22.09.

2024

Limits of a function
Calculus was created to describe how quantities change. It has two basic
Calculus I procedures that are opposites of one another:

• differentiation, for finding the rate of change of a given function, and

• integration, for finding a function having a given rate of change

Both of these procedures are based on the fundamental concepts of the limit of a
function. It is this idea of limit that distinguishes calculus from albegra, geometry
and trigonometry, which are useful for describing static situations.
Chapter 2. Limits and Continuity.

1 2

Limits of function values Example 1. How does the function 𝑓 𝑥 =

𝑥 2 −1
behave near 𝑥 = 1 ?
𝑥−1

Frequently when studying a function 𝒚 = 𝒇 𝒙 , we find ourselves interested in the

function’s behavior near a particular point 𝒙𝟎 , but not at 𝒙𝟎 .

This might be the case, for instance, if 𝒙𝟎 is an irrational number, like 𝜋 or 2,

whose values can only be approximated by «close» rational numbers at which we
actually evaluate the function instead.

Another situation occurs when trying to evaluate a function at 𝒙𝟎 leads to division

by zero, which is undefined.

3 4

Definition of limit
Suppose 𝒇 𝒙 is defined on an open interval abour 𝒙𝟎 , except possibly at 𝒙𝟎 itself.
If 𝒇 𝒙 is arbitrarily close to 𝑳 (as close to 𝑳 as we like) for all 𝒙 sufficiently close
to 𝒙𝟎 , we say that𝒇 𝒙 approaches the limit 𝑳 as 𝒙 approaches 𝒙𝟎 , and write

lim 𝑓 𝑥 = 𝐿
𝑥→𝑥0

which is read «the limit of 𝒇 𝒙 as 𝒙 approaches 𝒙𝟎 is 𝑳».

For instance, in the previous example, we should say that 𝒇 𝒙 approaches the
limit 𝟐 as 𝒙 approaches 𝟏, and write

𝑥2 − 1
lim 𝑓 𝑥 = 2 or lim =2
𝑥→1 𝑥→1 𝑥−1

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Example 2. Analyze the behaviours of the below functions near 𝑥 = 1 ?

𝑥2 − 1
𝑥2 − 1 , 𝑥≠1
𝑔 𝑥 = 𝑥 −1 ℎ 𝑥 =𝑥 +1
𝑓 𝑥 =
𝑥−1
1 , 𝑥=1

7 8

Example 3. Find the limit of the identity function as 𝑥 approaches to 𝑥0 . Example 4. Find the limit of a constant function as 𝑥 approaches to 𝑥0 .

9 10

Limit laws Limit laws

If 𝐿, 𝑀, 𝑐 and 𝑘 are real numbers and If 𝐿, 𝑀, 𝑐 and 𝑘 are real numbers and

lim 𝑓 𝑥 = 𝐿 and lim 𝑔 𝑥 = 𝑀 lim 𝑓 𝑥 = 𝐿 and lim 𝑔 𝑥 = 𝑀

𝑥→𝑐 𝑥→𝑐 𝑥→𝑐 𝑥→𝑐

1. Sum rule: 4. Product rule:

lim 𝑓 𝑥 + 𝑔 𝑥 =𝐿+𝑀 lim 𝑓 𝑥 𝑔 𝑥 = 𝐿𝑀
𝑥→𝑐 𝑥→𝑐

2. Difference rule: 5. Quotient rule:

lim 𝑓 𝑥 − 𝑔 𝑥 = 𝐿 − 𝑀 𝑓 𝑥 𝐿
𝑥→𝑐 lim = ,𝑀≠0
𝑥→𝑐 𝑔 𝑥 𝑀
3. Constant multiple rule: 6. Power rule:
lim 𝑘𝑓 𝑥 = 𝑘𝐿 lim 𝑓 𝑥 𝑛 = 𝐿𝑛 , n is a positive integer
𝑥→𝑐
𝑥→𝑐

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Limit laws Example 5. Use the observations lim 𝑘 = 𝑘 and lim 𝑥 = 𝑐 and properties of limit to find the
𝑥→𝑐 𝑥→𝑐
following limits:
If 𝐿, 𝑀, 𝑐 and 𝑘 are real numbers and
(a) lim 𝑥3 + 4𝑥 2 −3
lim 𝑓 𝑥 = 𝐿 and lim 𝑔 𝑥 = 𝑀 𝑥→𝑐
𝑥→𝑐 𝑥→𝑐
𝑥4 + 𝑥2 − 1
7. Root rule: (b) lim
𝑥→𝑐 𝑥2 + 5
𝐿 , n is a positive integer
𝑛 𝑛
lim 𝑓 𝑥 =
𝑥→𝑐

