, deliberating, choosing
em I am grateful he is
oni
c
de
vic
e
on
the
eth
ica
l
fra
me
wo
rks
.
 and Principles Behind Moral Frameworks

113
Chapter IV: Frameworks
Lesson 1: The Meaning of Ethical Framework
 ETHICS: LIFE AS IT OUGHT TO BE

KEY TAKEAWAYS
An ethical framework is a set of moral standards that serves as a guide
for all persons to behave ethically and morally.
Most common ethical frameworks are:
- Virtue or character ethics of Aristotle,
- Natural law or commandment ethics of St. Thomas and others,
- Deontogical and duty framework of Immanuel Kant,
- Utilitarianist, teleological and consequentialist approach, and - Love
and justice framework

1. What is an ethical framework?

2. Give 5 ethical frameworks and explain each in a sentence.

Reflect on your ethical framework. Which thought has been your guide in
your desire to be good and do good?

Key to Correction
Chapter IV,
Lesson 1, Activity
 and Principles Behind Moral Frameworks
Lesson 2: Aristotle's Virtue Ethics

I. Give examples ofvirtuous persons you admire.

2. Why do you consider them virtuous persons? What virtues do they
possess?
3. Share your answers with your group.

ANALYSIS
1. Based on your examples, who then is a virtuous person?
2. How did this virtuous person become one? Was he born already
virtuous or did he inherit his virtuous life?

115
Chapter IV: Frameworks

ABSTRACT
 ETHICS: LIFE AS IT OUGHT TO BE
ION

Mrtue or character ethics Virtue ethics

is
The following excerpts clarifies what virtue ethics is:
person-based
rather than
An ethical act is the action that a virtuous person would do in the same
action-based,
circumstances, Virtue ethics is person-based rather than action-based. It
looks at the virtue or moral character of the person carrying out an action,
rather than at ethical duties and rules or the consequences of particular
actions.

Virtue ethics does not only deal with the rightness or wrongness of
individual actions. It provides guidance as to the sort of characteristics
and behaviors a good person will seek to achieve. In that way, virtue
ethics is concerned with the whole Bf a person's life rather than

particular episodes or actions. goo person is someone who lives

virtuously — who possesses and lives the virtues.

Virtue ethics uses the following as a framework for ethical decision

making. This is how it is done:

In the Virtue framework we try to identify the character traits

(either positive or negative) that might motivate us in a given For virtue
ethics, ethical
situation. We are concerned with what kind of person we should be behavior is
and what our actions indicate about our character. We define ethical whatever a
behavior as whatever a virtuous person would do in the situation, virtuous person
and we seek to develop similar virtues. would do in the
situation...
Obviously, this framework is useful in situations that ask what
sort ofperson one should be. As a way of making sense of the
world, it allows for a wide range of behaviors to be called ethical,
as there might be many different types ofgood character and many
paths to developing it. Consequently, it takes into account all parts
of human experience and their role in ethical deliberation, as it
believes that all of one's experiences, emotions, and thoughts can
influence the development of one's character.

Stated similarly, virtue ethics is ''the ethics of behavior" which

on the character of the persons involved in the decision or action, the
person in question has good character, and genuine motivation and he or she
is behaving ethically." The rightness or wrongness of æ's action, or
the goodness or badness of one's personality depends on his
 ETHICS: LIFE AS IT OUGHT TO BE

116
character, motivations and intentions.
Virtue ethics, ''is an ethics whose goal is to deterrnine what is essential
Virtue ethics
stresses an
to being a well-functioning or flourishing human person. Virtue ethics
ideal for stresses an ideal for humans or persons. As an ethics Of ideals or
humans or excellences, it is an optimistic and positive type of ethics."
persons. As
an ethics of
ideals or
Basic Types of Virtue (Excellence)
excellences, Aristotle gave two types of virtue. These are l) intellectual virtues and
it is an 2) moral virtues. Intellectual virtues refe! to excellence Of mind while
optimistic moral virtues refer to a person's dispositions to act well. Intellectual yj@es
and positive
type of inclnde. ability to understandt reason and judge well while moral virtues
ethics. dispose a person to act well.
In the context of Aristotle, virtue is an attained, actualized or
selfrealized potential or possibility. It can serve as a moral framework
When one has the potential or possibility of becoming a musician, he tries
Intellectual
to train and study to become a musician following a musician's virtue as a
virtues refer
to excellence framework.
of the mind Aristotle (384—323 BC) posited an ethical system that may be
while moral termed "self realizationism. " In Aristotle's view, when a person
virtues refer acts in accordance with his nature and realizes his full potential, he
to a person's will do good and be content. At birth, a baby is not a person, but a
dispositions
to act well.
potential person. To become a "real" person, the child's inherent
Intellectual potential must be realized. Unhappiness and frustration are caused
virtues by the unrealized potential of a person, leading tofailed goals and a
include poor life. Artstotle said, "Nature does nothing in vain. Therefore, it
ability to is imperative for people to act in accordance with their nature and
understand,
develop their lateht talents in order to be content and complete.
reason and
judge well Happiness was held to be the ultimate goal. All other things, such
while moral as civic life or wealth, are meæly means to the end. Self-realization,
virtues the awareness of one's nature and thé development of one's talents,
dispose a is the surest path to happiness.
person to act
well.
The material world is in state of actualizing, realizing what it is
potential for. Everything has its potency for something, its nature. Nature

unfolds naturally, it has no obligation to be so. It has no intellect and wilL

But a person has an obligation to be what he/she is meant or in potency to
Virtue is an be. It his/her obligation to develop his/her talent and virtues. The highest
attained,
actualized good or end, telos, of a person is the fullness of his/her self-development or
or self- actualization. The concomitant result of this development or actualization o
realized his/her potentials is what Aristotle termed as happiness or the experience o
potential or
 ETHICS: LIFE AS IT OUGHT
possibility. happiness.
In short, virtue means excellence and virtue ethics is excellence ethics.
 Chapter IV: Frameworks and Principles Behind Moral Frameworks
Lesson 2: Aristotle's Virtue Ethics

117

as a Mean

Confucius emphasized two virtues, jen (or ren) and Ii Jen means From the
eight-
hmaneness, human-heartedness and compassion. Li means propriety, fold path are
manners or culture. the intellectual
Hinduism emphasizes five basic moral virtues: non-violence, virtues of right
truthfulness, honesty, chastity, freedom from greed. It also emphasizes understand-
mental virtues: calmness, self-control, self-settledness, forbearance, faith ing and right
Ed complete concentration, hunger for spiritual liberation. (George, V, mindfulness
2008) and the moral
Buddhism also has its intellectual and moral virtues. From the eight- virtues of right
Sid path are the intellectual virtues of right understanding and right speech, right
mindfulness and the moral virtues of right speech, right action and right action and right
livelihood,
Evelihood.
Jesus Christ preached the virtues of love, mercy and compassion,
hunger for justice, patience, kindness, gentleness, self-control. St. Thomas Jesus Christ
Aquinas taught the theological virtues — faith, hope and love. Christian preached the
radition teaches four cardinal moral virtues, namely: prudence, justice, vidues of love,
mercy and
emperance and fortitude. compassion,
St. Thomas being an eclectic philosopher, integrated into his own hunger
philosophy anything that is good conceived by his predecessors like forjustice,
Aristotle. But he enriched their thoughts with his own insights or learning. patience,
The attainment of the highest good, which is happiness, includes its kindness,
diffusion. "Bonum difusivum est." Goodness as goodness necessarily gentleness,
diffuses itself. A person's virtue diffuses itself in a right action. Goodness shares self-control.
itself, like a light that shines before all men.
One more point regarding various potentials of man which when
actualized becomes virtues is Hans George Gadamer's re-interpretation of
Aristotle definition of man as a "homo logos," a speaking animal. In Other
vords, in the light Aristotle's wisdom, the virtue of being man is being a
seaking animal, meaning, his attainment of a meaningful, refined, and
civilized language, Gutter language is vice; beautiful, meaningful and refined
language is viltue, One who has a virtue of a refined language speaks
rightfully.
The virtuous person did not inherit- his/her virtues. Neither were these
virtues simply passed on to him automatically. His being a person of virtue
 118
ETHICS: LIFE AS IT OUGHT
is For Aristotle, virtue is the Golden Mean between two extremes.
a product of deliberate, consistent, continuous choice and practice
ForAristotle,
of
The virtue of courage is a mean between two extremes of deficiency and
living the virtue or virtues. vidue is the
extreme, namely, cowardice and foolhardiness, respectively. Too little Golden Mean
courage is cowardice and too much courage is foolhardiness (MacKinnon, between two
Questions Raised About Virtue Ethics
al 2015) extremes
Here are some questions raised about virtue ethics:
Mrtue Ethics in Other Traditions
I) How do we determine which traits are virtues and whether they are
TO virtues in all circumstances. Are the virtues for the Christian culture BE

the same with those of the Muslim, Buddhist and Hindu cultures?
2) Mac Intyre, a contemporary philosopher, believes that virtues depend
at least partly on the culture of society. A warlike society will value
heroic virtues whereas a peaceful society may think of generosity as a
more important virtue.
3) Who is more courageous the person who wants to run away buz does
not or that one who does not even want to run away? This has
something to do with the degree of effort and discipline required to be
virtuous.
APPLICATI
ON

1. The ethical person is a person of virtue/s. Describe this person of

virtue based on:
a. Aristotle d. Buddhist
b. Confucius e. Christian
c. Hindu f. Gadamer

2. A morally virtuous person habitually determines the good and does

the right actions. How did Aristotle distinguish philosophic wisdom
from practical wisdom? How do you apply these thoughts in your
self-project to become a virtuous person?

3. The virtuous person did not inherit his/her virtues. Neither did the
virtuous person just pop up. Neither were these virtues simply
passed on to him automatically. What message does this tell you?

4. Here is a quote attributed to Lao Tzu.

"Watch your thoughts; they become your words.
Watch your words; they become your actions.
Watch your actions; they become your habits.
Watch your habits; they become your character.
Watch your character; it becomes your destiny."
 Chapter IV: Frameworks and Principles Behind Moral Frameworks
Lesson 2: Aristotle's Virtue Ethics

119

How does this apply to you in your desire to become a virtuous,

ethical person?

5. Goodness as goodness necessarily diffuses itself. Can the movie

"Pay It Forward" prove this. Watch the movie "Pay It Forward" or
read the synopsis of the movie given below.

Synopsis Pay It Forward

• A 12-year-old schoolboy in Las Vegas, Nevada named Trevor
McKinney (Haley Joel Osment) is given a class project to complete by
his social studies teacher Eugene Simonet (Kevin Spacey), a man with
terrible burn scars on his face and neck. His task is to come up with a
plan that will change the world through direct action. On his way
home from school later that day, Trevor notices a homeless man, Jeny.
(Jantes Caviezel) and decides to make a difference in Jerry's life.
Trevor then comes up with the plan to "pay it forward" by doing a
good deed for three people who must in turn each do good deeds for
three other people, creating a charitable pyramid scheme. Trevor S
plan is to help Jerry by feeding and housing him so he can "get on his
feet. "

The next morning, Trevor's mother, Arlene McKinney (Helen Hunt), a

single mother recovering from alcoholism, becomes angry with
Trevor qfter finding Jerry in their house. She then accuses and
confronts Eugene at the school about the reason Trevor has allowed
Jerry into their home, Eugene is also intrigued by nevor& response to
the social studies project.

Later that night back at their home, Trevor confronts his mother about
her alcoholism, and in a fit of anger she Slaps him across the face
Trevor runs away from home, and Arlene asks Eugene to help her find
him. They find Trevor at a bus station, about to be molested. Trevor
and Arlene embrace in relief after Arlene apologizes profusely.

