Adjective clauses

Clause:

 A clause is a group of words with a subject and a verb.

Independent Clause:

 An independent clause is a complete sentence.

Example: Students are now present at the lesson.

Dependent Clause:

 A dependent clause is not a complete sentence by itself. It must be attached to an

independent clause.
Example: Who study in group 20. (This sentence is incomplete by itself.)

Adjective Clause:

 An adjective clause is a type of dependent clause. It modifies (describes) a noun by

giving more information about it.
Other name: A relative clause.
Example: I thanked the woman who helped me.

Adjective Clause Pronouns (Relative Pronouns):

 Adjective clauses begin with pronouns to link the dependent clause to the independent
clause. Relative Pronouns:
o who – for people
o whom – for people (formal)
o which – for things
o that – for people or things
o whose – to show possession

Examples of Adjective Clauses:

1. I thanked the woman who helped me.

o Independent Clause: I thanked the woman.
o Adjective Clause: who helped me (describes the noun “woman”).
o who = subject of the adjective clause.
2. The book which is mine is on the table.
o Independent Clause: The book is on the table.
o Adjective Clause: which is mine (describes “book”).
o which = subject of the adjective clause.
3. The man I saw was Mr. Jones.
 o Independent Clause: The man was Mr. Jones.
o Adjective Clause: I saw (describes “man”).
o Note: The pronoun that or who(m) is often left out when it is the object of the
clause.

Rules for Using Adjective Clauses:

1. "That" can be used for both people and things.

Example: The woman that I saw was very kind.
2. "Who" and "whom" are used for people.
Example: The man who helped me was kind.
3. "Which" is used for things.
Example: The book which I read was interesting.
4. Adjective clauses must come right after the noun they describe.
Example: The man I saw was Mr. Jones.
o Incorrect: The man was Mr. Jones I saw.

Adjective Clauses with Prepositions:

 When the noun is part of a prepositional phrase, the preposition can move to the front of
the clause (formal), or it can stay after the verb (informal).
Examples:
1. Formal: She is the woman about whom I told you.
2. Informal: She is the woman I told you about.
 Rules for Prepositions:
o When the preposition is at the beginning of the clause, only whom or which can
follow it.
Incorrect: She is the woman about who I told you.
o That or who cannot follow a preposition directly.
Incorrect: The music to that we listened was good.

Key Points:

1. Subject Pronouns (like who or that) cannot be left out.

2. Object Pronouns (like whom) can often be omitted.
Example: The man I saw was Mr. Jones. (Omitting that or whom is correct.)
3. Whom is mostly used in formal contexts; who is more common in everyday speech.

1. Usual vs. Less Usual Patterns

Adjective clauses can be used in multiple ways, but some patterns are more common in everyday
language:

 For people:
Usual: I like the people who live next to me.
Less usual: I like the people that live next to me.
  For things:
Usual: I like books that have good plots.
Less usual: I like books which have good plots.
 When the pronoun is an object, it can often be omitted:
Example: I liked the people I met last night. (instead of who/whom I met)
I liked the book I read last week. (instead of which/that I read)

2. Relative Pronouns and Their Usage

 Subject of the Verb (Cannot be omitted):

o People: who/that
 She’s the girl who/that lives next door.
o Things: which/that
 I saw a film which/that was directed by Polanski.
 Object of the Verb (Can be omitted):
o People: who/whom/that
 The boy (who/whom/that) I waved to is my cousin.
 The boy I waved to is my cousin.
o Things: which/that
 The dog (which/that) you saw outside is my neighbor’s.
 Possession: whose
o That’s the man whose wife was killed in an accident.
o We have a table, the leg of which/whose leg is broken.

3. Relative Adverbs: Time, Place, Reason

Relative adverbs introduce adjective clauses that modify time, place, or reason:

 Time: when (or “in/on/at which”)

o 1995 was the year when I finished my studies.
 Place: where (or “in/at/on which”)
o That’s the place where we went last week.
 Reason: why (or “for which”)
o That’s the reason why I moved house.

4. Defining vs. Non-Defining Adjective Clauses

 Defining Clauses: Identify which noun you mean (no commas).

