REACTIONS IN AQUEOUS

SOLUTIONS
GENERAL PROPERTIES OF AQUEOUS SOLUTIONS
A solution is a homogeneous mixture of two or more substances.
The substance present in a smaller amount is called the solute,
whereas the substance present in a larger amount is called the
solvent. A solution may be gaseous (such as air), solid (such as an
alloy), or liquid (seawater, for example).

All solutes that dissolve in water fit into one of two categories:
electrolytes and nonelectrolytes. An electrolyte is a substance that,
when dissolved in water, results in a solution that can conduct
electricity. A nonelectrolyte does not conduct electricity when
dissolved in water.

Whenever an ionic compound enters a solution, it dissociates into its

ions. For example, when sodium chloride is dissolved in water,
−¿ ¿
+¿+C l (aq ) ¿
NaC l (s ) → N a( aq)

When an ionic compound such as sodium chloride dissolves in water,

the three-dimensional network of the ions in the solid is destroyed, Acids and bases are also electrolytes. Some acids, including
+¿ ¿ −¿ ¿
and the N a and C l ions are separated from each other. In hydrochloric acid ( HCl ) and nitric acid ( HN O 3 ), are strong
solution, each Na1 ion is surrounded by a number of water molecules electrolytes. These acids ionize completely in water; for example,
−¿ ¿
orienting their negative ends toward the cation. Similarly, each C l when hydrogen chloride gas dissolves in water, it forms hydrated
+¿¿ −¿ ¿
ion is surrounded by water molecules with their positive ends H and C l ions:
oriented toward the anion. The process in which an ion is surrounded −¿¿
+¿+C l (aq ) ¿
by water molecules arranged in a specific manner is called HC l (g ) → H ( aq)
hydration. Hydration helps to stabilize ions in solution and prevents
cations from combining with anions. In other words, all the dissolved HCl molecules separate into
+¿¿ −¿ ¿
hydrated H and C l ions in solution.

On the other hand, certain acids, such as acetic acid ( C H 3 COOH ),

which is found in vinegar, ionize to a much lesser extent. We
represent the ionization of acetic acid as
General Chemistry I Lecture Guide
+ ¿¿
−¿+H ( aq ) ¿
C H 3 COO H (aq ) ⇌ C H 3 CO O(aq ) 7. AgN O 3

The double arrow ⇌ in an equation means that the reaction is

reversible; that is, the reaction can occur in both directions. Initially, 8. Au ( N O 3 )3
−¿ ¿
several C H 3 COOH molecules break up to yield C H 3 CO O and
+¿¿ −¿ ¿ +¿¿
H ions. As time goes on, some of the C H 3 CO O and H ions 9. C r 2 ( S O 4 )3
recombine to form C H 3 COOH molecules. Eventually, a state is
reached in which the acid molecules break up as fast as the ions
recombine. Such a chemical state, in which no net change can be 10. C H 3 COONa
observed (although continuous activity is taking place on the
molecular level), is called chemical equilibrium.
PRECIPITATION REACTIONS
One common type of reaction that occurs in aqueous solution is the
precipitation reaction, which results in the formation of an
insoluble product, or precipitate. A precipitate is an insoluble solid
that separates from the solution. Precipitation reactions usually
involve ionic compounds.
ACTIVITY
Show the dissociation/ionization processes for the following
For example, when an aqueous solution of lead(II) nitrate Pb ( N O 3 ) 2
compounds:
1. HN O 3 is added to an aqueous solution of potassium iodide KI , a yellow
precipitate of lead iodide Pb I 2 is formed.

2. AlC l 3 Pb ( N O3 ) 2( aq) +2 K I ( aq) → Pb I 2 (s) +2 KN O3 (aq )

How can we predict whether a precipitate will form when a

3. BaC 2 O 4 compound is added to a solution or when two solutions are mixed? It
depends on the solubility of the solute, which is defined as the
maximum amount of solute that will dissolve in a given quantity of
4. CrC l 3
solvent at a specific temperature.