Meanwhile, Chris (Jay Mohr), a journalist, is trying to find out why a

total stranger gave him a brand-new Jaguar S-Type car after Chris '
old 1965 Ford Mustang was damaged in a car accident. The stranger's
only explanation is that he is simply "paying it forward. " When Chris
asks him for more information, the man explains that, when he
 ETHICS: LIFE AS IT OUGHT
recently visited a hospital while his daughter was suffering an asthma
attack a gang member suffering from a stab wound actually
 Chapter IV: Frameworks and Principles Behind Moral Frameworks
Lesson 2: Aristotle's Virtue Ethics

took up a gun to force the doctors to look at the man's daughter

120
before she collapsed, prompting Chris to begin his search again.

After Trevor's apparently unsuccessful attempt to help Jerry, he

decides to help Eugene by setting him up with Arlene, Trevor S own
mother Their relationship grows in strength until Arlene S ex-
husband, Ricky (Jon Bon Jovi), who claims he has "changed" and
has quit drinking, shows up unannounced and Arlene decides to give
him another chance.

When Arlene later tries to explain her choice to Eugene, the audience
learns how Eugene's burns were the result of terrible child abuse by
his father: Eugene is concerned not just about the abusive and violent
nature of Trevor's father, but that the simple absence of a loving
father is detrimental to Trevor S well-being. He explains that his
father was always abusive of him and his mother always took him
back. At thirteen, Eugene ran away from home and returned home
when he was 16, asking his mother to come with him but his father
knocked him out and proceeded to burn him, resulting in a number of
scars on his chest. Arlene feels that she must nevertheless give her ex-
husband another chance, but shortly thereafter he becomes angry and
violent and it appears that he has not in fact stopped drinking alcohol.
Arlene realizes what a terrible mistake she has made. She feels that
Eugene will never take her back, and Eugene for his part is not
prepared to rekindle the relationship.

At around this point, Jerry, who has moved on to another city,

discovers a woman about to commit suicide by jumping offa bridge;
even when she throws her purse at him and yells at him to get away,
Jerry simply talks gently to her, encouraging her to come down and
talk to him about her problems. Meanwhile, Chris discovers the gang
member who helped the mans daughter, who reveals that he was
brought into the "pay it forward" movement when he was rescued
from the police by a homeless woman in a car. Having located the
woman (played by Angie Dickinson), she tells Chris that she herself
was given the idea by her daughter--who turns out to be Arlene.

Arlene seeks out her mother, Grace, whom she has not seen in three
years. She says she wishes to say something to her and gives her
mother the gift that enables Grace to have faith that she can become
sober for a few days, long enough to visit the family and see her
grandson: Arlene tells her mother that she forgives her for everything
 ETHICS: LIFE AS IT OUGHT
BE
 Chapter IV: Frameworks and Principles Behind Moral Frameworks
Lesson 2: Aristotle's Virtue Ethics

121
Chris finally ident!fies Trevor as the originator of "pay it forward"' and conducts a
recorded interview at the school. Trevor explains his hopes for the concept, but voices
his concerns that people may be too afraid to change their own lives in order to make
the whole world a better place. Eugene and Arlene are both present during the
interview. When Eugene hears Trevor} words, he realizes that he and Arlene should be
together.

As Eugene and Arlene reconcile with a passionate embrace, they hear

shouts and scuffing outside. Trevor has come to the defense of a friend
who is being attacked by bullies, and is trying to fight them off:
although they are older and bigger. As Eugene and Arlene run down to
stop the fight, the main bully who is a gangster-like boy impulsively
pulls out a knife. Trevor is pushed onto the boy with the knife and is
thus inadvertently stabbed in the abdomen. Trevor is rushed to
hospital, where be dies from the stabbing.

Terribly distraught, Arlene and Eugene are later watching a television

news report about "pay it forward" and Trevor's death, and learn that
the movement has grown nationwide. Venturing outside, they see
hundreds of people gathering in a vigil to pay their respects to Trevor,
with yet more people arriving in a stream of vehicles visible in the
distance as the movie ends.

(Source: WikiPedia. Bangs_McCoy) Retrieved 6-16-19 from https://

www.imdb.com/title/tt0223 897/p lotsummary

6. Gutter language is vice; beautiful, meaningful and refined language is

virtue. One who has a virtue of a refined language speaks rightfully. A
young engineer once visited a project site in a barangay. He was so
shocked to hear everyone ending every statement with bad words like
putang ina, (literal translation bitch mother). How did these people arive
at that habit of speaking bad language which to them is no longer unusual
or strange?

7. Knowing what is good is not synonymous to doing what is good. What

does this mean in the context of Aristotle's virtue ethics?

Virtue is a perfection of the will rather than of body or mind. Do you agree? Why or why not?
 ETHICS: LIFE AS IT OUGHT
9. V€'hy is it difficult to be a person of virtue?
BE
122
10. According to Aristotle, virtue is the Golden Mean between two extremes.
Is there such a thing as being too honest or too little honesty or too little
justice? Or is it a matter of either-or (either you are honest or just or not
KEY TAKEAWAYS
at all)? Didn't Jesus Christ die on the cross because he

was too honest?

Il. Learned but not educated. (In Ilocano — de adal ngem awan sursuro
na; in Filipino — maraming alam ngunit walang pinag-aralan)
12. Read the questions raised about virtue ethics as an ethical
frameworkChoose one question raised and write your reactions.

For virtue ethics framework, ethical behavior is what a virtuous person would
do in a situation.
Aristotle gave two types Of virtue — Intellectual and moral.
Intellectual virtues refer to excellence while moral virtues dispose a person to
act well.
The highest good of a person is the fullness of his self-actualization.
• For Aristotle, virtue is the Golden Mean between two extremes.
• For Confucius two virtues Jen (humaneness) and li (propriety) are most
important.
Hinduism emphasizes five basic moral virtues: non-violence, truthfulness,
honesty, chastity and freedom from greed.
Buddhism has intellectual virtues right Understanding and right mindfulness.
The moral virtues are right speech, right action and right livelihood.
Jesus Christ preached the values of love, mercy and compassion.
Virtue diffuses itself in a right action.

CHECK FOR UNDERSTANDING

I. What is ethical or who is an ethical person according to Aristotle's

virtue ethics?
2. Cite virtue ethics-based actions taken by parents, teachers and other
persons in authority in support of children's moral development.
 Chapter IV: Frameworks and Principles Behind Moral Frameworks
Lesson 2: Aristotle's Virtue Ethics
REFLECTION
Which habits do you possess that support your ethical growth?
Which habits are inimical to your ethical growth? Any
plan to curb this/these bad habit's?
 Chapter IV: Frameworks and Principles Behind

123
Our Moral Disposition Frameworks
Lesson 3: St. Thomas' Natural Law Ethics

Lesson 3 St. Thomas' Natural Law

Ethics

Intended Learning Outcomes:

• Articulate what natural law ethics is
• Apply natural law ethics

INTRODUCTION

After a lesson on Aristotle's virtue ethics, is another ethical framework,

natural law ethics attributed to Ste Thomas Aquinas.

1. Read Cicero's explanation of the natural law from then answer the questions
below:
True law is right reason conformable to nature, universal,
unchangeable, eternal whose commands urge us to duty, and whose
prohibitions restrain us from evil... This law cannot be contradicted
by any other law, and is not liable to derogation or abrogation.
Neither the senate nor the people can give us any dispensation for
not obeying this universal law ofjustice. It needs no other expositor
and interpreter than our conscience It is not one thing at Rome, and
another at Athens; one thing today and another tomorrow; but in all
times and nations this must universal law must forever reign, eternal
and imperishable. It is the sovereign master and emperor ofall
beings. God himself is its author; its promulgator and enforcer. And
he who does not obey it/iesfrom himself and does violence to the
very nature of man, And so by doing he will endure the severest
 penalties even if he avoid the other evils which are usually
accounted punishments. (Cicero, Republic, in Cicero's Tusculan
Dispositions. Also Treatises on the Nature ofthe God and on the
Commonwealth. Bk 3 at 22 cited by MacKinnon, B. & A. Fiala nt
ed. (2015). Ethics Theory and Contemporary Issues, CT., USA:
Cengage Learning)
ETHICS: LIFE AS IT OUGHT TO BE

124

Form groups of 5 then discuss you answer to the ff. questions:

1. Can persons choose to amend or abolish natural law? - Read the
statement that supports your answer.
2. Is the natural law applicable only to a select group of people and
countries? — Read the statement that supports your answer.
3. What are the consequences to persons who disobey the natural
law? - Read the statement that supports your answer.
4. The phrase .. . whose prohibitions restrain us from evil, (whose
referring to natural law-) is an act evil because natural law
forbids it so? Or does natural law forbid an act because in itself
the act is evil? Which is CORRECT?
5. Who is the author of the natural law?

1. Based on your answers to questions I and 2, is the sense of right and

what is wrong ingrained in our nature as

ethical is
what the
natural law
says... human persons?
Natural law is
the "ordinance Meaning of Natural law and Other Laws
of Divine
WISdon),
Based on the phrase "natural law ethics," what is ethical is what the
whiah is made
known tous by
reason, and natural law says. What is natural law? Natural 'law is the "ordinance of
which Divine Wisdom, which is made known to us by reason and which requires
requires the the observance of the moral order." It may also be defined to be ''The
observance of
the moral
eternal law as far .as it made known by human reason." By the eternal law
order. " we mean all that God necessarily decrees from eternity.. That part of the
eternal lav which reason reveals as directive of human acts, we call the
natural law
Eternal law is what God wills for creation. We are part of God's
"The etemal creation and so we are part of Gods eternal law. We may not be able to
law as far as
it made understand the eternal law fully given our limitations. However, by reason
known by we have a grasp or a sense of the eternal law. This is natural law.
human
reason."
St. Thomas Aquinas wrote: .
There is in man an inclination to good, according to the nature
of his reason, which nature is proper to him; thus man has a natural
inclination to know the truth about God, and to live in society; and
in this respect* whatever pertains to this inclination belongs to the
natural law; for instance to shun ignorance, to avoid offending those
among whom one has to live, and other such things regarding the
above
inclination. (Summa Theologiae1-2 Question 94, Article 2)
Chapter IV: Frameworks and Principles Behind Our Moral Disposition
Frameworks
Lesson 3: St. Thomas' Natural Law Ethics
125
Let us relate natural law to other kinds of law: A law decreed
Rev. Charles Coppens, S.J. explains the various kinds of law according to Almighty God a
St. Thomas: divine law;
established by
A law decreed by Almighty God is a divine law; one man is a human
established by man is a human law. Those laws for human law Those laws
conduct which God, having once decreed creation, necessarily for human
enacts in accordance with that decree, constitute the natural conduct which
law; those which God or man freely enacts are positive laws. God, having
Now, between the natural law and positive laws, there are these once decreed
four points of difference: 1. The natural law, unlike creation,
necessarily
positive laws, does not depend upon the free will of God; its enacts in
requirements flow from the intrinsic difference between right accordance that
and wrong, which is determined by the vemy essences of decree,
constitute the
things. Hence, under this law, certain acts are not evil primarily
natural law;
because they are forbidden, but they are forbidden because in those which
themselves they are evil. 2. COnsequently, the natural law is the God or man
same at all times, in all places, andfor all persons; but this is not freely enacts
true ofpositive laws, which may be changed with changing positive laws.
circumstances, or, if the law-giver so wills it, even without
change of circumstances. 3. The natural law emanates front
 God alone; but positive laws may be enacted by men. 4. The .certain acts
natural law is pmmulgated through the light ofreason; positive are not evil
laws requirefor theirpromulgation a sign external to man. primarily
because they
In summary, we have an eternal law, God's law for the whole creation, are forbidden
which we cannot fully grasp given our limitation. But with our gift of reason but because
we have a grasp of that eternal law, that is natural law, Divine law is decreed in themselves
they are evil.
by God while human law is decreed by man.
.the natural
law is the same
Natural Law as a Universal Formula at all times, in
As an ethical natural law or maxim may be applied as al/ places, and
for al/ persons;
implicitly illustrated in the following: but this is not
A universal formula which contains in brief an expression of true of positive
the whole natural law is this: "Keep the moral ordo; " or "Observe laws, which
right order in your actions. " Some writers state it simply as, "Do may be
good and avoid evil. " Now, the right order of human acts consists changed with
evidently in their proper direction to man's last end, which is, changing
subjectively, his perfect beatitude and, objectively, God Himself. circumstances,
or, if the
God must direct His free creatures to their last end, hence He lawgiver so
commands them to observe the moral order andforbids them to wills it, even
departfrom it.. without change
so what is natural and ethical for a human person is to "keep the moral of
order, to "observe right order," to "do good and avoid evil" to preserve his/
her being. Suicide and murder work against preservation of human life,
by
is
one

with

are
 circumstances.

