Class XI

Chapter 10: Cell Cycle & Cell Division

Cell Division:
 "Continuity of life" is an important intrinsic characteristic of living organisms and is achieved through the
process of reproduction
 The reproduction may be asexual or sexual ; Both of these involve the division and replication of cells
 Even the growth and development of every living organism depends on the growth and multiplication of its
cells
 A cell divides when it has grown to a certain maximum size which disturb the karyoplasmic index
(KI)/Nucleoplasmic ratio (NP)/Kernplasm connection
Historical Facts:
 Rudolf Virchow (1855-1859) was the first to suggest that new cells are formed from the division of the pre-
existing cells- omniscellula e cellula(every cell is derived from a cell)
 In 1873, Strasburger similarly proposed that nuclei are formed from pre-existing ones
 Boveri (1879) and Flemming (1879, 1880) studied details of somatic cell division
Cell Cycle:
 The sequence of events by which a cell duplicates its genome, synthesizes the other constituents of cells
and eventually divides into two daughter cells is called cell cycle
 Cell cycle is divided into two phases- Interphase and Mitosis
 The length of cell cycle varies in different organisms
 The average duration of cell cycle in human cells is 24 hours; of this, mitosis lasts for only 1 hour;
therefore, the majority of cell cycle is spent in interphase
 In yeast cells, it takes about 90 minutes to complete one cell cycle
Phases of Cell Cycle:
 Interphase- it is the phase between two successive M phases & lasts for 95% of a cell cycle
 Interphase is called as resting phase but during this period the cell prepares itself for nuclear division by
cell growth
 M Phase- when the actual cell division or mitosis occurs
 It starts with karyokinesis (nuclear division) or separation of chromosome and end with cytokinesis or
division of cell matrix (cytoplasm division)
Interphase: Sub-stages:
 G1 phase: (First gap)
 S phase: synthesis
 G2 phase: (second gap)
 Note: the cell grows during all three phases but chromosomes are duplicated only during S phase
G1 Phase:
 It corresponds to the duration between the mitosis (M-phase) and initiation of replication of DNA
 The cell become metabolically active during this period, grows continuously and prepares itself for DNA
replication but does not undergo DNA replication
S Phase:
 It is known to be the phase in which actual synthesis or replication of DNA takes place
 The overall amount of DNA doubles per cell, but no increase in chromosome number is seen during this
stage
 In case of animal cells, during S-phase DNA replication begins inside the nucleus while, the duplication of
centrioles takes place in the cytoplasm
G2 Phase:
 This phase is also called post-synthetic or pre-mitotic phase
 During this stage the synthesis of DNA stops and proteins required for mitosis are being synthesized while,
the growth of cell continues
 It prepares the cell to undergo division
 Repair of damaged DNA and duplication of mitochondria, centrioles and plastids takes place during this
phase
G0 Phase:
 This is known as the stage of inactivation of cell cycle
 Cells in G0-phase remains metabolically active but do not proliferate, i.e., do not grow or differentiate till
the time they do not get instruction to do so depending upon the requirement of the organism
 In adult animals, some cells like heart cells or nerve cells do not undergo division and many other cells
divide only occasionally, to replace cells that have already been lost
 The duration of G0-phase may vary from indefinitely long to very short, except the nerve, bone and heart
cells of chordates that are in permanent G0-phase
M Phase:
 Following the interphase, the cell enters the M-phase or mitotic phase
 The M-phase may include any of the type of cell division i.e., mitosis or equational division and meiosis or
reductional division
 However, in general M-phase refers to mitotic phase
 M-phase also orderly involves the distribution of cell organelles and various macrobiomolecules to the
daughter cells

Mitosis:
 In this type of division, the chromosomes replicate themselves and gets equally distributed into daughter
nuclei, i.e., the chromosome number in the parental and progeny cell (diploid) become the same
 Therefore, it is also known as equational division
 Mitosis is also known as somatic cell division because it results in the formation of somatic cells
 Mitotic cell division is seen in the diploid somatic cells in animals, whereas, in plants,mitotic divisions is