Example: I saw a girl who/that lives next door.
 Non-Defining Clauses: Provide extra information about the noun (commas required).
Example: I saw Mary, who lives next door.
 Note: In non-defining clauses, you cannot use that.
Example: Mary, who lives next door, saw me.
5. Using "Whose" to Show Possession

 Whose connects a person or thing to something they possess:

o I know the man whose bicycle was stolen.
o Mr. Catt has a painting, the value of which is inestimable.

6. Adjective Clauses with "Where"

 Where modifies a place:

o The building where he lives is very old.
o The building in which he lives is very old.
o The building he lives in is very old.

Note: If where is used, a preposition is not needed. Without where, a preposition must be
included.

Rules for Using "Where"

1. "Where" replaces a place + preposition (like in, at, on, to).

o Example: This is the house where I grew up.
(Instead of: This is the house in which I grew up.)
2. If "where" is not used, you must keep the preposition:
o Example: This is the house in which I grew up.
o Informal: This is the house I grew up in.
3. "Where" can only be used to modify places. You cannot use it to refer to time, people,
or objects.
o Correct: The café where we met was nice.
o Incorrect: The day where we met was sunny.
(Use "when" instead: The day when we met was sunny.)
4. "That" can be used in sentences like:

 The building that he lives in is very old.

This is a correct sentence because it uses "that" as the object of the verb "lives in."

5. It is common in informal English to use "that" in place of "which" or omit the

relative pronoun altogether:

 The building he lives in is very old. (Relative pronoun "that" is omitted,

which is common in speech.)

Can "Where" Be Used Instead?

Yes, "where" can also replace "that" + preposition when referring to a place:
  Using "where": The building where he lives is very old.
 Using "that": The building that he lives in is very old.

Difference Between "That" and "Where" in Meaning:

 "That" + preposition (that he lives in) is slightly more informal.

 "Where" implies both the place and the preposition in one word, making it
more concise.

Examples of Adjective Clauses with "Where"

1. The city where we spent our vacation was beautiful.

o (Adjective clause: where we spent our vacation modifies city.)
o Without "where": The city in which we spent our vacation was
beautiful.
o Informal: The city we spent our vacation in was beautiful.
2. That’s the restaurant where we will meet.
o (Adjective clause: where we will meet modifies restaurant.)
o Without "where": That’s the restaurant at which we will meet.
o Informal: That’s the restaurant we will meet at.

Exercise: Combine Sentences with "Where"

Directions: Combine the two sentences below using "where" to form an adjective clause.

1. The city was beautiful. We spent our vacation there (in that city).
o Answer: The city where we spent our vacation was beautiful.
2. That is the restaurant. I will meet you there (at that restaurant).
o Answer: That is the restaurant where I will meet you.
3. The town is small. I grew up there (in that town).
o Answer: The town where I grew up is small.
4. That is the drawer. I keep my jewelry there (in that drawer).
o Answer: That is the drawer where I keep my jewelry.

Summary

 Use "where" in adjective clauses to describe places.

  If "where" is not used, include the preposition (e.g., "in which" or "at
which").
 In informal speech, prepositions can come at the end of the sentence.

This structure makes your sentences concise and easy to understand, especially in everyday
speech.

Can "That" Be Used to Modify a Place?

Yes, "that" can be used in defining adjective clauses (also called restrictive clauses) to refer
to places, but it is used differently from "where". Unlike "where," "that" does not directly
imply a location or replace a preposition. Instead, it behaves like a relative pronoun and connects
the place to the rest of the sentence.

Key Differences Between "That" and "Where" for Places

1. "That" is used to refer to places but without replacing a preposition.

2. "Where" implies both the place and the preposition (like in, at, or on),
making it more concise.

Examples: "That" vs. "Where"

1. Using "That" to Modify a Place:

o This is the town that we visited last summer.
o Note: With "that," the sentence emphasizes the noun (town) rather
than the location itself.
2. Using "Where" to Modify a Place:
o This is the town where we spent our vacation.
 (Same as: This is the town in which we spent our vacation.)
3. Informal Variant with Preposition:
o This is the town we visited last summer. (Here, "that" is implied but
omitted.)