ETHICS: LIFE AS IT OUGHT TO BE

126
therefore, are a violation of the natural law.
St. Thomas Aquinas grounded the directedness of nature in God. All
of creation is directed toward their final end God, God Himself. To direct
us to Himself, He gave the divine law The divine law given to us in the
St. Thomas
Ten Commandments of the Old Testament and the new commandment of
defined law in
general as "an
"love God..." and "love your neighbor.. i" by Jesus Christ in the New
ordinance of Testament and in the we were St. Thomas synthesized faith and reason. He
reason which believed that natural law is part of the divine law, that the "natural law
is for the shares in the eternal law." All of creation is directed
common Analogous to logical reasoning, it may be applied as follows:
good, and has
Premise: Stealing is immoral and an evil to avoided. Second Premise: The
been
promulgated
act of taking someone's property without his consent iS stealing.
by one having Conclusion: Therefore, the act of taking someone's property, which I
charge of the actually intend to do, is immoral and an evil to be avoided, which I should
community. " do avoid.
For a law to
be a law, it
must have the Law Defined
four St. Thomas explained that the natural law is promulgated through the
requisites, light of reason. Positive laws require for their promulgation a sign external
namely, a) to man. Laws that are enacted are called positive laws. St. Thomas defined
ordinance
law in general as "an ordinance of reason which is for the common good,
(order
and has been promulgated by one having charge of the community." For a
command) of
reason, b) for law to be a law, it must have the four requisites, namely, a) ordinance
the common (order, command) of reason, b) for the common good, c) promulgation, and
good, c) d) by one who has charge of the community. Based on the definition, an
promu/gation, unreasonable law is not law; a law that favors one to the prejudice of
and another or does not equally protect all is not a law; a law that is not
d) by one promulgated or published or made known to all, is not a law; and a law
who has
charge of the that is enacted by unauthorized persons is not a law.
community. A law must be a product of reason not purely of emotion. When the
heart rules the mind, we can be highly unreasonable. A law is promulgated
for the common good because we are meant to be social, we belong to a
community. A law that favors the male gender at the expense of the female
gender cannot be a law. A law must be promulgated by one whose primary
task is to care for his/her people, the community. The primary task of our
lawmakers is to care for and protect their people by legislating laws for the
common good. The law must be made known or communicated to all
people to ensure correct understanding and compliance, A law that is
 promulgated does not take effect immediately. In the Philippines, laws take
effect after fifteen days following the completion of the publication in the
Official Gazette or a newspaper of general circulation unless it is otherwise
provided(htt s'/ atasnatin.com/l w-librar ivil-la / ersons- nd-famil /
2Retrieved 6-18-19)

Our Moral Disposition Frameworks

Lesson 3: St. ThomaS Natural Law Ethics
127

APPLICATION

1. Read these two laws. Does each law fulfill the definition of a law as given?
COME UP WITH AN ANALYSIS PAPER YOUR VIEWPOINT SHOULD BE
EXAMINED CLOSELY AGAINST ST. THOMAS' DEFINITION OF A LAW

Speed Limiter in Public Vehicles

Republic Act 10916 or "An act requiring the mandatory installation of
speed limiter in public utility and certain types of vehicle" will require all
covered public transportation vehicles to have a speed limiter.
Vehicles without speed limiters before the passage ofthe law will have to
comply within 18 months after it takes effect.
The absence of a speed limiter will not be allowed for registration or be
given a franchise permit, and the owners or operatorsfor the vehicle will
befined with P50, 000
Meanwhile, the driver S license will be suspendedfor one month and
the franchise permitfor three months for thefirst offense.
Sanctions for succeeding offenses will be license suspension for three
months and franchise suspension for six months on top of imposed fines at
the second offense; and revocation of license and franchise suspension for at
least a year, and an imposed fine for the third offense.
Offenders caught tampering with speed limiters will be imprisonedfor six to 36
months andfined with

Anti-age discrimination for employees

Republic Act 10911 or "An act prohibiting discrimination against any
individual in employment on account of age and providing penalties
therefore prohibits employers from withholding promotion or deny training
opportunities, compensation and privileges from employees on the basis of
age.
Recruitment and employment agencies are also prohibited from
refusing to help individuals regardless of age from seeking employment
and labor organizations are prohibited from refusing employees
ofmembership because of their age.
 Violators will be fined at least P50,000 but not more than
P500,OOO and/or be imprisoned between three months to two years.
KEY TAKEAWAYS

• What is ethical according to the natural law ethics framework is that

which the natural law commands us to do — "do good, avoid evil,"
• There are many types of law. Eternal law is Divine Wisdom that directs
all beings toward their end, God Himself. Natural law is law "written in
the hearts of men." Positive laws are those enacted by God or men.
Divine law is decreed by God in the Ten Commandments and in the new
commandment of love taught and exemplified by Jesus Christ. Human
law is promulgated by persons.
Natural law has the following characteristics: 1) flows from the intrinsic
difference between right and wrong, which is determined by the very
essences of things; 2) the same at all times, in ail places, and for all
persons; 3) emanates from God alone, and 4) is promulgated through
the light of reason.
• Positive law 1) depends on the free will of God; 2) not the same at all
times, places and for all persons; 3) may be changed with changing
circumstances, or, if the law-giver so wills it, even without change of
circumstances, and 4) requires for their promulgation a sign external to
persons.
IA law is an ordinance of reason promulgated for the common good by one
 128
Our
2. Show the relationships of the various kinds of law (eternal law, Moral
natural law, positive law, divine law, human law) by means of a
graphic organizer.
3. Distinguish between natural law and positive law.
4. Do you have to be schooled to know what is right from what is
wrong? Prove
1. What is ethical according to theyour answer.
natural What does this imply about natural law?
law ethics?
5. Didcriminal
2. Does the hardened the menor and women
the drug of the
addict havecaves (primitive
a sense men
ofthe good to and women)
do? Explain yourhave a sense of right and wrong? Prove your stand. What does this
answer.
imply about natural law?
6. If natural law is in the very essence of things, is this thought given
below in accordance with the concept of natural law?
The very makeup of every person his head above his heart and
reproductive
Cicero once said and he whoorgans delivers
does not obey it a(referring
strong message, i.e., his/ her
to natural law)
feelings,
fliesfrom himself emotions
and does andto sexual
violence the verypowers
nature must
ofman.be governed by or
subjected to his/her reason.
Reflect on an instance where you-disobeyed the natural law. Did you do
violence to yourself? How?
129

Disposition
Frameworks
Lesson 3: St.
Thomas' Natural
Law Ethics
 AS

130

ACTIVITY
1. Think of at least an act which you can at the same time will that it should
become a universal law,
2. Can borrowing money with no intention to pay be an example?

ANALYSI
S
What are the consequences on you, on the lender and on others when you
borrow money with no intention to pay back?

Can borrowing money with no intention to pay back be universalized as a

maxim?

o ABSTRACTIO
N
Kant's Deontological Ethics
Kant's Ethics is now referred to as deontological. The term deontological has
its root from the Greek "deon" which means Hence-deont&ogieabethies
focuses on "duty, obligation, and rights" instead of consequences or ends. An act
that proceeds from the will which wills it because it can be the will of all is a right
action. Willing and doing the will of all is a duty, regardless of the
consequences. The following clarifies Kant's duty-based approach:
The duty-based approach, sometimes called deontological
Chapter IV: Frameworks and Principles Behind Moral
Frameworks
The Duty
Framework
Lesson 4: Kant's Deontological
Ethics:

ethics, sam
argued e
for
that doing all
what is ratio
right is not nal
about the crea
consequen ture
ces of our s
actions (the
(somethin y
g over are
which we univ
ultimately ersa
have no l),
control) and
but about kno
having the wle
proper dge
intention of
in wha
performin t
g the thes
actiom e
The obli
ethical gati
action is ons
one taken enta
from duty, il is
that is, it arri
is done ved
precisely at
because it by
is our disc
obligation over
to perform ing
the action. rule
Ethical s of
obligation beh
s are the avio
ETHICS: LIFEAS IT OUGHT TO BE
r that are time
not will
contradict that it
ed by shoul
reasom d
Kant beco
's famous me a
formula unive
for rsal
discoveri law. "
ng our So,
ethical for
duty is exam
known as ple,
the lying
"categori is
cal uneth
imperativ ical
e. " It has becau
a number se we
of could
different not
versions, unive
but Kant rsaliz
believed e a
they all maxi
amounted m
to the that
same said
imperativ "One
e. The shoul
most d
basic alwa
form of ys
the lie. "
imperativ Such
e is: "Act a
only maxi
according m
to that woul
maxim by d
which rende
you can r all
at the speec
same hes
Chapter IV: Frameworks and Principles Behind Moral
Frameworks
The Duty
Framework
meaningl d to
ess. We be
can, ration
however, al
universali accor
ze the ding
maxim, to our
"Always own
speak unive
truthfully, rsal
" without reaso
running n, we
into a are
logical actin
contradict g
ion. auton
(Notice omou
that the sly
dutybased (in a
approach selfre
says gulati
nothing ng
about fashi
how easy on),
or and
difficult it thus
would be are
to carry boun
out these d by
maxims, duty,
only that a
it is our duty
duty as we
rational have
creatures given
to do so.) ourse
In acting lves
according as
to a law ration
that we al
have creat
discovere ures.
ETHICS: LIFEAS IT OUGHT TO BE
We thus d
freely e
choose ci
(we will) si
to bind o
ourselves n
to the m
moral a
law. For ki
Kant, n
choosing g:
to obey I
the n
universal the
moral law Dut
is the y
very fram
nature of ewo
acting rk,
ethically. we
(Mackino focu
n, B. and s on
Fiola A., the
2015) duti
The example, es
borrowing money and
with no intention to obli
pay back, cannot be gati
universalized and ons
therefore cannot be that
ethical. If this we
becomes have
universalized, there in a
will be no more give
lenders and all banks n
will close. situa
tion,
The Duty and
Framework cons
Correspondin ider
gly, the dutybased what
approach can be ethic
applied as a al
framework for ethical obli
Chapter IV: Frameworks and Principles Behind Moral
Frameworks
The Duty
Framework
gations g
o
we have
a
and what l
things we
should i
never do. s
Ethical
p
conduct is e
defined r
by doing f
one's o
r
duties and m
doing the i
right n
thing, and g
the goal is
t
performin h
g the e
correct
c
o
r
131 r
e
c
Kant's famous t
fomula for
discovering our a
ethical duty is known c
as the t
"categorical imperative. " i
o
n
The most basic form .
of the imperative is:
"Act only according to
that maxim by which
you can at the same 132
time will that it should
become a universal
law." "...an
action
is
Ethical conduct is right
defined by doing one's if it
duties and doing the can
right thing, and the coexis
ETHICS: LIFEAS IT OUGHT TO BE
t with everyone's is
freedom in ethic
accordance with a
ally
universal law,
orifon its maxim
corre
the freedom of ct or
choice of each can a
coexist with duty
everyone's is
freedom in
requi
accordance with a
universal law. " red,
it
woul
d
Universal law
apply
means a maxim
that can be the
to
maxim of all. every
perso
n in a
What is legal must given
be at the same situat
time moral An
ion.
action is legally
right ifit is at the This
same time in even-
accordance with hand
universal law, that ednes
is, in accordance s
with the
categorical
enco
imperative. urage
action. s
This treati
framewor ng
k has the every
advantag one
e of with
creating a equal
system digni
Of rules ty
that has and
consisten respe
t ct.
expectati T
ons of all his
people; if fram
an action ewor
Chapter IV: Frameworks and Principles Behind Moral
Frameworks
The Duty
Framework
k also mand
focuses ates
on or
following forbi
moral ds
rules or certai
duty n
regardles cours
s of es
outcome, ofacti
so it on.
allows H
for the owe
possibilit ver,
y that one this
might fra
have me
acted wor
ethically, k
even if also
there is a has
bad its
result. limi
Therefore tatio
, this ns.
framewor Firs
k works t, it
best in can
situations app
where ear
there is a cold
sense of and
obligatio imp
n or in erso
those in nal,
which we in
need to that
consider it
why duty mig
or ht
obligatio requ
n ire
ETHICS: LIFEAS IT OUGHT TO BE
actions actio
which are n is
known to right
produce if it
harms, can
even coex
though ist
they are with
strictly in ever
keeping yone
with a 's
particular free
moral rule. dom
It also in
does not acco
provide a rdan
way to ce
determine with
which duty uni
we should vers
follow we al
are law,
presented or if
with a on
situation in its
which two max
or more im
duties the
conflict, It free
can also be dom
rigid in of
applying choi
the notion ce of
ofduty to each
everyone can
regardless coex
ofpersonal ist
situation. with
ever
Kant's theory of yone
right 's
According to Kant, free
the hitliversal principle dom
Of right" is that "an in
acco
Chapter IV: Frameworks and Principles Behind Moral
Frameworks
The Duty
Framework
rdance with a universal b
law" In other words, e
your exercise freely ju
whatever rights you st
have on your property fo
but only in accordance ll
with universal law. o
Universal law means a w
maxim that can be the in
maxim of all. You can g
use, dispose, enjoy its th
fruits, but only in such a e
way that you do not la
violate the rights of w
others. This exercise of a ,
right bearing in mind the b
obligation to respect the ut
right of Others d
tantamount to good faith oi
or good will. n
g
Legally and Morally m
Right or
It appears that in e
Kant, what is legal th
must be at the same a
time moral An action n
is legally right if it is w
at the same time in h
accordance with at
universal law, that is, th
in accordance with e
the categorical la
imperative. In another w
context, what is legal re
is not necessarily q
moral. For instance, ui
wha is legal is limited re
to compliance with s
law, be it laws of a li
state or country. but k
being moral may not e
ETHICS: LIFEAS IT OUGHT TO BE
responding to the "
need of another. I
Paying an employee n
his minimum wage is e
v
legal; but paying
e
more than his r
minimum wage t
because of care and o
concern of his needs a
is more than what is c
legal. t
Lesson 4: Kant's Deontological Ethics:

