Chapter 2 Page 1 Ramesh Bhatta

Introduction to Computers
The word ‘computer’ is derived from the Latin word ‘computare’ which means ‘calcu-
late’. A computer is an electronic device that takes input (data and program) which is
processed to get the desired output (usually called information).
Data is the collection of raw facts that are processed to get information. And
information is the data shaped into a meaningful form after processing.
In computer, two kinds of inputs are required to get information. These are data and
program or software. A program is a set of instructions containing methodology to
process data.
Data
Operation
or Results
Calculation
Program s

All computers have many characteristics that have made computers powerful and useful.
These characteristics are: speed, processing capacity, accuracy, diligent, storage
capacity, flexibility, and automatic.
Speed
Computers work at very high speed and are much faster than humans. The speed of
computers is measured in terms of milliseconds (1/1000 sec), microseconds (1/1000000
sec), nanoseconds (1/1000000000 sec), or picoseconds (1/1000000000000 sec), that is,
one-thousandth, one-millionth, one-billionth, and one trillionth of a second respectively.
Processing Capacity
A computer can process the given instructions. It can perform different types of
processing like addition, subtraction, multiplication and division. It can also perform
logical functions like comparing two numbers. Furthermore, computers can process any
kind of data like numbers, text, images, audio, video etc.
Accuracy
The accuracy of computer system is very high. They either give the correct answer or do
not answer at all. In most cases, the errors are due to the human factor. If faulty
instructions are provided for processing data, obviously faulty answers will be given.
Diligent
Computers never get bored and tired. They carry out repetitive and voluminous work for
hours without variation.
Storage Capacity
Computers can store huge amount of data. To store data, computers have primary and
secondary memory systems. With more and more secondary memory systems, which are

Introduction to Computer Systems

Chapter 2 Page 2 Ramesh Bhatta

capable of storing huge amount of data, the storage capacity a computer is virtually
unlimited.
Flexibility
Computers are very versatile machines. They can perform the activities ranging from
simple calculations to performing complex CAD (computer aided design) modeling and
simulation to navigating missiles and satellites. They can be used in different areas like
business, education, scientific research, medicine, training etc. Hence, computers are
capable of performing almost any task and in any area.
Automatic
Computer is an automatic machine. Everything that is given to computer are processed
and done by computer automatically according to the instruction provided.

Block Diagram of Digital Computer

Any computer system has three essential components, namely, input unit, central pro-
cessing unit (CPU) and output unit. The CPU itself has three components, namely,
arithmetic logic unit (ALU), control unit (CU), and memory unit (MU). In addition,
computers also have secondary storage devices (also called auxiliary storage or back-
ing storage) that are used to store data and programs on a long-term basis.

CPU
ALU CU
Input Output
device device
MU

Secondary
storage
Fig: Building blocks of Computer
Input Devices
Input devices are used to transfer data into the memory unit of a computer. This informa-
tion is then transferred from the memory to the ALU where comparisons and calculations
are done and the results are sent back to the memory unit. Some common input devices
are: keyboard, mouse, scanner, touch screen, and joystick.

Introduction to Computer Systems

Chapter 2 Page 3 Ramesh Bhatta

Central Processing Unit (CPU)

The part of the computer that executes program instructions is known as processor or
central processing device (CPU). It consists of three components. These components are
arithmetic logic unit (ALU), control unit (CU), and memory unit (MU).
Arithmetic logic unit (ALU) performs fundamental mathematical operations consist-
ing of addition, subtraction, multiplication, and division. In addition, it also performs log-
ical operations that consist of comparisons like equal to, less than, greater than etc.
Control unit (CU) coordinates and controls the operations of a computer system. It con-
trols the activities between memory and ALU and between CPU and input/output de-
vices.
A memory unit (MU) is also called primary memory or main memory. It holds data
for processing, instructions for processing data (program), and information (processed
data). The contents of main memory are lost when the computer is turned off. So, it is
also called volatile memory.
Output Devices
The results that are stored in the memory can be transformed into a form that can be un-
derstood by users of a computer system by means of an output device. Some common
output devices are monitor, printer, speaker etc.
Secondary Storage Devices
These devices are also called auxiliary storage devices. These devices are any storage
other than main memory. Unlike main memory, these are long-term, non-volatile mem-
ory. That is, these devices store and retain the programs and data after the computer is
switched off.
There are two types of secondary storage devices. This classification is based on the
type of data access: sequential and random. In case of sequential access devices, the
data stored in these devices can only be read in a sequence and to get to a particular point
on the media, we have to go through all the preceding points. For example, magnetic
tapes are sequential access media. In case of direct-access devices, the data stored can be
accessed randomly at any point without passing through intervening points. Magnetic
disks and optical disks are most common examples of direct-access devices.