Chemists refer to substances as soluble, slightly soluble, or insoluble

5. CaS O 4 in a qualitative sense. A substance is said to be soluble if a fair
amount of it visibly dissolves when added to water. If not, the
substance is described as slightly soluble or insoluble. All ionic
6. NaBr
compounds are strong electrolytes, but they are not equally soluble.

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General Chemistry I Lecture Guide
The molecular equations are the formulas of the compounds are
written as though all species existed as molecules or whole units
written. For example

N a2 C O3 ( s) +CaC l 2( s ) → 2 NaC l aq +CaC O3 (s )

To obtain the ionic equation, consider the identity of the ions in the
reactants and products:
−¿ ¿
2+¿ ,C l ¿
¿
+¿ ,C O2−¿,C a
¿
Reactants Na 3

−¿¿
+¿,C l ¿
Products CaC O3 , N a

The ionic equation for the reaction is

−¿+ CaCO ¿
3( s )
+¿ +2C l ¿
( aq )
−¿ → 2N a ¿
( aq )
2+¿ +2C l ¿
( aq)
2−¿+C a( aq ) ¿
+¿+C O ¿
2Na ( aq )
3 (aq )

Cancelling out the ions that appear on both sides of the equation, we
obtain the final equation:
2−¿→CaC O3( s ) ¿
2+¿+C O3 (aq ) ¿
C a(aq )

Equations such as this that exclude “spectator ions,” which take no

part in the reaction, are referred to as net ionic equations.

ACTIVITY
Predict if there is a precipitate when the following pairs are mixed
in a solution:
1. Cu ( N O 3 ) 2 and ( N H 4 ) 2 S O 4

MOLECULAR EQUATIONS, IONIC

EQUATIONS, AND NET IONIC EQUATIONS

The precipitation reaction that occurs when

solutions of N a2 C O 3 and CaC l 2 are mixed can
be represented by three types of equation.
2. FeC l 3 and AgN O 3

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General Chemistry I Lecture Guide

ACID-BASE REACTIONS
There are two prominent definitions on acids and bases. One is from
3. NaOH and Cu ( N O 3 ) 2 Svante Arrhenius. He classified acids as substances which produces
+ ¿¿
+¿/ H 3 O ¿
H when in an aqueous solution. On the other hand, bases are
−¿¿
substances which produces O H when in an aqueous solution. For
example:
−¿¿
+¿+ Cl ( aq ) ¿
Arrhenius Acid HC l(aq) → H (aq )
4. Ba ( OH )2 and MgS O 4
−¿ ¿
+ ¿+O H (aq ) ¿
Arrhenius Base NaO H ( aq) → N a (aq )

Danish chemist Johannes Brønsted expanded Arrhenius’s definition.

+¿¿ +¿¿
He defined acids as proton H donor, and bases as H acceptors.
For example
5. ( N H 4 ) 3 P O4 and K 2 C O3 −¿¿
+¿+O H (aq ) ¿
HC l (aq )+ H 2 O(l ) → H 3 O( aq)

HCl donated its proton to H 2 O, thus making it a Brønsted acid. On

the other hand, H 2 O accepted the proton from HCl , making it a
Brønsted base.

6. K 3 PO 4 and Ca ( N O 3 ) 2 Acids come into three varieties in which they are categorized on how
much protons they are capable to give off during ionization process.

Monoprotic acids are acids which yields one hydrogen ion upon
ionization. Some examples are
+ ¿¿
+¿+C l (aq ) ¿
HC l (aq ) → H (aq )
7. Al ( N O 3 )3and NaOH −¿ ¿
+¿+ N O3 (aq ) ¿
HN O3 (aq) → H ( aq)
+ ¿¿
−¿+ H (aq ) ¿
C H 3 COOH → C H 3 CO O(aq )

Diprotic acids are acids which yields two hydrogen ions upon
ionization. For example,