Good will o
Kant says, t
"Nothing can possibly h
be conceived in the e
world, or even out of it, r
which can be called t
good without h
qualification, except a a
good will." Kant's n
criteria or framework of s
what is right or wrong o
is "good will". An act is t
said to be right or h
wrong depending on a
whether it is done with t
or without good will. I
The rightness or c
wrongness of an action o
depends on one's good u
will or intentions. The l
usual criticism, or d
weakness cited, w
regarding this concept il
is that "The road to hell l
is paved with good t
intentions." Is good will h
enough? a
t
Categorical m
Imperative: To y
serve the will as a m
principle Kant has a
two (2) versions of x
the categorical i
imperative. The m
first version states s
Chapter IV: Frameworks and Principles Behind Moral
Frameworks
The Duty
Framework
hould become a m
universal law." If a
one cannot wish or k
want that a certain e
rule or maxim s
becomes the maxim o
of all, that it is not n
right to follow it, e
For instance, one a
cannot will that "
"thou shalt steal" u
becomes a rule to s
be followed by all e
because others may r.
ultimately and steal "
his property. One I
cannot wish that n
"killing" becomes c
the maxim of all o
because he would n
not of course wish t
that someone will e
come to kill him. m
The second p
version is as o
follows: "Always r
treat humanity, a
whether in your r
own person or that y
of another, never p
simply as a means h
but always at the il
same time as an o
end." Treating the s
another merely as a o
means to an end p
means equating him h
to a mere y
instrument, a tool, ,
an object which is li
cast aside after use, k
or can be sold or e
exchanged when no M
longer needed, or a
has value only for r
as long as it is c
useful. Such act e
ETHICS: LIFEAS IT OUGHT TO BE
l or Buber's term, it m
is treating the other u
as an IT, a thing. s
That's why they call t
the act as "thing- i
ization." In the n
parable of "Hope d
for the Flowers" by e
Trina Paulus, e
Stripe's climbing d
the caterpillar's b
pillar to reach to e
top, where all that p
could be seen as a o
reward of climbing s
are other s
caterpillar's pillars, i
was no other way b
than stepping on l
other caterpillars as e
a means of moving u
up higher. n
Ought implies d
Can. This means e
that If and only if r
we can or are free to n
act in certain ways a
can we be t
commanded to do u
so. This is one more r
moral principle a
ascribed to Kant, l
derived from two c
passages in his o
works. One is stated n
as follows: "For if d
the moral law it
commands that we i
ought to be better o
human beings now, n
it inescapably s
follows that we .
must be capable of "
being better human T
beings." Another h
one states as e
follows: "The action S
to which the it
"ought" applies u
Chapter IV: Frameworks and Principles Behind Moral
Frameworks
The Duty
Framework
ation Ethics author, u
Joseph Fletcher, n
used this maxim d
e
several times to
r
illustrate his
situationism. In full n
statement the saying a
would be, "If I t
ought to do u
something, then I r
can do it." By way a
of logical analysis, l
the statement
c
means, one's ability
o
to do something is a
n
necessary condition d
for his being i
obliged to do it. In t
Fletcher's terms, i
''you are obliged to o
do only what you n
can where you are." s
:

133

An act is said to be
right or wrong
depending on
whether it is done
with or without good
will The rightness or
wrongness of an
action depends on I
one S good will or f
intentions, l

o
u
g
h
t

t
"The action to o
which the "ought"
applies must d
indeed be possible o
 ETHICS: LIFEAS IT OUGHT TO BE
134 something, then I 2.
can dolt State
th
AS e
se
c
"I can" may also o
be interpreted to n
mean one's degree of d
freedom, if by v
freedom we er
understand as what si
Hornedo said about it, o
''the autonomous n
energy of being." of
Since the degree of K
one's freedom is the a
degree of one's nt
responsibility. 's
Hornedo says, the c
stuff of freedom is at
energy or strength. It e
follows that the g
degree of one's or
obligation is also the ic
degree of one's al
freedom, One can no i
more be responsible m
than what he can p
knowingly, freely, and er
voluntarily do. at
iv
e.
APPLICATIO G
N iv
e
l. What is ethical is in a
accordance with c
first version of o
Kant's categorical n
imperative. State it cr
and illustrate with et
a concrete e
example. e
Chapter IV: Frameworks and Principles Behind Moral
Frameworks
The Duty
Framework
xample ofusing 5. A
people. n
"
3. For Kant, the
o
rightness or
u
wrongness of an
g
action depends on
ht
one's good will or
"
Intentions. Is this
i
enough? "The road
m
to hell is paved
pl
with good
ie
intentions."
s
4. Speaking of Kant's a
good will, the "c
greatest teacher, a
Jesus Christ, n
taught: ".
when you pray, I
do not be like the a
hypocrites, for m
they love to pray o
standing by the bl
synagogues and on ig
the street comers e
to be seen by men. d
(Matthews 6:5) to
. So when you d
give to the needy, o
do not sound a o
trumpet before nl
you, as the y
hypocrites do in th
the synagogues at
and on the streets, w
to be praised by hi
men. .Matthew c
6:2) Do the h
teachings of Jesus I
Christ support c
Kant's good will? a
How? n
ETHICS: LIFEAS IT OUGHT TO BE
do. "This is all that
I can do for my
family muttered a
laborer father to
himself who is
alcoholic and a
chain smoker. Is
the father acting in
accordance with
"ought implies I
can"?
6. One can no more
be responsible
than what he can
knowingly, freely,
and voluntarily do.
What should you
do so that you
grow in your
freedom, in your
ability to perform
your duty to do
good?
 Moral Frameworks
The Duty Framework
Chapter IV: Frameworks and Principles Behind Lesson
4: Kant's Deontological Ethics:

135
KEY TAKEAWAYS
What is ethical according to Kant's deontological framework is the action
taken from duty, that is, it is done precisely because it is our obligation to
perform the action.
Ethical obligations are the same for all rational creatures (universal), and
knowledge of what these obligations entail is arrived at by discovering rules
of behavior that are not contradicted by reason.
You act ethically when you apply Kant's famous formula for ethical duty
known as the "categorical imperative." The most basic form of the imperative
is: "Act only according to that maxim by which you can at the same time will
that it should become a universal law."
You act ethically also when you apply the second version of the "categorical
imperative, "Always treat humanity, whether in your own person or that of
another, never simply as a means but always at the same time as an end."
An action is legally right if it is at the same time in accordance with universal
law, that is, in accordance with the categorical imperative.
Any action is right if it can coexist with everyone's freedom in accordance with
a universal law, or if on its maxim the freedom of choice of each can coexist
with everyone's freedom in accordance with a universal law.
An act is said to be right or wrong depending on whether or not it is done
with or without good will. The rightness or wrongness of an action depends
on one's good will or intentions.
An action is right if it can coexist with everyone's freedom in accordance with
a universal law.
Ought implies can. One is obliged only to do what he/she can where he/she is. Your
ability to perform an obligation is determined by your degree of freedom. One can
no more be responsible than what he can knowingly, freely, and voluntarily do.

1. What is ethical according to deontological or duty framework?

2. Is a legal act a moral act?
3. ''Use things; love people." Is this in accordance with the second version of Kant's
categorical imperative?

How do you evaluate yourself in terms of the second version of Kant's

categorical imperative: "Always treat humanity, whether in your own person
 ETHICS: LIFEAS IT OUGHT TO BE
or that ofanother, never simply as a means but always at the same time as an
end."
Do you recall times when you ended up using people. What are these instances?
Do these
help you to
become
ethical?

136

AS
 Chapter IV: Frameworks and Principles Behind Moral Frameworks
Lesson 5: Utilitarianism: The Consequentialist Ethical Framework
137
Nature has placed mankind under the governance of two
sovereign masters, pain and pleasure. It is for them alone to point out
what we ought to do... By the principle of utility is meant that principle
which approves or disapproves of every action whatsoever according
to the tendency it appears to have to augment or diminish the
happiness of the party whose interest is in question: or, what is the gutility"or
same thing in other words to promote or to oppose that happiness. I the "greatest
say of every action whatsoever, and therefore not only of every action happiness
of a private individual, but of every measure of government. principle" holds
that actions are
Similarly, John Stuart (1861) Mill's What Utilitarianism Is, opens with the right in
proportion as
following paragraph:
they tend to