When to Use "That" Instead of "Where"

 Use "that" when you want to focus on identifying or specifying the place (in defining
clauses).
Example:
o The city that I remember most is Lviv.
 o (This sentence focuses on which city is being remembered, not
necessarily the location itself.)
 Use "where" if you want to emphasize the location or setting.
Example:
o Lviv is the city where I studied abroad.

Can "That" and "Where" Both Be Used Correctly?

 Yes, both are correct, but they slightly change the tone and focus:
o "That": More about identifying or defining the place.
o "Where": More about the location or setting of an action.

Summary

Both forms are grammatically correct:

1. The building that he lives in is very old.

2. The building where he lives is very old.

 Use "that" when identifying or defining the building.

 Use "where" if you want a smoother or more formal sentence structure
focusing on the location.

7. Adjective Clauses Modifying Time

An adjective clause modifying time gives more information about a noun of time (e.g., day,
year, time, century). These clauses usually begin with the relative adverb "when" or, in more
formal cases, "in/on/at which."

Rules for Adjective Clauses Modifying Time

1. "When" Replaces a Preposition + Time Word:

o The day when we met was unforgettable.
(Same as: The day on which we met was unforgettable.)
2. If "When" Is Not Used, the Preposition Must Be Kept:
o 1995 was the year in which I graduated.
(More formal: 1995 was the year when I graduated.)
3. The Relative Pronoun "That" Can Also Be Used:
 o I’ll never forget the day that I met you.
(Less formal: I’ll never forget the day when I met you.)
4. The Relative Pronoun Can Be Omitted:
o I’ll never forget the day I met you.

Examples of Adjective Clauses Modifying Time

1. When as a Relative Adverb:

o I remember the moment when we first met.
(Modifies "moment.")
o The summer when we went to the beach was the best.
(Modifies "summer.")
2. Preposition + "Which":
o That was the year in which everything changed.
(Same meaning as: That was the year when everything changed.)
3. Using "That" in Place of "When":
o The day that we arrived was very hot.
4. Omitting the Pronoun (Informal):
o The day we arrived was very hot.

Exercise: Combine Sentences Using Adjective Clauses with "When"

1. The year was 2020. Everything changed then (in that year).
o Answer: The year when everything changed was 2020.
o Alternative: The year in which everything changed was 2020.
o Informal: The year everything changed was 2020.
2. That was the day. We got married then (on that day).
o Answer: That was the day when we got married.
o Alternative: That was the day on which we got married.
o Informal: That was the day we got married.

Summary

 "When" is the most common way to introduce an adjective clause that modifies time.
 In formal cases, "in/on/at which" can replace "when".
 "That" can also introduce a time-related clause, but it is less common.
 In informal speech, the pronoun is often omitted.

These adjective clauses help make your sentences more concise by linking actions to specific
moments or periods.

.
8. Using "Which" to Modify a Whole Sentence

 Which can refer to an entire preceding sentence:

o Tom was late, which surprised me.
o The elevators are out of order, which is too bad.

9. Reducing Adjective Clauses to Adjective Phrases

 If the clause contains be + subject pronoun, it can be reduced to a phrase:

1. With a "be" verb:

o The girl who is sitting next to me is Maria. → The girl sitting next to me is Maria.
2. With no "be" verb:
o Anyone who wants to come is welcome. → Anyone wanting to come is welcome.
3. With appositives:
o George Washington, who was the first president, was a general. → George
Washington, the first president, was a general.

10. "That" vs. "Which" – American vs. British English Usage

 In American English, "that" is preferred in defining (essential) clauses, while "which" is

usually reserved for non-defining (non-essential) clauses.
Example (Defining): I need the book that is on the table.
Example (Non-Defining): This book, which I read last week, is very interesting.

11. Avoiding Ambiguity in Relative Clauses

 To avoid ambiguity, place the adjective clause immediately after the noun it
describes.
Correct: The boy who loves soccer is my brother’s friend.
Incorrect: The boy is my brother’s friend who loves soccer. (It is unclear who loves
soccer – the boy or the brother.)

