Evolution

key words
Evolution Evolution is a process of gradual change that takes place over many
generations, during which species of animals, plants, or insects slowly
change some of their physical characteristics
Big bang theory Explains the origin of the earth
Homologous organs organs having the same basic structure but different functions.
Analogous organs organs having different basic structures but have a similar appearance and
perform similar functions.
Adaptive radiation This is an evolutionary process of organisms that are grouped into a wide
variety of types adapted to specialized modes of life.
branching descent The process of developing a new species from a single common
descendant is known as branching descent
Natural selection Process through which populations of living organisms adapt and change
Saltation Single step large mutation
mya Millom years ago,

ORIGIN OF LIFE (Big Bang Theory)

The single huge explosion resulted in the origin of the universe about 20 billion years ago. The earth was
formed about 4.5 billion years ago. There was no atmosphere on early earth. Water vapor, CH4, CO2 & NH3
released from molten mass covered the surface. The UV rays from the sun broke up water into Hydrogen
and Oxygen and the lighter H2 escaped. Oxygen is combined with ammonia and methane to form water,
CO2, etc. The ozone layer was formed. As it cooled, the water vapor fell as rain and form oceans. Life
appeared four billion years back.

THEORIES OF ORIGIN OF LIFE

Theory of spontaneous It states that life came out of decaying and rotting matter like straw,
generation mud, etc.
(Abiogenesis)
Theory of biogenesis Proposed by Louis Pasteur.
He demonstrated that life comes only from pre-existing life.
Theory of Panspermia It states that the units of life (spores) were transferred to different
planets including earth.
Theory of special It states that living things were created by some supernatural power
creation
Theory of chemical Proposed by Oparin & Haldane.
evolution It states that the first form of life originated from non-living inorganic &
organic molecules.
Harold Urey & Stanley They experimentally proved the theory of chemical evolution.
Miller Experiment They created a condition like that of primitive earth (i.e. high
temperature, volcanic storms, reducing atmosphere with CH4, NH3,
H2O, H2, etc). When an electric discharge is produced in a closed flask
containing CH4, NH3, H2, and water vapor, at 800o C biomolecules
(amino acids) like present-day were formed.

EVIDENCE FOR EVOLUTION

1- Fossils: Fossils are remnants of life forms found in rocks (earth crust). The study of fossils is known
as Palaeontology.
Fossils provide evidence for phylogeny (evolutionary history or race history). E.g., Horse evolution,
 Used to study the connecting link between two groups of organisms (E.g. Archaeopteryx), to study
extinct animals (E.g. Dinosaurs), to study geological periods by analysing fossils in different
sedimentary rock layers.
2- Morphological & Anatomical evidences
Homologous These organs have similar structures The human hand, Whale’s flippers
organs and origins but different functions. Bat’s wing & Cheetah’s foot humerus,
The origin of homologous organs is radius, ulna, carpals, metacarpals &
due to Divergent evolution. phalanges
Homology indicates common ancestry. Thorns of Bougainvillea and tendrils of
Cucurbita
Analogous These organs have similar functions Wings of insects and birds
organs but different structures & origins. Eyes of Octopus and mammals
The origin of analogous organs is due Flipper of Penguins and Dolphins.
to Convergent evolution. The trachea of insects and lungs of
It is the evolution by which unrelated vertebrates
species becomemore similar to Sweet potato & Potato
survive and adapt to similar
environmental conditions.

3- Adaptive radiation
This is the evolution of different species from an ancestor in a geographical area starting from a
point. It is a type of divergent evolution. E.g., Darwin’s finches in Galapagos Islands,
Australian marsupials (Marsupial radiation), Placental mammals in Australia
When more than one adaptive radiation appears in an isolated geographical area, it results in
convergent evolution. E.g., Australian Marsupials and Placental mammals

4- Embryological evidences
Proposed by Ernst Haeckel
• He observed that all vertebrate embryos have some common features that are absent in
adults.
• For E.g., all vertebrate embryos develop vestigial gill slits just behind the head. But it is
functional only in fish and not found in other adult vertebrates.
5- Biochemical evidence
Organisms show similarities in proteins, genes, other biomolecules & metabolism. It indicates
common ancestry.
Lamarckism (Theory of Inheritance of Acquired characters)
• It is proposed by Lamarck.
• It states that the evolution of life forms occurred by the inheritance of acquired characters.
Acquired characters are developed by the use & disuse of organs.
Evolution by use of organs Evolution by disuse
 The long neck of a giraffe Disappearance of limbs in snakes

Darwinism
(Theory of Natural selection)
• Proposed by Charles Darwin.
• It was based on observations during a sea voyage isailingsail ship called H.M.S. Beagle.
• Alfred Wallace (who worked in the Malay Archipelago) had also come to similar
conclusions.
• Work of Thomas Malthus on populations influenced Darwin.
• Darwinism is based on 2 key concepts: Branching descent and Natural selection
Natural selection is based on the following facts:
• Heritable minor variations
• Limited natural resources
• Struggle for existence
• Survival of the fittest
Darwin Finches- He observed many varieties of finches on the same island. All varieties of finches had
evolved from original seed-eating finches. here was alternation in beaks enabling some to become
insectivorous and some vegetarian.

MUTATION
• Hugo de Vries proposed the Mutation Theory of evolution.
• He conducted experiments evening primrose
HARDY-WEINBERG PRINCIPLE
• It states that allele frequencies in a population are stable and are constant from generation to
generation in the absence of disturbing factors.
• the allelic frequency in a population will remain constant from one generation to the next in the
absence of disturbing factors.
Hardy Weinberg equilibrium equation

• Sum total of all the allelic frequencies = 1

p2 + 2pq + q2 = 1
Factors affecting Hardy-Weinberg equilibrium
Gene migration, Genetic drift, Mutation, Genetic recombination, Natural selection
Types of Natural selection:

Stabilizing More individuals acquire mean

selection character value.
Directional Individuals of one extreme are
selection more favoured.
Disruptive It breaks a homogenous population
selection into many different forms.
Individuals of both extremes are
more favoured
ORIGIN AND EVOLUTION OF MAN

Dryopithecus About 15 mya, primates called Dryopithecus and Ramapithecus were existing.
and They were hairy and walked like gorillas and chimpanzees.
Ramapithecus Ramapithecus was more man-like while Dryopithecus was more ape-like.
Australopithecus About two mya
Australopithecines probably lived in East African grasslands.
They hunted with stone weapons, essentially ate the fruit.
Homo habilis Brain capacities - 650-800cc.
They probably did not eat meat.
Homo erectus About 1.5 mya, Homo erectus arose.
Brain capacity- 900cc.
Homo erectus probably ate meat.
Neanderthal Brain size- 1400cc
man They used hides to protect their body and buried their dead.
Homo sapiens or Arose in Africa
modern man During the ice age between 75,000-10,000 years ago, Homo sapiens arose.
Pre-historic cave art developed about 18,000 years ago.
Evidence -Bhimbetka rock shelter in Raisen district of Madhya Pradesh.
Agriculture came around 10,000 years back and human settlements started.