The creed which accepts as the foundation of morals promote

"utility" or the "greatest happiness principle" holds that happiness;
actions are right in proportion as they tend to promote wrong as they
happiness; wrong as they tend to produce the reverse of tend to produce
the reverse of
happiness. By happiness is intended pleasure and the happiness.
absence ofpain; by unhappiness, pain and the privation
ofpleasure.
Utilitarianism is
In brief, utilitarianism as a moral principle is "the principle of utility or the prin.
the greatest happiness principle." It is also phrased as the principle of "the ciple of fre
greatest good Of the greatest number," This is the quality (greatest good) and greatest good of
quantity (greatest number) criteria. Among various options, that which is the greatest
numbett "
objectively good in quality and most like by a majority is possibly the
greatest good for the greatest number. An illustration may be the passage of a
minimum wage law. The quality of the law, its determination as the greatest
good, the best among other bills, is arrived through the debates and
discussions in Congress. Once the best version of the law is forged, it is put What is ethical
into a vote. The vote may reflect whether or not it will be accepted and will according to the
benefit the greatest number. Utilitarianism is a "form of consequentialism," consequentia/ist,
focusing "on the consequences of action." in contrast with deontology utilitarianist is
There are. two versions, namely, act utilitarianism and rule that which gives
pleasure and
utilitarianism. "Act utilitarianism: consider the consequences of some happiness as a
particular act such as keeping or breaking one's promise." ''Rule consequence?
utilitarianism: consider the consequences of some practice or rule behavior—
for example, the practice of promise-keeping or promise-breaking." (p. 101)
Whichever, whether act or practice of rule, if they produce good
consequences, the act or the practice of the rule would be right.
Simply put, what is ethical according to the consequentialist,
 ETHICS: LIFEAS IT OUGHT TO BE
utilitarianist ethical framework? That which is ethical is that which gives
pleasure and happiness as a consequence. That is what the song In heaven
there is no beer; that's why we drink beer here" implies. That which is
 ETHICS: LIFE AS IT OUGHT TO BE
138
unethical is that which gives pain and unhappiness. That which is ethical is
that which produces the greatest good (happiness) for the greatest number
The Consequentialist Framework
For The following describes the application of the consequentialist
Bentham framework:
and Mill, to In the Consequentialist framework, we focus on the future effects
avoidpain
of the possible courses of action, considering the people who will be
and to
pursue directly or indirectly affected. We ask about what outcomes are desirable
pleasure — in a given situation, and consider ethical conduct to be whatever will
intellectual achieve the best consequences. The person using the Consequences
pleasure framework desires to produce the most good.
For Bentham and Mill, avoid pain, pursue pleasure. That is what it
means to be ethical. What kind of pleasure is morally preferred? Mill
asserts intellectual pleasure. So it is not physical pleasure as expressed
by the song of the alcoholic "In heaven, there is no beer; that's why we
drink beer here." Mill wrote:
It is better to be a human being dissatisfied than a pig
satisfied; better to be Socrates dissatisfied than a fool
satisfied. And if the fool, or the pig is, of a different opinion,
it is because they only know their own side of the question.
The other party to the comparison knows both sides. (Mill,
1907)
APPLICATI
ON

1. For Bentham and Mill pleasure is what is moral and ethical. Does pleasure
here mean self-gratification?

2. Are all pains ethically bad? What about the pains of martyrdöm and
acts of heroism?

3. The utilitarianist advises us to avoid pain to be ethical. How can you

reconcile this with Catholic and Muslim tradition of fasting and
abstinence? Are these not sources of discomfort and pain?

4. Do you believe in the redemptive value of sacrifice, which is pain

basically? One of the eight Beatitudes in the Gospels states: "Happy are the
sorrowing for they shall be consoled."
 ETHICS: LIFEAS IT OUGHT TO BE
Chapter IV: Frameworks and Principles Behind Moral Frameworks
Lesson 5; Utilitarianism: The Consequentialist Ethical Framework
139

KEY
TAKEAWAYS

Increase pleasure and decrease pain for the greatest happiness (greatest
happiness principle) for the greatest number of people (the greatest
number principle" is what is ethical according to the utilitarianists.
Mill asserts intellectual pleasure over sensual pleasure. He claimed: "It is
better to be a human being dissatisfied than a pig satisfied."

l. What is an ethical behavior based on utilitarianism and consequence ethical

framework?

Mill claims it is better to be a human being dissatisfied than a pig satisfied!

What did he mean? Do you agree? Explain.

What criticisms are given against utilitarianism and consequence ethical

framework? Explain.
REFLECTION
To which kind of pleasure has your life been directed? Were there times
when you had to embrace pain for something you considered more
important? Do you regret having gone through this pain?
2.

3.
 ETHICS: LIFEAS IT OUGHT TO BE
ETHICS: LIFE AS IT OUGHT TO BE

140
 Chapter IV: Frameworks and Principles Behind Moral Frameworks
Lesson 6: The Love and Justice Framework

141
ABSTRACTION
The principle of love
There are three well-known concepts of love originating from the
Agape is the
Greeks, namely, agape or charity, erotic or passionate sexual encounter, love
and philia, the affection between friends. Love as a moral framework is principle
the agapeic. Agape is the love principle preached by Jesus Christ. What preached by
Jesus Christ.
Christ did as narrated in the New Testament are all acts of love. Feeding
the hungry, giving drinks to the thirsty, healing the sick, rendering service St Thomas
defined it,
to those in need. In general, as St. Thomas defined it, agape is "willing the
agape is
good of another." It is the act of sharing, or giving more than what is just %yilling the
because justice is just the minimum of love. In the language of good of
another. "
contemporary thinkers, this is love as "affrmation of the other's being,"
'being-with-others," "being conscious of the other's presence."
In Joseph Fletcher's situation ethics, agapeic love is absolute norm, love is
"affirmation
the absolute framework for the determination of the right th_ing to do or of the other's
wrong to avoid. In moral reasoning, it is *ed, is it an act of loving? Fr. being, "
Bernard Haring, the advocate of ethics of personalism, was also quoted as "being-
saying, "(t)he heart of moral life is charity to one's neighbor." mthothers, "
"being
conscious of
the other'
Justice and Fairness: Promoting the Common Good as a Moral presence."
Framework
a. Social Justice
Love is giving
Social justice is equal access to wealth, opportunities, and privileges more than
within soéietYi Hence, promotion of social justice is equivalent to what isjust
promotion of the common good. It may also be said that promotion of the because 'ustice
is just the
common good is promotion of social justice. The common good is minimum of
explained as follows: love.

In ordinary political discourse, the "common good" refers to Social justice is

those facilities—whether material, cultural or institutional—that the equal access to
wealth,
members of a community provide to all members in order to fulfill a opportunities,
relational obligation they all have to care for certain interests that and privileges
they have in common. Some canonical examples of the common within society.
Hence,
good in a modern liberal democracy include: the road system; public promotion of
parks; police protection and public safety; courts and the judicial swaljustice is
equivalent to
system; public schools; museums and cultural institutions; public promotion ofthe
transportation; civil liberties, such as the freedom of speech and the common good
freedom of association; the system of property; clean air and clean
water; and national defense. The term itself may refer either to the
interests that members have in common or to the facilities that serve

'
 ETHICS: LIFEAS IT OUGHT TO BE
ETHICS: LIFE AS IT OUGHT TO BE

142
common interests. For example, people may say, "the new public
library will serve the common good" or "the public library is part of
the common good."
In other words, it may be said that when the government
For Plato, improves public property and services, and develops the natural
justice means resources, it simultaneously promotes equal access to wealth,
giving what
is due by
opportunities and privileges within society. Farm to market roads,
doing oneG expressways, railways, etc. will allow every individual the
own opportunities to bring their products to the market. Free public
schools will allow all children the opportunity to go to school. This
means social justice.
For Plato, justice means giving what is due by doing one's own
function. In Plato's Republic, there are three classes of people,
namely, the craftsmen, soldiers and rulers or guardian. The virtues
expected to be inherent in each class are correspondingly
temperance, courage and wisdom. Each member of its class must
acquire and maintain the virtue in their class. Craftsmen should be
temperant in all aspects of their lives, temperant in acquiring, using
and keeping their wealth; temperant in their ambition. If they
become ambitious and hypocritical by aspiring to become soldiers
and pretending to be soldiers, injustice arises because they won't be
able to secure the country. A policeman is just when he does his job,
providing security of his people with courage. He becomes unjust
when instead of patrolling the streets to drive bad elements, he is
going around soliciting tongs. When he does not do his job by
sleeping while on duty, then a lot people will suffer from the
Mlliam unrestrained criminalities. A guardian is a philosopher king, He
Luijpen, possesses all the virtues of temperance, courage and wisdom. ue has
referred to the duty of wisely studying and identifying solutions to the problems
justice as the of peace and order, equitable distribution of wealth, etc. If he is not
minimum temperant, i.e. he is number one in graft and corruption, if he is a
demand of coward and has no will power, or political will to introduce what is
love." To do
justice is
best for the people, and if he is not a wise president, then injustice
already an act results and the people suffer.
of love, the
minimum
demand of b. Justice as the Minimum Demand of Love
love. Which
means that William Luljpen, referred to justice as "the minimum demand
love is more, of love." To do justice is already an act of love, the minimum
gives more demand of love. Which means that love is more, gives more than
than what is what is just. Mathematically, if love is 100 percent of being for
just
others, then justice may just be only 10 percent. A just employer
pays the minimum wage to employees, a loving employer, pays
more than the minimum wage, even when it hurts. If there are two
people lost in the cold and one has two jackets and the other has
none, justice demands that one
 ETHICS: LIFEAS IT OUGHT TO BE

Chapter IV: Frameworks and Principles Behind Moral Frameworks

Lesson 6: The Love and Justice Framework

should share the other his other jacket, the least that he can go, but that 143
is just the minimum demand of love.
Distributive
'Iftireis
c. Distributive Justice "justice that is
Distributive justice is "justice that is concerned with the concemed with
the distribution
distribution or allotment of goods, duties, and privileges in concert
or allotment of
with the merits of individuals, and the best interests of society." The goods, duties,
following have features of distributive justice: and phvileges
in concert with
a) Egalitarianism is the doctrine of political and social equality. "No the merits
person shall be deprived of life, liberty, or property without due ofindividuafs
process of law; nor shall any person be denied the equal protection and the best
of the law." This is not equalization in terms of quantity; it is interests of
society.
equalization in terms of entitlement to due process of law and equal
protection of the law
Egalitarianism
b) Capitalist and free-market systems let the law of demand and supply is the doctrine
follow its course. Ideally it is a self-regulation process. It lets any ofpolitical and
social equality.
excess of demand be regulated by the limits of supply, and lets any "No person shall
excess of supply be regulated by the limits of demand. This means be depöved of
no artificial control or regulations. It is supposed to arrive naturally fife, liberty or
property without
at its own equilibrium. Free market is supposed to be an equalizer: due process of
During waiting time for natural course of things, public necessities law; nor shall
any person be
or utilities may demand immediate intervention which should be denied the equal
more of an exception than the rule. protection of the
law. •

c) Socialists follow the rule, "from each according to his ability, to each
according to his needs." This requires collective ownership of the
means of production, distribution and exchange with the aim of
operating for use rather than for profit. Possible downside of this Capitalist and
system is there is no motivation for expansion and growth, free-market
systems let the
faw ofdemand
d) Taxation is government's getting a part of what its people earn in and supply
order have money to spend for public services, operating and tlfow its course
maintaining public places or properties, for people's use. It is
practically demanding from taxpayers a minimum of justice, to make Ideally it is a
self-regulation
the enjoyment of the wealth at least more equitable although not process. It lets
equalizer: It is a government interference with private property, more any excess of
demand be
or less compelling people to give a share from the fruits of their regulated by the
labor, a way of compelling diffusion of wealth. limits ofsupply,
and lets any
excess of
e) Protection and Preservation of Public Welfare — The government
has constitution-granted power to govern, to make, adopt and supply be
regulated by the
enforce laws for the protection and preservation of public health, limits of
demand.
 ETHICS: LIFEAS IT OUGHT TO BE
ETHICS: LIFEAS IT OUGHT TO BE
144
justice, morals, order, safety and security and welfare. The
Constitution also gives a government the right to take private property
for public use under the doctrine of eminent domain.

The f) Property for Public Use——The government has a Constitution—

government granted power to take private property for public use with just
has a
compensations Citizen's ownership of property is not absolute. For the
Constitution-
sake of the public, the government exercises this power to equitably
-granted
power to take distribute opportunity for the use enjoyment of wealth or property.
private prop.
etty forpublic
use with just Justice as moral framework, be it social or distributive justice,
compensa- states that whatever promotes justice is the morally right thing to do.