(c) lim 4𝑥 2 − 3
𝑥→𝑐
If n is even, we assume that
lim 𝑓 𝑥 = 𝐿 > 0
𝑥→𝑐

13 14

Limits of polynomials
If 𝑃 𝑥 = 𝑎𝑛 𝑥 𝑛 + 𝑎𝑛−1 𝑥 𝑛−1 + ⋯ + 𝑎0

then lim 𝑃 𝑥 = 𝑎𝑛 𝑐 𝑛 + 𝑎𝑛−1 𝑐 𝑛−1 + ⋯ + 𝑎0

𝑥→𝑐

15 16

Limits of rational functions Eliminating zero denominators algebraically

If 𝑃 𝑥 and 𝑄 𝑥 are polynomials and 𝑄 𝑐 ≠ 0 , then If the denominator is zero, cancelling common factors in the numerator and the
denominator may reduce the fraction to one whose denominator is no longer zero
𝑃 𝑥 𝑃 𝑐 at the limit point.
lim =
𝑥→𝑐 𝑄 𝑥 𝑄 𝑐

Example 6.

𝑥 3 + 4𝑥 2 − 3
lim
𝑥→−1 𝑥2 + 5

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Example 7. Evaluate the below limit. Example 9. Evaluate the below limit.

2
𝑥 +𝑥−2 𝑥 3 − 64
lim lim
𝑥→1 𝑥2 − 𝑥 𝑥→4 𝑥−4

Example 8. Evaluate the below limit. Example 10. Evaluate the below limit.

𝑥 3 − 64 1
lim lim
𝑥→0 𝑥 − 4 𝑥→5 𝑥−5

19 20

Example 11. Evaluate the below limit. Example 13. Evaluate the below limit.

𝑥2 + 4𝑥 + 3 𝑥 3 − 7𝑥 + 6
lim lim
𝑥→−3 𝑥 2 + 5𝑥 + 6 𝑥→2 𝑥 2 − 5𝑥 + 6

Example 12. Evaluate the below limit. Example 14. Evaluate the below limit.

𝑥−7 2− 3 𝑥
lim lim
𝑥→49 𝑥 − 49 𝑥→8 8−𝑥

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The precise definition of limit The precise definition of limit

Let 𝒇 𝒙 be defined on an open interval about 𝒙𝟎 , except possibly at 𝒙𝟎 itself. We

say that the limit of 𝒇 𝒙 as 𝒙 approaches to 𝒙𝟎 is the number 𝑳, and write

lim 𝑓 𝑥 = 𝐿
𝑥→𝑥0

If, for every number 𝜺 > 𝟎, there exists a corresponding number 𝜹 > 𝟎, such that
for all 𝒙,
The relation of 𝜹 and 𝜺.
0 < 𝑥 − 𝑥0 < 𝛿 ⇒ 𝑓 𝑥 −𝐿 < 𝜀

Figure Copyright © Thomas’ Calculus. 2010 Pearson

Education, Inc. Publishing as Pearson Addison-Wesley.

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The precise definition of limit The precise definition of limit

For the function 𝑓 𝑥 = 𝑥, we find

For the function 𝑓 𝑥 = 𝑘, we find
that 0 < 𝑥 − 𝑥0 < 𝛿 will guarantee
that 𝑓 𝑥 − 𝑘 < 𝜀 for any positive 𝛿.
𝑓 𝑥 − 𝑥0 < 𝜀 whenever 𝛿 ≤ 𝜀.

Figure Copyright © Thomas’ Calculus. 2010 Pearson

Figure Copyright © Thomas’ Calculus. 2010 Pearson Education, Inc. Publishing as Pearson Addison-Wesley.
Education, Inc. Publishing as Pearson Addison-Wesley.

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Example 15. Use the definition of limit and show that lim 3𝑥 + 2 = 5.
The Sandwich Theorem
𝑥→1

Suppose that 𝒈 𝒙 ≤ 𝒇 𝒙 ≤ 𝒉 𝒙 for all 𝒙 in some open interval containing 𝒄,

except possibly at 𝒙 = 𝒄 itself. Suppose also that

lim 𝑔 𝑥 = lim ℎ 𝑥 = 𝐿
𝑥→𝑐 𝑥→𝑐
3
Example 16. Use the definition of limit and show that lim 𝑥 = 1. Then
𝑥→1
lim 𝑓 𝑥 = 𝐿
𝑥→𝑐

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Example 17. Show that the sandwich theorem helps us establish below rule. Example 18. Show that the sandwich theorem helps us establish below rule.
lim sin 𝜃 = 0 lim cos 𝜃 = 1
𝜃→0 𝜃→0

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Example 19. Show that the sandwich theorem helps us establish the rule that for any
Theorem
function f, lim 𝑓 𝑥 = 0 implies lim 𝑓 𝑥 = 0 .
𝑥→𝑐 𝑥→𝑐
If 𝒇 𝒙 ≤ 𝒈 𝒙 for all 𝒙 in some open interval containing 𝒄, except possibly at 𝒙 =
𝒄 itself, and the limits of 𝒇 and 𝒈 both exists as 𝒙 approaches 𝒄, then

lim 𝑓 𝑥 ≤ lim 𝑔 𝑥
𝑥→𝑐 𝑥→𝑐

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One-sided limit One-sided limit