seen in both haploid and diploid cells
 Mitosis is considered to be the short period of chromosome condensation, segregation (karyokinesis) and
cytoplasmic division
 It is known to be the phase of actual cell division, which starts with the division of nucleus, followed by the
separation of daughter chromosomes, i.e„ karyokinesis and terminates with the cytoplasmic division,
i. e., cytokinesis
Karyokinesis: Sub-stages:
1. Prophase
2. Metaphase
3. Anaphase
4. Telophase
Prophase:
 It is known to be the longest and the most complex phase of cell division because it lasts for about 50 min
of total duration of mitotic phase (1 hour)
 This is the first stage of mitosis that follows the G2-phase of Interphase
 This phase is known for the initiation of condensation of chromosomal material, which during the process
of chromatin condensation becomes untangled, and finally the centriole (already duplicated during S-phase
of interphase) begins to move towards the opposite poles of the cell
 For suitability in study, it can be categorized as ‘Early Prophase’ & ‘Late Prophase’
Early Prophase:
 During this phase, condensation of chromosomal material takes place in order to form a compact mitotic
chromosomes composed of two chromatids which are attached together at centromere
 The most conspicuous change that take place during prophase is the formation of mitotic spindle
 The initiation of mitotic spindle assembly, the microtubules and the proteinaceous components of the cell
cytoplasm helps in the completion of the process
 The mitotic spindle is formed between the two pairs of centrioles that migrate towards the opposite poles of
the cell
Late Prophase:
 Towards the end of the prophase, i.e., during late prophase, the nucleolus disintegrates gradually and the
nuclear envelope disappear
 This disappearance marks the end of the prophase
 If we view cells under the microscope, during the prophase the cell will not show nucleolus, nuclear
envelope, Golgi complex, endoplasmic reticulum, etc.
Metaphase:
 It is the phase that starts after the disintegration of nuclear envelope in the late prophase
 The chromosomes spread out through the cytoplasm of the cell and are seem to be slightly shortest and
thickest
 It is the most suitable stage to study the morphology of chromosomes
 Each chromosome at this stage is made up of two longitudinal threads (sister chromatids) and are held
together by the centromere in the centre
 At the surface of each centromere disc-shaped structures called kinetochores are present, which help in the
attachment of spindle fibres to the chromosomes
 The chromosomes arrange at centre of cell called metaphase plate
Kinetochore:
 Kinetochore are the small disc-shaped structures at the surface of the centromeres, which serve as the sites
of attachment of spindle fibres to the chromosomes that are moved into position at the centre of the cell
 Chromosomes are attached to the polar fibres at the kinetochores, through kinetochore fibres

Mitotic Poison: Colchicine:

 Colchicine, an alkaloid is extracted from the corms of autumn crocus (Colchicum autumnale), acts as a
poison for mitosis as it does not allow the formation of mitotic spindle to takes place by preventing the
assembly of microtubules
 But it does not affect replication of chromosomes
 Thus, meristematic cells treated with this chemical show doubling of chromosomes
 It usually causes arrest at metaphase of mitosis
Anaphase:
 It is known to be the shortest duration phase, i.e., only of 2-3 min (1 hour mitosis) and is also very simple
stage
 At the beginning of this phase, splitting of chromosomes (that are already arranged at metaphase plate)
takes place
 The two daughter chromatids now become the chromosomes of future daughter nuclei and start migrating
towards the opposite poles along the path of their chromosome fibres
Telophase:
 This is considered to be long and complex phase like prophase the final stage of mitosis
 At the onset of this stage, the spindle disappears (absorbed in cytoplasm) and the chromosomes decondense
and further loses their individuality after reaching their respective poles
 In general terms, the events of prophase occur just in reverse sequence during this phase
 The individual chromosomes cannot be seen and the chromatin material gets collected in the form of mass
in both opposite poles
 Nuclear envelope slowly reformed around group of chromatin
 Reappearance of nucleolus, Golgi complex and ER also takes place
Cytokinesis:
 It is commonly known as the division of cytoplasm of the parent cell into two daughter cells after the