The Better Moral Framework: Garner and Rosen's Synthesis

Richard T. Garner and Bernard Rosen (1967) tried to identify the most
acceptable criterion of the rightness or wrongness of action, the goodness or
Justice as
badness of character or of personal life. For these authors, the best
moral
framework is a synthesis of the teleological and deontological framework
framework, be
The rightness or wrongness of action and the goodness or badness of
it social or
character or trait is a function of (meaning it depends on) not only the end,
distributive
object, or consequences of applying a rule (rule utilitarianism) or doing an
justice, states
that whatever
act (act utilitarianism), but also other bases like one's sense of duty and good
promotes
will (rule or act deontology). This means one arrives at an assessment of the
justice rightness or wrongness of an act, goodness or badness Of a character or trait
promotes that by considering not only the consequences (affecting not only the self but also
which is the others) of applying a rule or doing an act, but also considering other factors
morally right like the sitÜation or conditions involved
thing to do,
In summary, what is ethical based on the various ethical frameworks?
What are the questions to ask? Will it actualize my potentialities, my abilities?
(Aristotle's virtue ethics). Is the act in accordance with Natural Law? (St
Thomas). What are the consequences of doing the act? (Utilitarianism). Will it
benefit myself (egoistic utilitarianism) or others (altruistic utilitarianism). Do I
see it as my duty or obligation? (deontological), Is it my duty to follow the
rule (rule deontology) or is it my duty to do the act (act deontology). Is it a
rule I can follow or an act to do to the limits of my ability where I am at a
particular time? (situation ethics). Does my principle of love demand a
creative response requiring me to go beyond the limits sacrificing myself even
unto death? (Love ethical framework) Does it promote justice, the common
good? (Justice ethical framework).
 ETHICS: LIFEAS IT OUGHT TO BE
145

APPLICATI
ON

I. Is the new law on free tuition pro-poor or anti-poor? Immediately, the

answer is YES! But is it anti-poor when the state universities do very
competitive selective admission to get the best among thousands of
applicants due to limited facilities? Who are those that pass selective
admission tests? Is it not usually those more amuent because they have
better basic education preparation, more facilities at home etc.

2. 2.3% of the electric bill of every household using 200 kilowatt-hours a

month is payment for system's loss due to electricity theft or pilgrimage
through illegal connections.
Why punish the faithful paying consumers to pay for those who steal
their electricity? Is this social justice?

3. Do you agree with socialized tuition, progressive taxation, socialialized

housing, socialized hospital bills, the Pantawid Pamilyang Pilipino
Program (4Ps)? Are these in accordance with justice?

4. Taxation is practically demanding from taxpayers a minimum of justice,

to make the enjoyment of the wealth at least more equitable although not
equalizer. Is the Tax Reform for Acceleration and Inclusion (TRAIN)
Act, offcially cited as Republic Act No. 10963, an act of justice? Explain
your answer.

5. To explain 'the concept of socialism completely a Social Science

professor gave all students the same grade in a course. Did this act
explain the socialist concept of ''From each according to his ability; to
each according to his need." Explain your answer.

6. The practice of Corporate Social Responsibility (CSR) means that

corporations "can do good and do well at the same time," What does the
quote mean? Is this a genuine act of social justice?

7. The clothes in your closet that you have not worn for years now (you
have so many) and the expired food from your refrigerator that you
throw away belong to the poor. Do you agree?
 Chapter IV: Frameworks and Principles Behind Moral
Frameworks
Lesson 6: The Love and Justice Framework
ETHICS: LIFE AS IT OUGHT TO BE
152

Chapter V
GLOBALIZATION AND ITS
CRITICAL CHALLENGES
Focus Questions:
• What do globalization, pluralism and fundamentalism
mean?
• What are characteristics of millennials and fillennials?
• What is the role of religion in ethics?

Lesson 1 Globalization and

Pluralism: New
Challenges in Ethics

Intended Learning Outcomes:

• Explain the meaning of globalization
• Identify the moral challenges that globalization brings

INTRODUCTION

This Lesson is devoted to a discussion on the meaning

of globalization, the moral challenges that globalization brings,
global ethics and environmental ethics. It also presents global
issues that require ethical considerations.

ACTIVITY
As a class, sing "It's a Small World" by Richard M. Sherman and
ETHICS: LIFEAS IT OUGHT TO BE
Robert B. Sherman. https://www.youtube.com/watch?
v=CbIhYhrOJAg
It's a world of laughter,
A world of tears
It's a world of hope
And a world of fears.
There's so much that we share.
That it's time
we're aware It's a
small world after
all.
It's a small world after all.
 Chapter V: Globalization and Its Critical Challenges
Lesson I: Globalization and Pluralism: New Challenges in Ethics

It's a small world after all. 153

It's a small world after all.
It's a small, small world.
There is just one moon
And one golden sun; And
a smile means
Friendship to ev'ryone.
Though the mountains divide
And the oceans are wide
It's a small world after all.
It's a small world after all.
It's a small world after all.
It's a small world after all.
It's a small, small world. It's a world of
laughter, A world of tears.
It's a world of hope
And a world of fears.
There's so much that we share,
That it's time we're aware
It's a small world after all.
It's a small world after all. It's
a small world after all. It's a
small world after all. It's a
small, small world.
(Source: Musixmatch It's a Small World lyrics @ WONDERLAND MUSIC CO. INC.,
WONDERLAND MUSIC COMPANY INC.)
(Note: An alternative: We Are The World by Michael Jackson)

ANALYSIS
the song is your favorite? Why?
that our world is a small word after all?
suggest a global world? How?
L Which line of Globalization
2. Do you agree means 'the
3. Does the song erosion of
national
boundaries
and the
means "the erosion of national boundaries and the reduced
Of national governments." Suter, Ke, 2006). It significance of
Globalization Defined national
Globalization is with borders to a world without." Nation
reduced govemments "
significance "moving from states
a but they have to work together with
other centers 1) transnational corporations, 2)
world will remain in existence
of power such as intergovernment
 ETHICS: LIFEAS IT OUGHT TO BE

Chapter V: Globalization and Its Critical Challenges

Lesson 1: Globalization and Pluralism: New Challenges in Ethics

consciousness, "a perspective that takes all human beings and their habitats 155

as its subject," with the purpose to lay bare "the ethical propositions that
underpin injustice and inequality in a globalized world and to devise ideal
The
distributions of resources and responsibilities that would make our world challenge of
fairer." The greatest •good of the greatest number is no longer the greatest globalization
good of the greatest number within their localities but the greatest good of is no longer
the greatest number of the citizens of the world. the greatest
good of the
greatest
Global Ethics number
Globalization includes the observance of global ethics (with an "s"). within their
localities but
Global ethics is concerned with the critical ethical inquiry into the nature and the greatest
justification of values and norms that are global in kind and into the various good of the
issues that arise such as world poverty and international aid, environmental greatest
problems, peace and security, intervention, human rights, gender equality, number of
child labour, torture, scarce resources, trafficking, migration, climate change, the citizens
of the world
global trade, medical tourism, ,
(Source: htps://www.cqmhridgeærg/GQreÆook$/glQbal-eth(cs/what-is-g(Q&gl-e(hics/07406573
9F9åEQF79ECA11SQ8E?1FEB7

There are global problems or issues that require corresponding ethical

considerations.

1. Global Poverty
Is there a moral duty to help the global poor? Should wealthy nations
share their wealth to the poor nations? A quotation traced by St. Thomas to
There is a
its author, St. Ambrose states: "It is the hungry man's bread that you moral
withhold" or hoard. Fr. Gerry Orbos, SVD said: "If only we learned to obligation of
share, no one will have so little, and no one will have too much." Of wealthy
course, the basis of the moral obligation is the principle of love. Some nations to
help the
countries cannot help being poor, due lack of resources, or technical global poor.
knowhow to develop and manage their resources. Wealthy nations are "If only we
lucky they have both in place, resources and skills of management, learned to
compounded by a culture of honesty and discipline. Poor nations are share, no one
unlucky they are governed by dictators who are also corrupt. Because from will have a
little and no
the very start, they are already on the disadvantage or losing end, the one will have
Vatican adopted the policy of preferential option for the poor. too much.
There is a moral obligation of wealthy nations to help the global poor.
But it is not as simple as giving dole outs or donations. For instance, if the
wealthy farmers of USA have bumper crop, their moral obligation to help
the global poor is not as simple as merely delivering their excess
production to the latter. The economists have to consider
 how to maintain prices of the products that will make the farmers survive.
Those who have none or less in products are best helped by assisting
them in production.

ETHICS: LIFE AS IT OUGHT TO BE

156

2. Migration
People living in poor places, or being ruled by oppressive,
dictatorial or tyranmc regimes long to migrate to places where they
believe life is better. The moral or ethical issue is whether or not the
The moral or receiving countries, in a Christian spirit, will simply open their doors
ethical issue is
whether or not without considering the negative impact of the migrants on their own
the receiving citizens. There is a limit to the absorptive capacity of the receiving
countries, in a
Christian spirit, countries; they may even end up regretting why they open their doors in
will simply the first place, especially when some Of the migrants manage to enter to
open their
doors without
enforce their mission to inflict harm.
considering the
negative 3. Environmental Ethics
impact of the
migrants on Is it possible to derive an "ought" with regard to the environment?
their own Why should I not throw my garbage of plastic into the river? Why
citizens.
should my car pass the anti-smoke belching test? Why should I not
dump my garbage to another country? Why should nations stop emitting
pollutants into the atmosphere, particularly carbon dioxide? What is the
basis of the moral obligation? It may be stated as one's obligation not to
Environmental tamper with the environment which boomerangs as harm to humans.
ethics states
that there is a One should not do things that will ultimately cause harm to others. The
moral duty of biblical mandate to "have dominion" over the environment means
moral agents to responsible dominion, stewardship. In contrast, we have ''raped" our
protect orat
least refrain
environment.
damaging' the
environment.
Environmental ethics states that there is a moral duty of moral
The basis of the agents "to protect or at least refrain from damaging" the environment.
duty lies in the
environment's The basis of the duty lies in the environment's "intrinsic value", its
Intinsic value,'
its goodness in goodness in itself. Its use and development should be sustainable, that is,
itself. Its use its use and development to "meet the needs of the present" should not
should be
compromise its ability to meet the needs of future generations.
sustainable, that ''Whatever the future holds, many thinkers now believe that solving the
is, its use and problems of climate change is an essential ingredient in any credible
development to
•meet the needs
form of sustainable development and that the alternative to decisive
of the present" action may result in the diminution not only of nature and natural
should not systems, but also of human dignity itself." (From "Environmental
compromise its
ability to meet Ethics," Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy, Plato.stanford.edW
the needs of 06/21/2019)
 ETHICS: LIFEAS IT OUGHT TO BE
future 4. Pluralism vs. Fundamentalism
generations.
As a political philosophy, pluralism is the recognition and
affirmation of diversity within a political body, which permits the
peaceful coexistence of different interests, convictions and lifestyles.
Pluralism as to content refers to diversity, to differences in values and
beliefs, and to notions of "otherness." Pluralism about morality "may be

Chapter V: Globalization and Its Critical Challenges

Lesson 1: Globalization and Pluralism: New Challenges in Ethics

understood as a form of relativism which holds that there is no single 157

objective or universal standard." The challenge is to find common
grounds and build up from there. The question to ask in all meetings is,
what is morally best for all parties and not what is legal or lawful. Despite plura•
Despite pluralism as an offshoot of globalization, there are sectors lism, there is
who refuse to get out from where they are used to. Their movement is fundamentalism
called fundamentalism. This refers to any sect or movement within a This refers to any
religion that emphasizes a rigid adherence to what it conceives of as the sect or move.
ment within a
fundamental principles of its faith, usually resulting in a denouncement religion that
of alternative practices and interpretations. Whoever is not with them is emphasizes a
''against" them, and therefore an enemy who should be ''piously" killed, rigid adherence to
that is, killed in the name of God. what it conceives
What is needed is a training or education on how to live together: of as the
"Living together" is the affirmation or acceptance of the other inspite of fundamental
who or what he or she is, caring, forgiving, It is the global "oughtness." principles of its
Citizens of the world ought to face the world and learn how to live in it. faith, usually
In fact, "learning to live together" is one of the four pillars Of resulting in a
learning to given by the International Commission on Education for the denouncement of
21st Century headed by Jacques Delors. alternative
practices and
interpretations

1. In the context of globalization, the ASEAN Qualifications Reference

Framework (AQRF) was developed. The Filipino's quest for educational
excellence means meeting global standards laid down in the AQRF and
other international standards. To be globally competitive. Is
globalization a positive factor in a person's desire for self-actualization
as taught by Aristotle?
2. Why is fundamentalism contrary to the spirit of globalization?
3. Is ecumenism in support of globalization?
4. Kendric is excited about the recent focus on global justice within
institutions such as the United Nations. His family emigrated from
Sudan to the United States of America. Kendric thanks this initiative for
 it will help those they left behind. But his brother is not convinced.
Johann remarks: "Nobody helps without asking for something. Most of
the international organizations serve the interests of the countries who
caused our unhappiness to begin with." The rich countries always take
advantage of the poor. They marginalized lots of us and exploited our
natural resources. Then they left us with a mess." Kendric disagrees. "1
don't know why you blame others for the poverty back home. Anyway,
I'm glad that the rich countries are finally helping Johann responds,
"They owe us for what they did to us." (Adapted from MacKinnon,
B. et al, 2015)

158 • With whom do you identify yourself, Kendric or Johann?