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General Chemistry I Lecture Guide
−¿¿
+¿+HS O4 ( aq ) ( 1 st ionization ) each other. Determine also if precipitates are formed.
H 2 S O 4 (aq ) → H (aq )
1. Cu ( OH )3 + H 3 PO 4
¿
2−¿ ¿
+ ¿+S O 4 (2 nd ionization )
−¿→ H ( aq ) ¿
HS O4 ( aq)
¿
2−¿¿
+¿+ S O4 (aq ) ( Overall )
H 2 S O 4 (aq ) → 2 H ( aq) 2. Al ( OH )3+ HN O 3
¿

Triprotic acids are acids which yields three hydrogen ions upon
ionization. For example, 3. B a ( OH )2 + H 2 S O 4
−¿¿
+¿+ H 2 P O 4( aq ) ( 1 st ionization )
H 3 P O 4 (aq ) → H (aq )
¿
2−¿ ¿
+¿+ HP O4 ( aq ) ( 2nd ionization )
−¿ → H (aq ) ¿
H 2 P O 4 (aq )
¿ 4. Zn ( OH )2 + H 3 P O 4
3−¿ ¿
+ ¿+ PO (3 rd ionization )
2−¿ → H( aq ) 4 (aq )
¿
HP O 4 (aq )
¿
3−¿¿
+ ¿+ P O4 (aq ) ( overall )
H 3 P O 4 (aq ) → 3 H (aq)
¿ 5. Ca (OH )2 + HCl

ACID-BASE NEUTRALIZATION

A neutralization reaction occurs when both acids and bases are

reacted to each other, forming water and salt,

acid +base → H 2 O+ salt

ACID-BASE REACTIONS LEADING TO GAS FORMATION
For example,
Certain salts produce gaseous products when in acidic solution. Salts
2−¿¿ −¿¿
HC l (aq )+ NaO H (aq ) → H 2 O (l ) + NaC l (aq) of C O 3 and HC O 3 , when reacted to acids, produce C O 2 gas,
2−¿¿
water, and salts. Salts of S O 3 , when reacted to acids, produce S O 2
ACTIVITY gas, water, and salts. Salts of S2−¿¿ , when reacted to acids, produce
Predict the product when the following substances are reacted to H 2 S gas and salts.

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General Chemistry I Lecture Guide
For example, sodium bicarbonate reacts with hydrochloric acid as 3. ZnS+ H 2 S O 4
follows

N a2 C O3 (aq )+ 2 HC l (aq ) → 2 NaC l ( aq) + H 2 C O3 (aq )

However, carbonic acid is an unstable product, thus decomposing as

water and carbon dioxide

H 2 C O3 (aq ) → H 2 O(l ) +C O2 (g )
4. NaHC O 3 + HN O 3

5. AgHC O 3 + HCl

ACTIVITY
Predict the products when these substances are reacted to each
other: Determine if there are precipitates formed.
1. BaC O 3+ H 3 P O 4
OXIDATION-REDUCTION REACTIONS
Another common type of reaction in aqueous solution involves a
transfer of electrons between two species. Such a reaction is called
an oxidation-reduction or redox reaction.

In order to understand clearly the redox reaction, we should be able

2. CuS O 3 + HCl to identify first the oxidation number of a given chemical species

OXIDATION NUMBER

We define the oxidation number (or oxidation state) of an atom in a

substance as the actual charge of the atom if it exists as a
monatomic ion, or a hypothetical charge assigned to the atom in the
substance by simple rules.

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General Chemistry I Lecture Guide
1. The oxidation number of an element in an elementary 3 ( +1 ) + x=0x=−3
substance is 0
The oxidation number for P in P H 3 is −3 .
Example: The oxidation number for chlorine in C l 2 and for
phosphorus in P4 is 0.