To have a limit 𝑳 as 𝒙 approaches 𝒄, a function 𝒇 must be defined on both sides of 𝒄 and
its values. 𝒇 𝒙 must approach 𝑳 as 𝒙 approaches 𝒄 from either side. Because of this, Right-hand limit
ordinary limits are called two-sided.
We say that 𝒇 𝒙 has right-hand limit 𝑳 at 𝒙𝟎 ,
If 𝒇 𝒙 fails to have a two-sided limit at 𝒄, it may still have a one-sided limit, that is, a and write
limit if the approach is only from one side. If the approach is from the right, the limit is a
right-hand limit. From the left, it is a left-hand limit. lim 𝑓 𝑥 = 𝐿
𝑥→𝑥0+

if for every number 𝜺 > 𝟎 there exists a

corresponding number 𝜹 > 𝟎 such that for all 𝒙

Figure Copyright © Thomas’ Calculus. 2010 Pearson

𝑥0 < 𝑥 < 𝑥0 + 𝛿 ⇒ 𝑓 𝑥 − 𝐿 < 𝜀 Education, Inc. Publishing as Pearson Addison-Wesley.

right-hand limit as 𝒙 approaches 𝒄 left-hand limit as 𝒙 approaches 𝒄

Figure Copyright © Thomas’ Calculus. 2010 Pearson Education, Inc. Publishing as Pearson Addison-Wesley.

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One-sided limit Example 20. Analyze the one-sided limit for the function 𝑓 𝑥 =
𝑥
.
𝑥

Left-hand limit

We say that 𝒇 𝒙 has left-hand limit 𝑳 at 𝒙𝟎 ,

and write

lim 𝑓 𝑥 = 𝐿
𝑥→𝑥0−

if for every number 𝜺 > 𝟎 there exists a

corresponding number 𝜹 > 𝟎 such that for all 𝒙

𝑥0 − 𝛿 < 𝑥 < 𝑥0 ⇒ 𝑓 𝑥 − 𝐿 < 𝜀 Figure Copyright © Thomas’ Calculus. 2010 Pearson

Education, Inc. Publishing as Pearson Addison-Wesley.

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Example 21. Analyze the one-sided limit for the function 𝑦 = 4 − 𝑥2 . Theorem

A function 𝒇 𝒙 has a limit as 𝒙 approaches 𝒄, if and only if it has left-hand and

right-hand limits there and these one-sided limits are equal:

lim 𝑓 𝑥 = 𝐿 ⇔ lim− 𝑓 𝑥 = 𝐿 and lim+ 𝑓 𝑥 = 𝐿

𝑥→𝑐 𝑥→𝑐 𝑥→𝑐

37 38

Example 22. Analyze the function graphed in the figure at 𝑥 = 0, 𝑥 = 1, 𝑥 = 2, 𝑥 = 3 and

𝑥 = 4.

Figure Copyright © Thomas’ Calculus. 2010 Pearson

Education, Inc. Publishing as Pearson Addison-Wesley.

39 40

Example 23. Prove that lim+ 𝑥 = 0.

𝑥→0

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1
Example 24. Show that 𝑦 = sin has no limits as 𝑥 approaches to zero from either
𝑥
side.

Figure Copyright © Thomas’ Calculus. 2010 Pearson

Education, Inc. Publishing as Pearson Addison-Wesley.

43 44

Theorem

sin 𝜃
lim =1 (𝜃 in radians)
𝜃→0 𝜃

Figure Copyright © Thomas’ Calculus. 2010 Pearson

Education, Inc. Publishing as Pearson Addison-Wesley.

45 46

cos 𝑥 − 1 sin 2𝑥 2
Example 24. Show that lim = 0. Example 25. Show that lim = .
𝑥→0 𝑥 𝑥→0 5𝑥 5

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tan 𝑥 sec 2𝑥 1 − cos2 3𝑥

Example 26. Find lim . Example 27. Find lim .
𝑥→0 3𝑥 𝑥→0 sin2 4𝑥

49 50

Continuity Example 28. Find the points at which the function 𝒇 in the figure is continuous and not
continuous.
A function 𝒇 𝒙 is continuous at 𝒄 if

lim 𝑓 𝑥 = 𝑓 𝑐
𝑥→𝑐

in other words:
1. 𝒇 must be defined at 𝒄.
2. lim 𝑓 𝑥 must exist.
𝑥→𝑐
3. lim 𝑓 𝑥 = 𝑓 𝑐 (the limit equals to the function value)
𝑥→𝑐
Figure Copyright © Thomas’ Calculus. 2010 Pearson

If a function 𝒇 is not continuous at a point 𝒄, we say that 𝒇 is Education, Inc. Publishing as Pearson Addison-Wesley.

discontinuous at 𝒄 and that 𝒄 is a point of discontinuity of 𝒇.