• Do rich countries have something to do with the poverty of
poor countries like some countries in Africa?
• Or is it the fault of poor countries that they are poor?
• Do you agree with Johann when he said: "Nobody helps
without asking for something"?
5. Explain the essence of Education for Sustainable Development (ESD)
6. What are transnational corporations Give examples?
7. Explain the meaning of 'Spreferential option of the poor." How can this
help ease global poverty?

KEY TAKEAWAYS
Globalization is "moving from a world with borders to a world
without." Globalization means internationalization, liberalization,
universalization, modernization or Westernization and
deterritorialization.
Global problems require ethical considerations. These include global poverty,
migration, environmental ethics, pluralism vs. fundamentalism.
The moral challenges of globalization are: 1) to expand moral and ethical
consciousness; 2) to observe global ethics; 3) to find common grounds among
pluralistic societies and build on what is morally best for all parties and not
what is legal or lawful, and 4) to engage in a genuine dialogue with
fundamentalists toward mutual understanding and affiimation.

l. Explain what globalization means.

 ETHICS: LIFEAS IT OUGHT TO BE

2. Give and explain 3 ethical challenges of globalization. Discuss how'each

challenge should be resolved.
REFLECTION
How does globalization affect you personally? How do you respond to
the demands of globalization?
Chapter V: Globalization and Its Critical Challenges Lesson 2: Millennials
and FillennialSi Ethical Challenges and Responses
159

Lesson 2 Millennials and Fillennials:

Ethical Challenges and
Responses
Intended Learning Outcomes:
• Describe millennials and fillennials
• Point out traits of the millennials and fillennials that are
inimical to their moral development as human persons

INTRODUCTION

Who are millennials and fillennials? What are their

characteristic traits Do they have traits that are inimical to their
moral development? These questions are the concerns of Lesson 2.

ACTIVITY
View Simon Sinek on Millennials in the,Workplace -
YouTube htt s://www. outube. atch Hwslb

ANALYSIS
I. "What are positive traits of millennials? In what areas do they need
to improve on?
 2. Do you agree with what were said about the millennial?

o ABSTRACTION
Values and Characteristics of the Millennial Generation
Who are Millennials? Those who were born from 1981 to
1996. They are also known as Generation Y They were preceded
by Generation X (1965 to 1980) and were followed by Generation
Z who were born from 1997 to 2012. (Dimock, M. Defining
generations: Where Millennials end and Generation Z begins)_ hit
holar. oo 1 0m. h/ n&as s s =2& —millennials+ en r tions& s
Accessed 6-22-2019)

ETHICS: LIFE AS IT OUGHT TO BE

160

One reported
result of
millennial
optimism is
entering into
adulthood with Neil Howe and William Strauss, authors of the 1991 Generations:
unrealistic
expectations, The History of Americas Future, 1584 to 2069, are credited with coining
which the term. Authors and researchers don't have common agreement as to
sometimes leads dates of beginning and end of each generati:r group.
to
disillusionment.
Their
What characterizes millennials?
expectations One reported result of millennial optimism is entering into
may have with unrealistic expectations which sometimes leads to disillusionme:zz.
resulted from the
very
Their expectations may have resulted from the very encouraging, and
encouraging, almost ever-present group of parents that became known as helicoFe
involved and parents.
almost
everpresent Millennials are a generation that is dependent on technology improve
group of parents their job performance and intends on a flexible schedule strives for a better
that became work-life (Choong, Keh, Tan, Lim & Tho, 2013L Moreover, millennials
 ETHICS: LIFEAS IT OUGHT TO BE
known as were 'targeted due to their highly opinionated demeanor that is often
helicopter
parents.
viewed as troubling, overly demanding, uncommitted to the common
workplace (Smith & Nichols, 201# Being in their demanding youth, they
have relatively fewer familial marital commitments, hence endowing them
with freedom to initiate tbez entrepreneurial prowess in the real world
(Lee, Lee, Chua & Han, 2017).
Millennials are As Smith and Nichols (2015) put it, millennials yearn work
tech-savvy. encompasses meaning, enjoyment, and work-life-balance. .

Other research findings on millenials are given below:

More than anything, millennials are confident. This confidence from
their trust and optimism (Güha, 2010; Kowske, Rasch, & Wiles.. 2010).
Kaifi et al. (2012) felt that a generation's confidence was fostered and
molded by previous generations. Research shows that millennias rank
higher In self-esteem and assertiveness when compared to previozs
generations at that same age (Deal, Altman, & Rogelberg, 2010).
Millennials are known to be achievement-focused. They have a not
only to do well, but to excel and surpass all goals and aspirations et al.,
2012; Kowske et al., 2010). This leads them to seek out new learniæ
opportunities.
Millennials are more willing to put forth extra effort to help
organization succeed. They are more willing to go without social time, sud
as coffee breaks, and work extra hours in order to help an organizatic:.
Hauw and Vos (2010)
Not only are millennials achievement-focused, but they
accountable for their actions. Kowske et al. (2010) explained that
education systems have instilled a sense of accountability and have
the Millennial generation to focus on achieving goals.

Chapter V: Globalization and Its Critical Challenges

Lesson 2: Millennials and Fillennials: Ethical Challenges and Responses
161

Millennials
Millennials enjoy working in teams and are more tolerant than prior enjoy
generations. Millennials have been raised on sports teamS, standardized working in
testing, and group learning, so it is not surprising that this would transfer into teams and are
the workplace (Kowske et al., 2010). more tolerant
than prior
The value of team work has also created tolerance to subjects of which generations.
older generations would not approve. An example of this is demonstrated in a
study conducted by Deal et al. (2010) where they found that, on average,
millennials object less to tattoos than the older generations, especially tattoos
on women. This growth in tolerance can be connected to growing up in a
more diverse world and working in teams to gain new perspectives in getting Millennia's
a project complete (Andert, 2011; Kaifi et al., 2012). are family-
Millennials are family-focused and thus need to have a better work/ life focused and
balahce. This generation grew up with an emphasis on family which has thus need to
created a shift in the workplace (Andert, 2011). have a better
Due to seeing their parents go through economic layoffs and divorces, work/life
Ng, Schweitzer, & Lyons (2010) found that millennials prefer focusing on balance.
their private lives as opposed to their careers. They stated that events like the
September I Ith terrorist attacks Imve helped cause this new shift toward a
more work/life balance.
Millennials enjoy utilizing technology. The Millennial generation
became dependent on technology at an earlier age than other generations.
Deal et al. (2010) found, much like learning a new language, people who
utilize technology at an earlier age become more proficient than people who
learn later in their life. (Kaifi et al, 2012). They are tech-savvy. (Source:
Journal of Business Diversity Vol. 15(1) 2015)
Millennials
Common complaints from baby boomers are that millennials can be can be difficult
diffcult to interact with, are entitled, and overly service-focused (Deal et al., to interact
2010). This comes from millennials expressing opinions and making greater with; are
demands than their elder and more "experienced" counterparts (Levenson, entitled and
2010). known as
Millennials are also known as the "Look at Me" generation because they
"Look at Me"
are thought to be too confident and concerned with their own interests. They generation
also found that the younger generations were perceived to be impatient,
lacking in work ethic, self-important and disloyal. (Myers and Sadaghiani
(2010)
Millennials may attempt to gain important positions in large projects
soon after being hired (Myers & Sadaghiani, 2010). Coworkers can be taken
aback by this, believing it to be arrogance driving the new generation and not
their need to overachieve.
Millennials' expectancy to work/life balance has, at times, created
conflict with baby boomer coworkers (Myers & Sadaghiani, 2010). This
conflict could be the background mentality that millennials are selfish and

ETHICS: LIFE AS IT OUGHT TO BE

162 lazy. Myers and Sadaghiani (2010) wrote that the need for work/life
balance makes older generations doubt millennials concerning
commitment and dedication. They also found that as
millennials place more focus on their outside lives, baby boomers may
 ETHICS: LIFEAS IT OUGHT TO BE
Millennia/s begin to question sacrifices they made for their career. Older employees
prefer a
flexible work may begin taking greater interest in their own private lives, or additional
environment. conflicts may anse from these differing personal values.
While ambition is found to be the most valued quality for baby
boomers and Gen X, millennials prefer a boss who cares more the any
other quality (Andert, 2011). They also prefer their managers to inspiring
and imaginative. Overall, millennials prefer a more interpersonal
relationship with their management and to know that their manager cares
(Andert, 2011).
Millennials prefer a flexible work environment. Kaifi et al. (2012)
Millennials
also have found that millennials prefer an organizational culture with few rules and
higher regulations. With a high confidence level, millennials feel they need less
expectations
regulation to guide their decisions.
for
advancement For the millennial generation, confidence is expressed not only in
opportunities hov they perform, but in how they view themselves. When compared to
within their
older generations, millennials are less likely to identify themselves as
overweigh even though they have a much higher rate of obesity and less
overall fitness (Deal et al., 2010).
Millennials also have higher expectations for advancement
opportunities within their careers. Hauw and Vos (2010) found that due to
millennials' confidence and need to over achieve, they are more likely to
seek out career enhancing opportunities in an organi7ation.
One thing that u•uly sets this newer generation apart is their
preference for meaningful work over well-paid work. While salary is still
important in determining success, work that has meaning and enjoyment
in what one does rated higher in importance than financial gains (Hauw
& Vos, 2010).
This is passion for meaning. Millennials rank social awareness high
on organizational responsibility and prefer work that is socially
responsible.
(Source: Journal of Business Diversity Vol. 15(1) 2015 41)

Based on research from Business Ethics, Professor Dr. James Weber,

executive director of the Institute for Ethics in Business at Duquesne
University reports that "(w)hen compared to past generations, millennials
exhibit lower levels of cognitive moral reasoning." But millennials do
have ethics. According to the research work of Patricia A. Curtin,
"contrary to popular opinion, millennials don't lack ethics. It might be
better said that they may have different values than older generations, but
many also demonstrate a strong belief in ethical decision-making
processes that align with those of older practitioners. In fact, our findings
suggest they might hold a greater allegiance to deontological thinking
and to the principles
 •Chapter V: Globalization and Its Critical
Challenges Lesson 2: Millennia's and Fillennials: Ethical Challenges
and Responses

163
underlying Public Relations Society of America's (PRSA) Code of Ethics."

Fillennials
Filipino millennials have their own unique characteristics, and thus are
specifically called fillennials. Fillennials
Fillennials are rising up to the dare. Gae Martinez shared how Filipino are very
millennials are different. passionate
because they
(https://business.inquirer.netJ257324/millenialsworking) want to be
"In our studies of the Filipino millennials, although they are generally better than
considered as the type who have a YOLO-mind-set (You Only Live Once), theirparents.
fillennials live at the moment and adventurous. We found out that our culture
and values make them different," Martinez explained. She, therefore, tagged
this market segment as "Fillennials," who are very passionate because they
want to be better than their parents. "That is why they try to achieve more, Fillennials are
pursue higher studies. They recognize that living the life and being able to selfiegeneration
and are usually
live the life you deserve should enable one to live with its benefits," she spendthrifts,
added."
Fillennials are described as social-media dependent and also the "selfie-
generation." They are usually spendthrifts who usually spend for luxury
goods and so are also described as "broke." They are also described as
narcissist, the 'SMe, Me, Me Generation." They are fun-loving,
selfexpressive and liberal. However, they also possess positive traits like
"politically and socially-engaged." According to an article from the
Philippine Star, they do not usually read newspapers but get information from
Google or Waze for road directions, They have short attention span.
(Valeriano, Justine. Millennial Marketing: Accessed 7-7-19)
An article of Nathan A. Heflick, Ph.D., The Psychology of "YOLO"
discusses the characteristic of millennials and fillennials:
YOLO means
The catchphrase "YOLO" (you only live once) has become a cultural "You Only Live
sensation. It is not new. The Latin poet Horace coined the phrase "Carpe Once"
Diem" in 23 BC.