division of nucleus or karyokinesis
 It occurs, so that each daughter cell can receive a nucleus of its own
 Thus, mitosis is not only the segregation of nucleus into two daughter nuclei, in fact, the cell also divide
itself into two daughter cells
 The method of cytokinesis is different in plant & animal cells
Cytokinesis: Animals:
 In animal cells, cytokinesis starts at metaphase
 They typically divide by furrowing or by the appearance of furrow in the plasma membrane, also known as
cleavage
 Due to the contraction and development of micro- filaments, a constriction develops which further deepens
in a centripetal way known as cell furrow
 The furrow starts deepening gradually during telophase and finally gets joined in the centre by dividing the
cytoplasm into two
Cytokinesis: Plants:
 Cytokinesis in plant cells is different from that in the animal cells as due to the presence of a solid, rigid
and in- extensible cell wall on the outside of the cell, the plant cell cannot undergo cytokinesis by the
furrowing method
 The plant cell divides by the cell-plate method
 The formation of cell-plate usually begins during the late anaphase or early telophase
 The formation of a new wall in plant cells takes place in the centre of the cell and start growing outward
towards the opposite sides in order to reach the already existing lateral walls
 Once cell plate has divided the cell into two cells, it will continue to grow and develop into a new cell
Mitosis - Significance:
 It helps in the production of diploid daughter cells with equal and identical genetic complement
 Mitosis helps in growth of multicellular organisms
 It also helps in maintaining a proper cell size by dividing an overgrown somatic cell
 It is helpful in cell repair mechanism, eg., continuous replacement of the cells like of the upper layer of the
epidermis, cells of the lining of the gut, and blood cells
 The growth of multicellular organism is due to mitosis as, it is known that a cell cannot grow in size
beyond a certain limit without disturbing the ratio between the nucleus and the cytoplasm;
After reaching the particular size, the cell divides in order to restore the nucleocytoplasmic ratio; Therefore,
the growth of cell takes place by the increase in the number of cells, rather than the increase in the size of
the cell
 It is also helpful in producing new cells for healing wounds and for regeneration
 Mitosis plays an important role in continuous growth of plants throughout their life by meristematic tissues
like the apical and the lateral cambium
Animal v/s Plant Mitosis:
Animal Cells Plant Cells
 Centrioles present at Spindle poles  Centrioles absent at Spindle poles
 Cytokinesis by furrowing of cytoplasm  Cytokinesis by cell-plate formation
 Occurs nearly in all tissues  Occurs mainly at meristems
 Cells do not change their forms or nature  Cells become rounded and cytoplasm viscous
during mitosis during mitosis
 Intercellular spaces occur between daughter  Daughter cells remain adhered together by
cells middle lamella
 Controlled by Mitogens (Proteins)  Controlled by Cytokinin (Hormone)
 Cell furrow extends centripetally  Cell plate grows centrifugally

Meiosis:
 Meiosis is the phenomenon which occurs in any life cycle that involves the process of sexual reproduction
 Meiosis is known to be the specialized form of cell division which reduces the chromosome number in
such a way that each daughter nuclei receive only one set of each kind of chromosome
 It results in the production of haploid daughter cells
 In meiosis, the nucleus divides twice but the replication chromosome takes place only once
 Thus, it is also known as the reductional division
 In case of diploid organisms, meiosis takes place during the formation of spores or gametes whereas, in
haploid organisms it takes place during germination of zygote
 Meiosis ensures the production of haploid phase in the life cycle of sexually reproducing organism whereas,
the fertilization restores diploid phase
 During this division, the homologous chromosomes of each pair separates from each other and reaches
separate daughter cells which thereby reduces the number of chromosomes from diploid to haploid, i.e.,
from 2n to n
 It is divided into 2 stages- Meiosis I & Meiosis II
Meiosis: essential Features:
 Meiosis undergoes two successive cycles of nuclear and cytoplasm division, i.e., meiosis-I and II, but no
DNA replication will result prior to second meiotic division
 Meiosis-I and II occurs one after the another with a very short or no interphase