51 52

Example 29. Find the points at which the function 𝒚 = 𝒙 in the figure is continuous and
not continuous.

Figure Copyright © Thomas’ Calculus. 2010 Pearson

Education, Inc. Publishing as Pearson Addison-Wesley.

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Continuous functions

• A function is continuous on an interval if and only if it is continuous at every

point of the interval.
• A polynomial function is continuous on ℝ.
• A rational function is continuous wherever it is defined.
• The functions sin 𝑥, cos 𝑥 and 𝑒 𝑥 are continuous on ℝ.
• Any sum or product or composition of continuous functions is also continuous.

Note: Every polynomial 𝑃 𝑥 = 𝑎𝑛 𝑥 𝑛 + 𝑎𝑛−1 𝑥 𝑛−1 + ⋯ + 𝑎0 is continuous because

lim 𝑃 𝑥 = 𝑃 𝑐
𝑥→𝑐

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Example 30. For what values of 𝑥 is the following function continuous? Example 31. Find 𝑎 and 𝑏 if f is continuous at 𝑥 = 2.

𝑓 𝑥 = ln 𝑥 − 4 𝑥 + 2 2𝑥 2 + 𝑎 , 𝑥<2
𝑓 𝑥 =ቐ 𝑏 , 𝑥=2
3𝑥 − 2 , 𝑥>2

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Example 32. Analyze the continuity of the below functions.

𝑦

𝑦=𝑓 𝑥 𝑦 𝑦 2
𝑦=𝑓 𝑥
𝑦=𝑓 𝑥
1 1
1

O 𝑥 O 𝑥 O 𝑥
(a) (b) (c)
𝑦 𝑦
1
1 𝑦=𝑓 𝑥 𝑦=𝑓 𝑥 =
𝑥2

O 𝑥 O 𝑥
(d) (e) (f)
Figure Copyright © Thomas’ Calculus. 2010 Pearson
Education, Inc. Publishing as Pearson Addison-Wesley.

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Example 33. Analyze the continuity of the below function.

𝑦
1
𝑦=
𝑥
O
𝑥

61 62

Example 34. Analyze the continuity of the identity function and constant function.

63 64

Properties of continuous functions Example 35. Analyze the continuity of the function 𝑓 𝑥 = 𝑥 .
If the functions 𝒇 and 𝒈 are continuous at 𝒙 = 𝒄, then the following combinations 𝑦
are continuous at 𝒙 = 𝒄.
1. Sums: 𝑓 + 𝑔
2. Differences: 𝑓 − 𝑔 Note: All six
3. Constant multiples: 𝑘𝑓, for any number 𝑘 trigonometric functions O 𝑥
4. Products: 𝑓. 𝑔 are continuous wherever
they are defined.
𝑓
5. Quotients: , provided that 𝑔 𝑐 ≠ 0
𝑔
6. Powers: 𝑓 , 𝑛 is a positive integer
𝑛

7. Roots: 𝑛
𝑓, provided it is defined on an open interval containing 𝑐, where 𝑛 is a
positive integer

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Theorem (composite of continuous functions) Example 36. Analyze the continuity of the function 𝑦 =
𝑥−2
.
𝑥2 − 2
If 𝒇 is continuous at 𝒄 and 𝒈 is continuous at 𝒇 𝒄 , then the composite 𝒈 ∘ 𝒇 is
continuous at 𝒄.

Figure Copyright © Thomas’ Calculus. 2010 Pearson

Education, Inc. Publishing as Pearson Addison-Wesley.

67 68

Theorem (limits of continuous functions) Example 37. lim𝜋 cos 2𝑥 + sin

3𝜋
+𝑥
𝑥→ 2 2

If 𝒈 is continuous at the point 𝒃 and

lim 𝑓 𝑥 = 𝑏 ,
𝑥→𝑐

then

lim 𝑔 𝑓 𝑥 = 𝑔 𝑏 = 𝑔 lim 𝑓 𝑥 .
𝑥→𝑐 𝑥→𝑐

69 70

Continuous extension to a point Continuous extension to a point

sin 𝑥
The function 𝑦 = 𝑓 𝑥 = 𝑥
is continuous at every point except 𝑥 = 0. In this, it is like the
1 sin 𝑥 1 sin 𝑥 the function 𝐹 𝑥 is continuous at 𝑥 = 0 because
function 𝑦 = 𝑥. But 𝑦 = is different from 𝑦 = 𝑥 in that it has a finite limit as 𝑥 → 0. , 𝑥≠0
𝑥
𝑥 sin 𝑥
sin 𝜃 𝐹 𝑥 = lim =𝐹 0
lim =1
𝑥→0 𝑥
𝜃→0 𝜃
1 , 𝑥=0
It’s therefore possible to extend the function’s domain to include the point in such a way
that the extended function is continuous at 𝑥 = 0. We define a new function

sin 𝑥
, 𝑥≠0
𝐹 𝑥 = 𝑥

1 , 𝑥=0

sin 𝑥
The function 𝐹 𝑥 is continuous at 𝑥 = 0 because lim
𝑥→0 𝑥
=𝐹 0
Figure Copyright © Thomas’ Calculus. 2010 Pearson Education, Inc. Publishing as Pearson Addison-Wesley.