The Benefits of YOLO

Based on research, the catchphrase YOLO has some positive effects.
Research on "post-traumatic growth " started by Ronnie-Janoff Bulman of the
University of Massachusetts has explored how terminal illness diagnoses and
near-fatal experiences influence people. After a period of initial shock, many
people, perhaps even most, experience profound shifts in terms of how they
spend their time, their appreciation of life, and their general sense of
happiness, They report devoting more time to what they most truly enjoy, and
 ETHICS: LIFEAS IT OUGHT TO BE
not worrying nearly as much about much of what had previously stressed
them.

ETHICS: LIFEAS IT OUGHT TO BE

164 Research on "socioemotional selectivity theory'" (Laura Carstensen.

Stanford University) explores the way that people devote their time as
something - such as life - becomes more scaæe. This research shows that as
people age (as life becomes more scarce), they tend to devote more time to
activities and relationships that promote positivity and feeling good They,
conversely, spend less time on things that will cause them to feel negatively...
Older people, when looking at a visual scene, tend to focus more on pleasant
aspects of the image than unpleasant ones (relative to younger people). Further
reseatvh headed by Nathan De Wall, University of Kentucky show that when
college students are reminded of death in experiments, compared to a variety of
control topics, they then spend more time looking at positive words than
negative words when shown both. In short, when people are aware that life is
more scarce, they focus more on positive things, and less on negative things.
After all YOLO.
Research, headed by Laura King, University of Missouri shows that
YOLO when reminded of death, people become more aware that life is scarce. In turn,
strengthens
Fil/ennials to this causes people to believe that life is more meaningful.
live life to the
fullest.
The Downside of YOLO
Some unruly behaviors are associated with YOLO. Here are publicized cases of
"YOLO" being associated with some rather unruly behavior. These include a
YOLO person tweeting "YOLO" before crashing their car while driving drunk, and a
makes them young woman storming the field of a college football game intoxicated, and
more daring after being arrested and released, tweeting "YOLO" in reference to the
and reckless
with life incident. YOLO makes the millennial more daring. The research of professors
itself Jeff Greenberg, Tom Pyszczynski, Sheldon Solomon indicates that people
respond to mortality thoughts in ways that bolster and enhance their self-
esteem and belief systems. In the case of men, mortality reminders cause them
to drive more recklessly. In other words, reminders of death, of the scarcity of
life, often, ironically, promote reckless behavior, (Source:
https://www.psychologytodaycom/it//blog/the-big-questions, accessed 7-4-19

l. Which traits of the millennial help him/her become the moral person he/she
is called to be?

2. Which traits are inimical to his/her becoming fully human?

3. The under-use and misuse of IT and related electronic devices have very
 negative consequences for our youth, Bauerlein asserts:
Instead of opening young...minds to the stores of civilization and
science and politics, technologv has contracted their horizon to

Chapter V: Globalization and Its Critical Challenges

Lesson 2: Millennials and Fillennials: Ethical Challenges and Responses
themselves, to the social scene around them ...the more they attend
to themselves, the less they remember the past and envision the 165
future... The founts of knowledge are everywhere, but the rising
generation is camped in the desert, passing stories, pictures, tunes
and texts back andforth, living off the thrill ofpeer attention.
Bauerlein claims that serious Study and the resulting learning of
knowledge and skills of today S youth are slipping He...concludes
that the bulk of todayS youth is anti-intellectual; "uninterested in
world realties, " past and present; deficient in use of the English
language, and unable to think critically. And, to reiterate, he
attributes these liabilities to misuse and under-use ofIT
Are your observations of fillennials similar? In what way?

4. Compose a rap or a jingle about the millennial/fillennial. Share it in

class.

Millennials, also known as Y KEY TAKEAWAYS the X generation and before the
Millennials in the Philippines Generation, come Fillennials.
after
Based on research, Millennials:
are referred to as
are confident
• have high self-esteem
are assertive
• are achievement-
focused are more an organization succeed
willing to put forth extra effort to
• feel accountable for help actions
their enjoy working in
teams tolerant of balance.
diversity have a better workflife
• are family-focused and
utilize technology a lot Boomers are:
socially responsible Millennials from Baby
complaints against
lacking in social skills
• overly service-focused want-it-now generation
generation) b: "want-it-
• impatient for change all;
• demanding (look-at-me
too confident
millennials and fillennials
 ETHICS: LIFEAS IT OUGHT TO BE
• lacking in work ethic However, for others YOLO thinking
• overambitious
reasoning a
• lower levels of cognitivecatchphrase among live
YOLO (You Only Livelife to the full. reckless
Once), strengthens thewith life itself.
millennials to makes
them more daring and

Chapter V: Globalization and Its Critical Challenges

Lesson 3: The Religious Response: The Rote of Religion in Ethics
167
Lesson 3 The Religious 00
Response: The Role ABST
of Religion in Ethics RACT
ION

Ethic
Intended Learning Outcomes: s is
Differentiate ethics from religion concerned
Explain the role of religion in ethics with what
is good
and moral
based on
INTRODUCTION
reason.
This is
Several articles uploaded on. the Internet state that ethics or
what
morality is possible without God. Even if one does not believe in God,
religion is
he can still be ethical. As to how true these statements are, this is what
also
you should be able to see at the end of this Lesson.
concerned
about,
ACTIVITY what is
moral
Form groups of five then discuss your answer to this: based on
God's
The Russian novelist Dostoevsky wrote "If God does not exist, revelation.
then everything is permissible." Do you agree? Why? So
religion is
not
ANALYSIS contrary to
ethics.
Based on Dostoevsky's statement, is religion contrary to ethics? Religion is
Defend your answer: in support
of ethics.
 To an Asian author Sim Kwang Yang, the question is, "Is ethics
possible without religion?." If the question is one on a matter of fact,
his
religion is not contrary to ethics. Religion is in support of ethics.
ETHICS: LIFE AS IT OUGHT TO BE

168
answer is a resounding "yes." According to him, two great philosophers,
namely Socrates and Confucius, "expounded their ethics without recourse
to any supernatural being." Likewise, Yang cites two modern period
philosophers, the utilitarianists Jeremy Bentham and John Stuart Mill, who
also dealt with their ethical theories without appealing to the existence of
God.
Thus, as a matter of fact, there can be, as there has been such a thing
which may be termed as "religionless" ethics or morality.
However, the same author clarifies that if the question is, "can ethics
without religion be justified, ultimately?" then the answer is no. It is good
to quote Dostoevsky again, "If God does not exist, then everything is
permissible." If we continue with the syllogism it will go as follows: "But
not everything is permitted. Therefore, God exists." There is moral
restraint among individuals and there is moral restraint among people in
society, because there is in them a voice telling them to behave.
Charles Taliaferro, echoes in his Philosophy of Religion Dostoevsky's
moral argument for theism:
...certain features of human moral experience are best accommodated
on a theistic world view. In particular, the common claim is that moral
realism...calls for theistic metaphysical or epistemological underpinnings.
Immanuel Kant reasoned, for instance, that if there is no God then there
are objective moral requirements that are not possibly met, namely, that
the moral good of virtue and the natural good of happiness embrace and
become perfect in a "highest good." The early 20th-centur,' idealist
philosophers Hastings Rashdall and W.R. Sorley argued that an objective
moral law requires an infinite Mind in which to reside if it is to have full
...this life of
ontological status. C.S. Lewis offered a popularized version of such an
"not permitting argument in a series of talks for the British Broadcasting Corporation
oneself to do (BBC) during WW Il. These were later published in his Mere Christianity.
anything", that Lewis argued that conscience reveals to us a moral law whose source
is living a moral cannot be found in the natural world, thus pointing to a supernatural
or ethical life, is
attributed not
Lawgiver. Philosopher Robert Adams has argued that moral obligation is
only to him/ her best explained by appeal to the commands of a loving God, and moral
who openly values in general may be thought to reflect God's nature.(3] (emphasis in
professes his/ bold letters supplied)
her faith in
God, It can also It may be said that this life of "not permitting oneself to do anything"
be attributed that is living a moral or ethical life, is attributed not only to him/her who
even to those openly professes his/her faith in God. It can also be attributed even to
who claim to
deny the those who claim to deny the existence of God but actually affirm Him in
existence of their actual life. A person's life can be an implicit affrmation of God. You
 ETHICS: LIFEAS IT OUGHT TO BE
God but may be reminded of a poem you came across in your literature classes
actually
afifirm entitled Abou Ben Adhem.
Him in their
actual life.
 Chapter V: Globalization and Its Critical Challenges
Lesson 3.1 The Religious Response: The Role of Religion in Ethics

169
Abou Ben Adhem
By Leigh Hunt

Abou Ben Adhem (may his tribe increase!)

Awoke one nightfrom a deep dream ofpeace,
And saw, within the moonlight in his room,
Making it rich, and like a lily in bloom,
An angel writing in a book ofgold:—
Exceeding peace had made Ben Adhem bold,
And to the presence in the room he said,
"What writest vision raised its head,
And with a look made of all sweet accord,
Answered, "The names of those who love the Lord. "
f
'And is mine one?" said Abou. "Nay, not so,
Replied the angel. Abou spoke more low,
But cheerly still; and said, "I pray thee, then,
Write me as one that loves his fellow men.

The angel wrote, and vanished. The next night

It came again with a great wakening light,
And showed the names whom love of God had blest, And
10! Ben Adhem ts name led all the rest.

One should not

Hence, one should not feel so much sorry for people whom we think fee/ so much
live a religionless or atheistic life. The ultimate assessment of one's life sorry forpeople
whom we think
should be based on what one does, his/her love for his/her fellowman. The live a religionless
poem's message is actually found in the Gospel where Jesus said, or atheistic life.
"whatsoever you do to the least of my bretheren, that you do unto me." The ultimate
assessment of
one's life should
be based on what
Ethics and Religion one does, his/her
love for his/her
Both ethics and religion are concerned with the most fundamental fellowman,
questions of human existence. Religion draws answers to what is moral
and ethical from revelation as written in Scriptures and as "lived by their
prophets and Jesus Christ (for Christians). Ethics gets its answers to what
is moral and ethical from reason and experience. It doesn't mean that
theists don't use reason when they determine what is right and In fact, even
those for whom morality is religiously based may want to examine their
views based on reason. They may want to examine various interpretations
of their religious principles for intemal consistency or coherence."
(MacKinnon, B., et al, 2015)
It is not true that ethics is atheistic or opposed to religious belief. The
role of religion in ethics is this: religion is the foundation of ethics, for
 ETHICS: LIFEAS IT OUGHT TO BE
170

theists. Religion makes clear and concrete what is ethical through

revelation. Theists draw their ethical views from their religion.
ETHICS: LIFE AS IT OUGHT TO BE
 APPLICATION

l. Is it possible that a religious person may disregard the morality with the
thought that life in the world is fleeting and less important than the
afterlife? How would this thought affect his/her behavior?

2. Is it also possible that an atheist who does not believe in the after life so
takes this life more seriously and ensures that he/she lives life morally?
How does this thought affect his/her behavior?

3. "Religion is an opium of the people" said Karl Marx. What did Marx
mean? Do you agree that religion is an opium of the people? Defend
your answer.

4. Which is better, to be a believer who participates in religious rituals but

lives an immoral life or to be an atheist but strives to live a moral life?
ETHICS: LIFEAS IT OUGHT TO BE