Memory/Storage
The term memory identifies data storage that comes in the form of chips, and the word
storage is used for memory that exists on tapes or disks. Basically, there are two types of
memory: primary memory and secondary memory.
Primary Memory
Primary memory is the memory is the memory that can be directly accessed by the CPU.
Different types of primary memories are RAM (Random-access Memory), ROM (Read-
only Memory), PROM (Programmable Read-only Memory), EPROM (Erasable
Programmable Read-only Memory), and EEPROM (Electrically Erasable Programmable
Read-only Memory).

Introduction to Computer Systems

Chapter 2 Page 4 Ramesh Bhatta

RAM (Random-access Memory)

This is also called main memory. The term RAM refers to read and write memory, that is,
you can both write data into RAM and read data from RAM. This is in contrast to ROM,
which permits you only read data. Most RAM is volatile, which means that it requires a
steady flow of electricity to maintain its contents. As soon as the power is turned off,
whatever data was in RAM is lost.
It is also defined as a type of computer memory that can be accessed randomly that is
any byte of memory can be accessed without touching the preceding bytes. There are two
types of RAM: dynamic RAM (DRAM) and static RAM (SRAM). These two types
differ in the technology they use to hold data. DRAM needs to be refreshed thousands of
times per second. SRAM needs to be refreshed less often.
ROM (Read-only Memory)
Computers almost always contain a small amount of read-only memory that holds
instructions for starting up the computer. Unlike RAM, ROM cannot be written to. Once
data has been written onto a ROM chip, it cannot be removed and can only be read.
Unlike RAM, ROM retains its contents even when the computer is turned off. Hence,
ROM is nonvolatile.
PROM (Programmable Read-only Memory)
A PROM is a memory chip on which data can be written only once. Once a program has
been written into a PROM, it remains there forever. Unlike the main memory, PROMs
retain their contents when the computer is turned off.
The difference between a PROM and ROM is that a PROM is manufactured as blank
memory, whereas a ROM is programmed during the manufacturing process. To write
data onto a PROM chip, you need a special device called a PROM programmer or a
PROM burner. The process of programming a PROM is sometimes called burning the
PROM.
EPROM (Erasable Programmable Read-only Memory)
An EPROM is a special type of PROM that can be erased by exposing it to ultraviolet
light. The ultraviolet light clears its contents, making it possible to reprogram the
memory. An EPROM differs from a PROM in that a PROM can be written to only once
and cannot be erased.
EEPROM (Electrically Erasable Programmable Read-only Memory)
An EEPROM is a special type of PROM that can be erased by exposing it to an electrical
charge. Like other types of PROM, EEPROM retains its contents even when the power is
turned off.
EEPROM is similar to flash memory (sometimes called flash EEPROM). The
principle difference is that EEPROM requires data to be written or erased one byte at a
time whereas flash memory allows data to be written or erased in blocks. This makes
flash memory faster.
Flash Memory
It is a special type of EEPROM that can be erased and reprogrammed in blocks instead of
one byte at a time. Many modern PCs have their BIOS stored on flash memory chip so
that it can easily be updated if necessary.