12. Prepositions in Formal vs. Informal Relative Clauses

 In formal English, the preposition is placed at the beginning of the clause:

Example: The person to whom I spoke was very kind.
 In informal English, the preposition comes after the verb:
Example: The person I spoke to was very kind.

Note: When a preposition is placed at the beginning, that cannot be used, only whom or which
are allowed.
13. Using "What" as a Relative Pronoun

 "What" can act as both a pronoun and the subject of a clause, meaning "the thing(s) that."
Example: I gave him what he asked for. (This means: "I gave him the thing that he asked
for.")
 Note: "What" cannot refer to a specific noun like which or that. It is used when the noun
is implied.

14. Restrictive vs. Non-Restrictive Clauses – Special Focus on Meaning

 Restrictive (Defining) Clauses:

Identify or restrict the meaning of the noun they modify; they are essential to the
sentence's meaning and do not use commas.
Example: The students who study hard usually pass the exam. (Not all students; only
those who study hard.)
 Non-Restrictive (Non-Defining) Clauses:
Add extra information that isn’t essential to identifying the noun; they do use commas.
Example: The students, who are all very tired, left early. (This provides additional, non-
essential information.)

15. Special Focus on "Whom"

 "Whom" is technically correct as the object of a verb or preposition, but it is rarely used
in spoken English and often replaced by who in conversation.
Example (Formal): The person whom I saw yesterday is here.
Example (Informal): The person who I saw yesterday is here.

Tip: Use whom mainly in formal writing or after prepositions:

Example: The person to whom I spoke was helpful.

16. Using Relative Clauses with Pronouns Referring to Quantities

 Sometimes, adjective clauses use quantities + of whom/which for clarity: Example: We

invited 10 people, some of whom didn’t come.
Example: He gave me several reasons, all of which made sense.

17. Using "Whose" to Modify Non-Human Nouns

 Although whose typically refers to people, it can also describe things or animals to show
possession: Example: The car whose engine broke down was towed away.
Example: We visited a house whose windows were broken.
18. Relative Clauses with "As"

 As can introduce a clause when referring to something already mentioned or implied:

Example: She failed the exam, as was expected. (The clause gives additional information
about the previous statement.)

19. Reduced Relative Clauses for Conciseness

 Reduced clauses can shorten a sentence by removing the subject pronoun and changing
the verb form:

1. With "be":
o The man who is talking to John is from Korea. → The man talking to John is
from Korea.
2. Without "be":
o Anyone who wants to join us is welcome. → Anyone wanting to join us is
welcome.

Note: Only clauses that use subject pronouns (who, which, that) can be reduced.

20. Clauses Modifying an Entire Sentence

 Which can modify an entire sentence, not just a noun:

Example: He missed the train, which upset him greatly.
(Here, "which" refers to the fact that he missed the train, not just "the train.")

21. Common Errors to Avoid in Relative Clauses

 Using the wrong pronoun:

Incorrect: The person which helped me was kind.
Correct: The person who helped me was kind.
 Redundant pronouns:
Incorrect: The man who I saw him was polite.
Correct: The man who I saw was polite.
 Using "that" in non-defining clauses:
Incorrect: Paris, that is the capital of France, is beautiful.
Correct: Paris, which is the capital of France, is beautiful.

22. Summary Table of Relative Pronouns and Adverbs

Pronoun/Adverb Use Example

Who Subject (people) The man who called is my friend.
Whom Object (people) The man whom I met is nice.
Pronoun/Adverb Use Example
Which Subject/Object (things) The book which I read was amazing.
That Subject/Object (people/things) The car that I bought is new.
Whose Possession (people/things) The boy whose bike was stolen is sad.
Where Place The house where I grew up is nearby.
When Time 1995 was the year when I was born.
Why Reason That’s the reason why I left early.

23. Punctuating Adjective Clauses

The punctuation of adjective clauses depends on whether the clause is essential (defining) or
non-essential (non-defining) to the meaning of the sentence. Here’s a clear guide:

1. Defining (Essential) Adjective Clauses – No Commas

 A defining (essential) clause provides important information to identify or specify the

noun. Without this clause, the meaning of the sentence would be incomplete or unclear.
 Rule: No commas are used with essential clauses.