 After the replication of parental chromosomes, initiation of meiosis-I takes place in order to produce
identical sister chromatids at S-phase
 Meiosis may take days to gets completed instead of hours or minutes that are needed for mitosis
 Pairing of homologous chromosomes and recombination takes place during meiosis
 Finally, after the second meiotic division four haploid cells are being formed
Stages in Meiosis:
I. Meiosis I
 Prophase I
 Metaphase I
 Anaphase I
 Telophase I
 Cytokinesis I
II. Meiosis II
 Prophase II
 Metaphase II
 Anaphase II
 Telophase
 Cytokinesis II
Meiosis I:
 Has 4 sub-stages of nuclear division followed by cytokinesis:
1. Prophase I
2. Metaphase I
3. Anaphase I
4. Telophase I
 Prophase I is considered to be the most complicated and prolonged phase as compared to the similar stage
in mitosis
Prophase I
 5 sub-stages based on chromosomal behaviour:
1. Leptotene
2. Zygotene
3. Pachytene
4. Diplotene
5. Diakinesis
Leptotene:
 The very first stage of meiotic division following the interphase
 Chromosomes becomes gradually visible under light microscope (shorten & thickened)
 Centrioles start moving towards opposite ends or poles and each centriole develops astral rays
 Each chromosome is attached to the nuclear envelope through the attachment plate at both of its ends
 Homologous chromosomes start moving closer to each other
Homologous chromosomes:
 There are two sets of chromosomes in a diploid cell undergoing meiosis, one set contributed by the male
parent and the other by the female parent
 There are always two similar chromosomes, having the same size, shape and position of centromere
 Such chromosomes are called ‘Homologous Chromosomes’
Zygotene:
 The next short-lived sub-stage that takes place after the completion of Leptotene
 Homologous chromosomes pair up in a such a way that the genes of the same character present on the two
chromosomes lie exactly opposite to each other
 This process of association is known as synapsis
 It is revealed from the electron micrographic studies that the formation of synaptonemal complex takes place by a
pair of homologous chromosomes that show synapsis
 The complex so formed, on account of synapsis forms a bivalent or a tetrad
 The number of bivalents are half the total number of chromosomes and are not clearly visible at this stage
Pachytene:
 This is the stage which immediately follows zygotene where the pair of chromosomes become twisted spirally
around each other and cannot be distinguished separately
 This stage is comparatively long lived as compared to the previous two stages
 Bivalent chromosomes clearly seen as tetrads
 In this stage, sometimes exchange of genes or crossing over between the two non-sister chromatids of homologous
chromosomes occurs at the points called recombination nodules, which appear at intervals, on synaptonemal
complex
 By the end of pachytene, recombination gets completed leaving the chromosomes linked at the sites of crossing over
Crossing over:
 In this process, exchange of genetic material takes place between the non-sister chromatids of two homologous
chromosomes
 It finally leads to recombination of genetic material on the two chromosomes
Diplotene:
 It is the stage of longest duration of all
 In this the synaptonemal complex appears to get dissolved while, the chromatids of each tetrad remain clearly visible
 Recombined homologous chromosomes of the bivalents start to get separated and form chiasmata (X-shaped
structures)
 Chiasmata formation is necessary for the separation of homologous, chromosome which have undergone the process
of crossing-over
 Diplotene can last for months or even years as in Oocytes of some vertebrates
Diakinesis:
 This is known to be the final stage of meiotic prophase-I
 Chromosomes become fully condensed
 Nucleolus degenerates
 Breakdown of nuclear envelope occurs
 Formation of meiotic spindle (as in mitosis) in order to prepare the homologous chromosomes for separation
 Diakinesis is the phase which represents the transition from prophase to metaphase of meiosis-l
Metaphase I:
 The stage followed by Prophase
 The bivalents during this phase arrange themselves on the two parallel equatorial plates
 The centromeres project little bit towards periphery
 Since, there are two centromeres in each bivalent, each centromere is joined by chromosomal fibres
 The fibres of the homologous chromosomes are always in the opposite directions
 Anaphase I:
 The stage that follows Metaphase I
 Homologous chromosomes break their connection with each other and get separated (disjunction)