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Continuous extension to a point

More generally, a function (such as a rational function) may have a limit even at a
point where it is not defined. If 𝑓 𝑐 is not defined, but
lim 𝑓 𝑥 = 𝐿
𝑥→𝑐

exists, we can define a new function 𝐹 𝑥 by the rule

𝑓 𝑥 , if 𝑥 is in the domain of 𝑓
𝐹 𝑥 =ቐ
𝐿 , if 𝑥 = 𝑐
The function 𝐹 is continuous at 𝑥 = 𝑐. It is called the continuous extension of 𝑓 to
𝑥 = 𝑐. For rational functions, continuous extensions are usually found by
cancelling common factors.

73 74

𝑥2 + 𝑥 − 6
Example 38. Show that 𝑓 𝑥 = , 𝑥 ≠ 2 has a continuous extension to 𝑥 = 2, and
𝑥2 − 4
find that extension.

75 76

Example 38. Show that 𝑓 𝑥 =

𝑥2 + 𝑥 − 6
, 𝑥 ≠ 2 has a continuous extension to 𝑥 = 2,
Theorem (The Intermediate Value Theorem for Continuous
and find that extension.
𝑥2 − 4 Functions)
If 𝑓 is a continuous function on a closed interval 𝑎, 𝑏 , and if 𝑦0 is any value
between 𝑓 𝑎 and 𝑓 𝑏 , then 𝑦0 = 𝑓 𝑐 for some 𝑐 in 𝑎, 𝑏 .
the graph of 𝑓 𝑥

Geometrically, the Intermediate Value Theorem

says that any horizontal line 𝑦 = 𝑦0 crossing
the y-axis between the numbers 𝑓 𝑎 and 𝑓 𝑏
will cross the curve 𝑦 = 𝑓 𝑥 at least once over
the graph of the the interval 𝑎, 𝑏 .
continuous extension of
𝑓 𝑥

Figure Copyright © Thomas’ Calculus. 2010 Pearson Figure Copyright © Thomas’ Calculus. 2010 Pearson
Education, Inc. Publishing as Pearson Addison-Wesley. Education, Inc. Publishing as Pearson Addison-Wesley.

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Example 39. 𝑓 𝑥 = 𝑥 3 − 2𝑥 − 1 Limits involving infinity: Finite limits as 𝒙 → ±∞

1. We say that 𝑓 𝑥 has the limit 𝐿 as 𝑥 approaches infinity and write

lim 𝑓 𝑥 = 𝐿
𝑥→∞

if, for every number 𝜀 > 0, there exists a corresponding number 𝑀, such that for
all 𝑥 𝑥 > 𝑀 ⟹ 𝑓 𝑥 −𝐿 < 𝜀

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Limits involving infinity: Finite limits as 𝒙 → ±∞ Limits involving infinity: Finite limits as 𝒙 → ±∞
Important note:
2. We say that 𝑓 𝑥 has the limit 𝐿 as 𝑥 approaches minus infinity and write
The symbol for infinity (∞) does not represent a real number. We use (∞) to
lim 𝑓 𝑥 = 𝐿
𝑥→−∞
describe the behaviour of a function when the values in its domain or range
1
if, for every number 𝜀 > 0, there exists a corresponding number 𝑁, such that outgrow all finite bounds. For example, the function 𝑓 𝑥 = 𝑥 is defined for all 𝑥
1
for all 𝑥 values except 0. When 𝑥 is positive and becomes increasingly large, 𝑥 becomes
𝑥 <𝑁 ⟹ 𝑓 𝑥 −𝐿 <𝜀 increasingly small. When 𝑥 is negative and its magnitude becomes increasingly
1
large, again 𝑥 becomes increasingly small. We summarise these observations by
1 1
saying that 𝑓 𝑥 = has limit 0 as 𝑥 → ∞ or 𝑥 → −∞ , or that 0 is a limit of 𝑓 𝑥 =
𝑥 𝑥
at infinity and negative infinity.

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1 1
Example 40. Show that lim =0 Example 41. Show that lim =0
𝑥→∞ 𝑥 𝑥→−∞ 𝑥

83 84

14
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Limits involving infinity: Finite limits as 𝒙 → ±∞

Important note:
All limit laws are true when we replace lim by lim or lim .
𝑥→𝑐 𝑥→∞ 𝑥→−∞
That is, the variable 𝑥 may approach to a finite number 𝑐 or (∞).