Introduction to Computer Systems

Chapter 2 Page 5 Ramesh Bhatta

Cache Memory
The cache memory is placed between CPU and main memory. It is a semiconductor
memory and consists of static RAM. It is a special and very high speed memory used to
increase the speed of processing by making current program and data available to the
CPU at a rapid rate. It stores programs and data which are to be currently executed by the
CPU. It is used to reduce the average access time for programs and data, which are
normally stored in the main memory.
Auxiliary Main
Storage Memory

CPU Cache
Memory
As the CPU processes data, it looks first in the cache memory and if it finds the data
there, it does not have to do the more time-consuming reading of data from larger main
memory.
Cache memory is placed at two or three levels. They are also called first-level cache
(L1), second-level cache (L2), and third-level cache (L3). An L1 cache is on the same
chip as the CPU or microprocessor. L2 and L3 are usually a separate static RAM chip.
Cache within the CPU is called internal cache and the cache outside the CPU is called
external cache.
Secondary Memory
These devices are also called auxiliary storage devices. These devices are any storage
other than main memory. Unlike main memory, these are long-term, non-volatile mem-
ory. That is, these devices store and retain the programs and data after the computer is
switched off.
There are two types of secondary storage devices. This classification is based on the type
of data access: sequential and random. In case of sequential access devices, the data
stored in these devices can only be read in a sequence and to get to a particular point on
the media, we have to go through all the preceding points. For example, magnetic tapes
are sequential access media. In case of direct-access devices, the data stored can be ac-
cessed randomly at any point without passing through intervening points. Magnetic disks
and optical disks are most common examples of direct-access devices.
Magnetic Tape
It is a magnetically coated strip of plastic on which data can be stored. Storing data on
tapes is considerably cheaper than storing data on disks. Accessing data on tapes, how-
ever, is much slower than accessing data on disks. Because, tapes are so slow, they are
generally used for long-term storage and backup.

Magnetic Disk

Introduction to Computer Systems

Chapter 2 Page 6 Ramesh Bhatta

Magnetic disks store data on disks rather than in tapes. The most popular magnetic disks
are floppy disk and hard disk.
Floppy disk is a soft magnetic disk that is commonly used to move files between dif-
ferent computers, load new programs onto the computer, or store backup of data and
small programs. It is slower to access data than hard disks and have less storage capacity,
but is less expensive and portable. It is not very reliable and can be damaged easily. Flop -
pies come in two basic sizes: 5.25 inch and 3.5 inch. 5.25 inch was common before 1978
and can hold 100KB and 1.2MB of data. The most common were 360KB and 1.2MB. 3.5
inch can hold 1.44MB of data. Now days, floppies are used infrequently.
Hard disk is a magnetic disk on which we store computer data. It holds more data and
is faster than floppy disks. It can store several gigabytes (GB) of data. A single hard disk
usually consists of several platters. Each platter requires two read/write heads, one for
each side. All read/write heads are attached to a single access arm so that they cannot
move independently. Each platter has the same number of tracks and a track location that
cuts across all platters is called a cylinder.
Optical Disk
Optical disks are the storage medium from which data is read and to which data is written
by lasers. There are two types of optical disks: CD (compact disk) and DVD (digital
versatile disk). CD can hold vast amount of information such as videos, music,
animation, text etc. it is portable and its capacity usually ranges from 650 to 750MB. It is
more reliable for long-term storage. DVD is primarily used to store movies or music.
However, it can hold any type of information. It is similar to a CD but has a larger
capacity. It can store about 17GB of data.

Hardware
Hardware, in the computer world, refers to the physical components that make up a
computer system. It refers to objects that you can actually touch. There are many, many
different kinds of hardware that can be installed inside and connected to the outside of a
computer. However, there are several standard pieces of hardware that can be found as
part of nearly every computer:
 Motherboard
 Central Processing Unit
 Random Access Memory (RAM)
 Power Supply
 Video Card
 Hard Drive
 Optical Drive
 Sound Card
 Network Interface Card (NIC)
 Keyboard
 Mouse
 Printer
 Monitor
 Speakers