Examples:

 The professor who teaches chemistry is very popular.

(The clause is essential to identify which professor is being talked about.)
 The book that I borrowed was very interesting.
(This specifies which book is being referred to.)
 Note: You can use "that" for people and things in defining clauses, but not in non-
defining clauses.

2. Non-Defining (Non-Essential) Adjective Clauses – Use Commas

 A non-defining (non-essential) clause provides extra information about a noun that is

already clear or known. The sentence would still make sense without the clause. These
clauses are always separated by commas.
 Rule: Use commas to set off non-essential clauses.

Examples:

 Mr. Johnson, who teaches chemistry, is very popular.

(The clause gives extra information. We already know who Mr. Johnson is.)
 My car, which I bought last year, runs perfectly.
(The clause adds more information about the car but isn’t necessary to identify it.)
 Note: In non-defining clauses, you cannot use "that". Only who, whom, which, or
whose are used.
3. Punctuation with Proper Nouns

 Proper nouns (names, places, titles) usually take non-defining clauses

because the noun is already identified by name, and the extra information
is not essential.

Examples:

 Paris, which is the capital of France, is a beautiful city.

 Maria, who lives next door, is very kind.

3. Punctuation with demonstrative pronouns: this, that these those

 Non-defining clause: This book, which I bought yesterday, is great.

Explanation:

1. "Which I bought yesterday" is a non-defining adjective clause because the phrase

provides extra, non-essential information about the book. Even without the clause, the
main sentence ("This book is great.") makes sense.
2. Commas are required to set off non-defining clauses. So, the correct punctuation would
be:
o This book, which I bought yesterday, is great.
3. Important: In non-defining clauses, you cannot use "that". Only "which" is allowed.

What If the Clause Was Essential?

If you wanted the clause to be defining (essential)—meaning it helps identify which specific
book you are talking about—you would remove the commas:

 Defining clause: The book that I bought yesterday is great.

In this case, the clause tells us which specific book you mean.

Summary:

 Non-defining clause (extra information):

This book, which I bought yesterday, is great.
  Defining clause (identifying the book):
The book that I bought yesterday is great.

Both versions are correct but serve slightly different purposes.

6. Compare Defining and Non-Defining Clauses

The same sentence can have different meanings depending on whether you use commas or not:

Examples:

1. Defining Clause:
o The children who wanted to play soccer ran to the field.
(Only some children wanted to play soccer; the clause identifies
them.)
2. Non-Defining Clause:
o The children, who wanted to play soccer, ran to the field.
(All the children wanted to play soccer; the clause provides extra
information.)

7. Punctuating Adjective Clauses with Expressions of Quantity

When an adjective clause begins with an expression of quantity (like "some of," "many of,"
"most of," "none of"), the clause is non-defining, so commas are required.

Examples:

 We invited 10 people, most of whom arrived on time.

 He gave several reasons, only a few of which were valid.

8. Adjective Clauses Referring to Entire Sentences

When an adjective clause introduced by "which" refers to the whole sentence that precedes it, a
comma must be used.

Examples:

 Tom forgot his keys, which was very annoying.

(The clause refers to the entire situation of forgetting keys.)
 The elevators are out of order, which is inconvenient.
Summary of Punctuation Rules

Comma Relative Pronouns

Clause Type Example
Use Used

No that, who, whom, The book that I read was

Defining (Essential)
commas which, whose excellent.

Non-Defining (Non- Use who, whom, which, My sister, who lives in Kyiv,
Essential) commas whose (no that) called me.

Use who, whom, which, Paris, which is in France, is

With Proper Nouns
commas whose lovely.

Expressions of Use We invited 10 guests, most

whom, which, whose
Quantity commas of whom arrived.

Referring to Entire Use He failed the test, which

which
Sentences commas was disappointing.

Conclusion

 No commas for defining clauses (essential to identifying the noun).

 Use commas for non-defining clauses (adding extra, non-essential
information).
 Proper nouns and clauses referring to entire sentences always take
commas.