85 86

1 𝜋 3
Example 42. lim 5 + Example 43. lim =0
𝑥→∞ 𝑥 𝑥→−∞ 𝑥2

87 88

Limits at infinity of rational functions Horizontal asymptotes

These examples illustrate what happens when the degree of the numerator is less than or
equal to the degree of the denominator. If the distance between the graph of a function and some fixed line approaches to zero as
a point on the graph moves increasingly far from the origin, we say that the graph
5𝑥 2 + 8𝑥 − 3 approaches the line asymptotically and that the line is an asymptote of the graph.
Example 44.lim
𝑥→∞ 3𝑥 2 + 2

Definition:
A line 𝑦 = 𝑏 is a horizontal asymptote of the graph of a function 𝑦 = 𝑓 𝑥 if either

11𝑥 + 2 lim 𝑓 𝑥 = 𝑏 or
Example 45. 𝑥→−∞
lim 𝑥→∞
2𝑥 3 − 1

lim 𝑓 𝑥 = 𝑏
𝑥→−∞

89 90

15
 22.09.2024

1 5𝑥 2 +8𝑥−3
Example 46. Determine the function 𝑓 𝑥 = 𝑥 has a horizontal asymptote or not. Example 47. Determine the function 𝑓 𝑥 = has a horizontal asymptote or not.
3𝑥 2 +2

91 92

𝑥3 − 2 1 1
Example 48. Find the horizontal asymptotes of the graph of𝑓 𝑥 = . Example 49. Find lim sin and lim 𝑥 sin .
𝑥3 + 1 𝑥→∞ 𝑥 𝑥→±∞ 𝑥

93 94

Example 50. Using the sandwich theorem, find the horizontal asymptote of the curve
sin 𝑥
𝑦 = 2+ .
𝑥

95 96

16
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𝑥2 − 3
Oblique asymptotes Example 51. Find the oblique asymptote of the graph of 𝑓 𝑥 = .
2𝑥 − 4

If the degree of the numerator of a rational function is 1 greater than the degree of the
denominator, the graph has an oblique or slant line asymptote. We find an equation for
the asymptote by dividing numerator by denominator to express f as a linear function
plus a remainder that goes to zero as 𝑥 → ±∞.

97 98

1
Infinite limits Example 52. Analyze the limit of the function 𝑓 𝑥 =
𝑥
as x approaches 0+ and 0− .

1. We say that 𝑓 𝑥 approaches infinity as 𝑥 approaches 𝑥0 , and write

lim 𝑓 𝑥 = ∞
𝑥→𝑥0

if for every positive real number 𝐵 there exists a corresponding 𝛿 > 0 such that for all 𝑥
0 < 𝑥 − 𝑥0 < 𝛿 ⟹ 𝑓 𝑥 > 𝐵
2. We say that 𝑓 𝑥 approaches minus infinity as 𝑥 approaches 𝑥0 , and write
lim 𝑓 𝑥 = −∞
𝑥→𝑥0

if for every negative real number −𝐵 there exists a corresponding 𝛿 > 0 such that for all
𝑥 0 < 𝑥 − 𝑥0 < 𝛿 ⟹ 𝑓 𝑥 < −𝐵

99 100

101 102

17
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1
Example 53. Analyze the limit of the function 𝑓 𝑥 = as x approaches 1+ and 1− .
𝑥−1

103 104

1 1
Example 49. Find lim sin and lim 𝑥 sin .
𝑥→∞ 𝑥 𝑥→±∞ 𝑥

105 106

Example 50. Using the sandwich theorem, find the horizontal asymptote of the curve
sin 𝑥
𝑦 = 2+ .
𝑥

107 108

18
 22.09.2024

𝑥2 − 3
Oblique asymptotes Example 51. Find the oblique asymptote of the graph of 𝑓 𝑥 = .
2𝑥 − 4

If the degree of the numerator of a rational function is 1 greater than the degree of the
denominator, the graph has an oblique or slant line asymptote. We find an equation for
the asymptote by dividing numerator by denominator to express f as a linear function
plus a remainder that goes to zero as 𝑥 → ±∞.