Introduction to Computer Systems

Chapter 2 Page 7 Ramesh Bhatta

Software
A computer needs both hardware and software for its proper functioning. Hardware
(components like input, processing, output, and storage that can be physically handled)
alone cannot perform any particular function without software.
Software is a computer program (set of instructions) that causes the hardware to do
work. The software acts as an interface between the user and the computer. Software as a
whole can be divided into a number of categories based on the types of work done. The
two primary software categories are system software and application software.
System Software
System software includes operating systems (OS) and utility programs that operate and
maintain a computer system and provide resources for applications programs. System
software consists of low level programs that interact with the computer at a very basic
level. System software also includes software like compilers, assemblers, debuggers,
and file management tools.
Operating systems are the most important programs that run on a computer. An oper-
ating system manages and coordinates the functions performed by the computer hard-
ware. Every general purpose computer must have an operating system to run other pro-
grams. Operating systems perform basic tasks, such as recognizing input from input de-
vices, sending output to output devices, keeping track of files and directories on the disk,
and controlling peripheral devices such as disk drives and printers. Most commonly used
operating systems include Microsoft Windows, MS-DOS, UNIX, Solaris etc.
Utility is a program that performs a very specific task, usually related to managing
system resources. Operating system contains a number of utilities for managing disk
drives, printers and other devices.
Application Software
Application software (also called end-user programs) includes programs designed to
help people to perform specific functions. Depending on the work for which it was de-
signed, application software can manipulate text, numbers, graphics, or a combination of
these elements. Application software can be a program used for accounting control in
business, a program used for engineering design etc. Some basic examples are word pro-
cessors, spreadsheets, presentation graphics, image processors, and database man-
agement systems (DBMS).
A word processor is a program that enables us to perform word processing functions.
Word processors use a computer to create, edit, and print documents. Of all computer ap-
plications, word processors are the most common. A word processor enables you to cre-
ate a document, store it electronically on a disk, display it on a screen, modify it by enter -
ing commands and characters from the keyboard, and print it on a printer. Some of the
commonly used word processors are Microsoft Word, WordStar, WordPerfect, AmiPro
etc.
A spreadsheet is a table of values arranged in rows and columns. Spreadsheet applica-
tions or spreadsheets are computer programs that let you create and manipulate spread-
sheets electronically. In a spreadsheet application, each value sits in a cell. You can de -
fine what type of data is in each cell and how different cells depend on one another. The

Introduction to Computer Systems

Chapter 2 Page 8 Ramesh Bhatta

relationships between cells are called formulas and the names of the cells are called la-
bels. These applications also support graphic features like charts and graphs. The most fa-
mous spreadsheet applications are Microsoft Excel and Lotus 1-2-3.
Presentation Graphics enable users to create highly stylized slides for presentation.
This software includes functions for creating various types of charts and graphs and for
inserting text in a variety of fonts. Some popular presentation graphics software are
Microsoft PowerPoint, Lotus Freelance, Graphics, Harvard Presentation Graphics, etc.
Image processors or graphics programs enable you to create, edit, manipulate, add
special effects, view, print, and save images. Image processors include paint programs,
draw programs, and image editors.
A DBMS is a collection of programs that enable you to store, modify, and extract in-
formation from a database (a systematically arranged collection of computer data). Some
examples of DBMS are Microsoft Access, Oracle, Sybase, DB2 etc.

Firmware
Firmware is a combination of software and hardware. Computer chips that have data or
programs recorded on them are firmware. Perhaps the most familiar firmware is the basic
input output system (BIOS) chip. These chips commonly include the following:
 ROMs (read-only memory)
 PROMs (programmable read-only memory)
 EPROMs (erasable programmable read-only memory)
Firmware in PROM or EPROM is designed to be updated if necessary through a software
update.
The BIOS chip on a computer motherboard holds instructions that, upon powering up,
initialize the computer system.

Computer Peripherals
Auxiliary equipment used for computer input (keyboard, mouse, scanner, etc.), output
(printer, plotter, speaker), storage (floppy drive, hard disk, CD drive), communication
(microphone, modem, router), or other functions under the direct control of a computer is
called peripheral device.
A peripheral device is attached to a host computer but not part of it, and is more or
less dependent on the host. It expands the host’s capabilities, but does not form part of the
core computer architecture (CPU and memory).
Peripheral devices can be external (such as a mouse, keyboard, printer etc.) or internal
(such as CD-ROM drive, sound card, internal modem etc.). Internal peripheral devices
are often referred to as integrated peripherals.

Introduction to Computer Systems