 The separated chromosomes are univalents and are also called dyads
 On reaching at the end of the anaphase, the two groups of chromosomes are produced (with each having half number
of chromosomes)
 The sister chromatids remain attached at their centromeres on the separation of the homologous chromosomes
Telophase I:
 This is the last stage of meiosis-I in which the chromatids at each pole of the spindle usually remain uncoiled and get
elongated
 Homologous chromosomes reach at their respective poles
 Reappearance of nuclear membrane and nucleolus takes place
Cytokinesis:
 It is the stage during which the cytoplasm and other organelles divide into two equal halves of cells
 Interkinesis This is the stage between the two meiotic divisions, i.e., the meiosis-I and II
 It is generally short lived
 During Interkinesis, no replication of DNA occurs (It is necessary for bringing true haploidy DNA in
daughter cells)
 It is also considered as incipient interphase
Meiosis II:
 Meiosis-II is known by another term, i.e., homotypic division, because in this division chromosome
number remains same, as produced in meiosis-I
 It is initiated immediately after cytokinesis
 It is often known an equational division
 Meiosis-lI also resembles a normal mitotic division in contrast to meiosis-I because it distributes
chromatids to daughter cells (like mitosis)
Prophase II:
 This is known to be the very short stage out of the all. During this process the chromosomes again become
compact in organization
 The centrioles duplicate themselves by the separation of the two members of the pair
 Each chromosome comprising two chromatids become visible in the nucleus
 These chromosomes further become thick and short in size
 Nuclear envelope breaks down and the formation of spindle apparatus takes place and nucleoli disappears
Metaphase II:
 The stage immediately following Prophase II
 The chromosomes align at the equator or the metaphase plate, in the similar way as in mitosis
 Chromosomes get attached to the fully formed spindle apparatus and the kinetochores of sister chromatids
for each chromosome face the opposite poles and each is attached to the kinetochore microtubule coming
from the pole of that side
Anaphase II:
 This stage follows Metaphase II
 The centromere of each chromosome splits, that was holding the sister chromatids together
The shortening of chromosomal microtubules take place, the two chromatids of each chromosome start
moving away from each other and finally reaches the opposite poles of the spindle (now called
chromosomes
Telophase II:
 This is known to be the last stage of second meiotic division and show changes equally opposite to that of
the prophase-II
 Formation of a nuclear envelope (from ER) around each set of chromosomes
 Nucleoli reappears due to the synthesis of ribosomal RNA (rRNA) and ribosomal DNA (rDNA)
Cytokinesis:
 This occurs after every nuclear division. It includes separation of cytoplasm and organelles in the two
halves of the cell
 Thus, the two daughter cells formed have half the number of chromosomes and the amount of nuclear
DNA
 Both the cells undergo divisions and give rise to four cells
 These haploid cells are arranged tetrahedrally and are collectively called tetrad
 It usually sends equal amounts of cytoplasm to each daughter cells but sometimes division is highly
unequal (especially in egg production)
Meiosis: Significance:
 It maintains the same chromosome number in the sexually reproducing organisms
 From a diploid cell, haploid gametes are produced which in turn fuse to form a diploid cell
 It restricts the multiplication of chromosome number and maintains the stability of the species
 Maternal and paternal genes get exchanged during crossing over causing variations among the offspring
 All the four chromatids of a homologous pair of chromosomes segregate and go separately to four different
daughter cells which leads to variation in the daughter cells genetically
 Paternal and maternal chromosomes assort independently but crossing over causes reshuffling of
chromosomes and traits controlled by them
Mitosis v/s Meiosis:
Mitosis Meiosis
Occurs in somatic cells Occurs in reproductive cells

Single division Double division

Daughter cells resemble each other Daughter cells neither resemble each
as well as the parent cell other nor the parent cell
Chromosomes replicate before each Chromosomes replicate only before
mitotic division Meiosis I not Meiosis II
Doesn’t introduce variations Variations introduced
Required for growth, repair & Required for sexual reproduction
healing