109 110

1
Infinite limits Example 52. Analyze the limit of the function 𝑓 𝑥 =
𝑥
as x approaches 0+ and 0− .

1. We say that 𝑓 𝑥 approaches infinity as 𝑥 approaches 𝑥0 , and write

lim 𝑓 𝑥 = ∞
𝑥→𝑥0

if for every positive real number 𝐵 there exists a corresponding 𝛿 > 0 such that for all 𝑥
0 < 𝑥 − 𝑥0 < 𝛿 ⟹ 𝑓 𝑥 > 𝐵
2. We say that 𝑓 𝑥 approaches minus infinity as 𝑥 approaches 𝑥0 , and write
lim 𝑓 𝑥 = −∞
𝑥→𝑥0

if for every negative real number −𝐵 there exists a corresponding 𝛿 > 0 such that for all
𝑥 0 < 𝑥 − 𝑥0 < 𝛿 ⟹ 𝑓 𝑥 < −𝐵

111 112

113 114

19
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1
Example 53. Analyze the limit of the function 𝑓 𝑥 = as x approaches 1+ and 1− .
𝑥−1

115 116

1
Example 54. Discuss the behaviour of 𝑓 𝑥 = as 𝑥 → 0.
𝑥2

117 118

𝑥−2 2 𝑥−2
Example 55. lim =? Example 56. lim =?
𝑥→2 𝑥2 − 4 𝑥→2 𝑥 2
−4

119 120

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𝑥−3 𝑥−3
Example 57. lim+ =? Example 58. lim− =?
𝑥→2 𝑥2 − 4 𝑥→2 𝑥2 − 4

121 122

𝑥−3 2−𝑥
Example 59. lim =? Example 60. lim =?
𝑥→2 𝑥 2
−4 𝑥→2 𝑥−2 3

123 124

1
Some notes Example 61. Show that lim 𝑥 sin
𝑥→0 𝑥
= 0.

1 1 1
1. lim = lim =0 3. lim sin does not exist.
𝑥→∞ 𝑥 𝑥→−∞ 𝑥 𝑥→0 𝑥
1 1 1
lim = ∞, lim = −∞ lim sin =0
𝑥→0+ 𝑥 𝑥→0− 𝑥 𝑥→∞ 𝑥

1 1 1
2. lim+ = lim =∞ 4. lim 𝑥 sin =0
𝑥→0 𝑥 2 𝑥→0− 𝑥 2 𝑥→0 𝑥
1
lim 𝑥 sin =1
𝑥→±∞ 𝑥

125 126

21
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Vertical asymptotes Vertical asymptotes

Definition: 𝑓 𝑥 =
1
𝑥
A line 𝑥 = 𝑎 is a vertical asymptote of the graph of a function 𝑦 = 𝑓 𝑥 if either

lim 𝑓 𝑥 = ±∞ or
𝑥→𝑎+

lim 𝑓 𝑥 = ±∞
𝑥→𝑎−

127 128

𝑥+3 8
Example 62. Find the horizontal and vertical asymptotes of the curve𝑦 = . Example 63. Find the horizontal and vertical asymptotes of the curve 𝑓 𝑥 = − .
𝑥+2 𝑥2 − 4

129 130

131 132

22
 22.09.2024

Example 64. Find the horizontal and vertical asymptotes of the curves 𝑦 = sec 𝑥 and 𝑦 =
tan 𝑥.

Additional examples

133 134

4−𝑥 1
Example 65. lim =? Example 66. lim 𝑥 2 cos =?
𝑥→4 5 − 𝑥2 + 9 𝑥→0 𝑥3

135 136

1 𝑥 + 𝑥 cos 𝑥
Example 67. 𝑔 𝑥 = 𝑥 sin Example 68. lim =?
𝑥 𝑥→0 sin 𝑥 cos 𝑥
Let
lim 𝑔 𝑥 =? lim 𝑔 𝑥 =?
𝑥→0+ 𝑥→0−

137 138

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1 − cos 𝑥 𝑥 − 𝑥 cos 𝑥
Example 69. lim =? Example 70. lim =?
𝑥→0 sin 2𝑥 𝑥→0 sin2 3𝑥

139 140

Example 71. At what points is the function continuous? Example 72. At what points is the function continuous?

𝑥 +2 𝑥4 + 1
𝑦= 𝑦=
cos 𝑥 1 + sin2 𝑥

141 142

Example 73. Define 𝑔 3 in a way that extends 𝑔 𝑥 to be continuous at 𝑥 = 3. Example 74. For what value of 𝒂 is the below function countinuous at every 𝑥?

𝑥2 − 9 𝑥2 − 1 , 𝑥<3
𝑔 𝑥 =
𝑥 −3 𝑓 𝑥 =ቐ
2𝑎𝑥 , 𝑥≥3

143 144

24
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1
𝑥 2 sin 𝑥
Example 75. For what value of 𝒂 and 𝒃 is the below function countinuous? Example 76. lim =?
𝑥→0 sin 𝑥
−2 , 𝑥 ≤ −1
𝑓 𝑥 = ቐ𝑎𝑥 − 𝑏 , −1 < 𝑥 < 1
3 , 𝑥≥1

145 146

𝑥2 − 9 tan 2𝑥
Example 77. lim =? Example 78. lim =?
𝑥→3 3 𝑥−3 𝑥→0 tan 3𝑥

147 148

sin 2 𝑥 tan 𝑥 9 + 8𝑥 − 3
Example lim =? Example 80. lim =?
𝑥→0 𝑥 𝑥→0 𝑥
79.

149 150

25
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1
tan 𝑥 − sin 𝑥 sin 𝑥 − 2
Example 81. lim =? Example lim𝜋 𝜋 =?
𝑥→0 sin3 𝑥
6 𝑥−6
𝑥→
82.

151 152

Example 83. Find the limits lim+ 𝑓 𝑥 and lim− 𝑓 𝑥 and graph the function Example 84. Find the limits lim− 𝑓 𝑥 , lim+ 𝑓 𝑥 and lim 𝑓 𝑥 if
𝑥→3 𝑥→3 𝑥→1 𝑥→1 𝑥→1
4𝑥 − 12 2𝑥 − 1 , 𝑥<1
𝑓 𝑥 =
𝑥 −3 𝑓 𝑥 =ቐ
5𝑥 − 2 , 𝑥>1

153 154

Example 85. Find the limits lim− 𝑓 𝑥 , lim+ 𝑓 𝑥 and lim 𝑓 𝑥 if Example 86. Find the limits lim− 𝑓 𝑥 , lim+ 𝑓 𝑥 and lim 𝑓 𝑥 if
𝑥→0 𝑥→0 𝑥→0 𝑥→𝜋 𝑥→𝜋 𝑥→𝜋

2 − 𝑥2 , 𝑥<0 4 − cos 𝑥 , 𝑥<𝜋

𝑓 𝑥 =ቐ 7 , 𝑥=0 0 , 𝑥=𝜋
𝑓 𝑥 = 𝑥
𝑒 𝑥 + 𝑒 −𝑥 , 𝑥>0 5 sin , 𝑥>𝜋
2

155 156

26
 22.09.2024

𝑥 −2 𝑥 2 − 10𝑥 + 16
Example 87. lim− =? Example 88. lim+ =?
𝑥→2 𝑥2 − 4 𝑥→8 𝑥−8

157 158

𝑥 2 − 25
Example 89. Find the continuous extension of 𝑓 𝑥 = . Example 90. Find all discontinuities of the following function and classify them as
𝑥−5
removable or non-removable.
3𝑥 + 4 , 𝑥<4
26 , 𝑥=4
𝑓 𝑥 = 𝑥2 , 4<𝑥<5
26 , 𝑥=5
52 − 𝑥 2 , 𝑥>5

159 160

Example 91. Show that there is a root of the equation 𝑥 3 − 2𝑥 − 1 = 0 on the interval
0,2 .

161 162

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Example 92. Evaluate the below limit, if it exists.

Example lim 𝑥 2 + 10𝑥 − 𝑥 =?
𝑥→∞
𝑥 − 1 + 𝑥2 93.
lim
𝑥→∞ 3𝑥 2 − 18

163 164

1
Example lim =? Example 95. Evaluate the below limits:
𝑥→1− ln 𝑥
94. 𝑥2 − 9
(a) lim− =?
𝑥→3 𝑥−3 2
𝑥2 − 9
(b) lim+ =?
𝑥→3 𝑥 − 3 2
𝑥2 − 9
(c) lim =?
𝑥→3 𝑥 − 3 2

165 166

2𝑥 + 1
Example lim =?
𝑥→0+ 2𝑥 −1
96.

167 168

28
 22.09.2024

𝑥 −1
Example lim+ sec 𝑥 =? Example 98. Find the limits lim− 𝑓 𝑥 and lim+ 𝑓 𝑥 if 𝑓 𝑥 = + 𝑥2.
𝜋 𝑥→1 𝑥→1 𝑥 −1
𝑥→
97. 2

169 170

1 − cos 2𝑥
Example 99. Find the limits lim 𝑓 𝑥 and lim+ 𝑓 𝑥 if 𝑓 𝑥 = sgn cos 𝑥 . Example 100. Find the limits lim− 𝑓 𝑥 and lim+ 𝑓 𝑥 if 𝑓 𝑥 = .
𝜋−
𝑥→ 𝜋 𝑥→0 𝑥→0 𝑥
2 𝑥→
2

171 172

𝑥−2 2 arcsin 𝑥
Example 101. lim 3 =? Example 102. lim =?
𝑥→8 𝑥−2 𝑥→0 𝑥

173 174

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1 − cos 𝑥 sin 𝑥 − 𝜋/6

Example 103. lim =? Example 104. lim𝜋 =?
𝑥→0 𝑥2 𝑥→ 3 − 2 cos 𝑥
6

175 176

𝜋 − arccos 𝑥
Example 105. lim =? Example 106. At what points are the functions continuous?
𝑥→−1 𝑥+1
(a) 𝑦 = 2𝑥 + 3
(b) 𝑦 =
4
3𝑥 − 1

177 178

30