+¿¿
2. The oxidation number of an element in a monoatomic b. To determine the oxidation number of N in N H 4 , use
ion is equal to the charge of that ion. the fact that H has an oxidation number of +1 (since it is
−¿ ¿
Example: The oxidation number for chlorine in C l is −1; for combined with N , a nonmetal) and solve algebraically
+¿ ¿
sodium in N a it is +1. using the above rule. Note that there are 4 H atoms, each
with an oxidation number of +1.
3. Certain elements (We will call them“leading We will call the oxidation number of N as y .
elements.”) have the same oxidation number in all
4 ( +1 ) + x=+1 x=−3
their compounds.
+¿¿
The oxidation number for N in N H 4 is −3 .
Group 1 elements always have an oxidation number of +1.
6. Oxygen in a compound has an oxidation number of −2,
Group 2 elements always have an oxidation number of +2 . unless it is combined with a Group 1 metal (always +1) or
Group 2 metal (always +2). Solve algebraically for the
Fluorine (F) always has an oxidation number of −1. oxidation number of oxygen.
Examples:
4. Hydrogen in a compound has an oxidation number of
+1, unless it is combined with a metal, in which case it a. The oxidation number x for oxygen in N a2 O is 2 ( +1 ) + x=0
is −1. , x=−2
Example: The oxidation number for hydrogen in HCl is +1; for b. The oxidation number x for oxygen in N a2 O2 is
hydrogen in NaH it is −1. 2 ( +1 ) +2 x=0 , x=−1
c. The oxidation number x for oxygen in NaO2 is
5. The sum of the oxidation numbers in a neutral species
is 0 and in a polyatomic ion is equal to the charge of 1 (+ 1 )+ 2 x=0 , x=−1/2
the ion.
Examples: ACTIVITY
Assign an oxidation number to each element in the following
a. To determine the oxidation number of P in P H 3, use the species
1. N 2
fact that H has an oxidation number of +1 (since it is
combined with P , a nonmetal) and solve algebraically
using the above rule. Note that there are 3 H atoms, each
with an oxidation number of +1. 2. N 3−¿¿
We will call the oxidation number of P as x .

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General Chemistry I Lecture Guide
Note that the oxidation number of zinc went up from 0 to +2 as it is
−¿¿
being oxidized; while the oxidation number of hydrogen went from
3. N O 3 +1to 0 as it is being reduced.
The two species that exchange electrons in a redox reaction are
4. BaO given special names. The ion or molecule that accepts electrons is
called the oxidizing agent; by accepting electrons it brings about the
oxidation of another species. Conversely, the species that donates
5. K 2 O 2
electrons is called the reducing agent; when reaction occurs it
reduces the other species.
6. HN O 2 Note that as the zinc metal releases two electrons, those electrons
are being used up by hydronium ions to produce hydrogen gas. It
2−¿¿ should be clear that oxidation and reduction reactions must always
7. C r 2 O 7 occur side-by-side. Also, there should be no net change in the
electrons in a redox reaction

8. P F3
ACTIVITY
1. Consider the unbalanced redox equation
2−¿ ¿
−¿ ¿ 3 +¿+H 2 O2 (aq )+2 H 2 O( l )+C r 2O 7( aq ) ¿
9. Mn O 4
C r (aq )
a. Identify the element being oxidized and the element
being reduced
−¿¿
10. PtC l 6

In a redox reaction, one species loses (i.e., donates) electrons and is

said to be oxidized. The other species, which gains (or receives) b. What are the oxidizing and reducing agents?
electrons, is reduced. Consider the reaction
2+ ¿+ H 2( g) ¿
+¿→ Z n( aq ) ¿
Z n (s )+2 H ( aq)

This equation can be split into two-half equations, one is oxidation 2. Consider the unbalanced redox equation
2+ ¿+ Cu( s ) ¿
and the other is reduction. 2+¿+M g(s ) → M g( aq )
C u (aq )
¿

2+¿+2 e
−¿¿
( oxidation ) a. Identify the element being oxidized and the element
Z n (s ) → Z n( aq) being reduced
¿
−¿→H 2( g) ¿
( reduction )
2 H +¿+2
( aq )
e

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General Chemistry I Lecture Guide

b. What are the oxidizing and reducing agents?

−¿→ NO ¿
4. N O 3
BALANCING REDOX EQUATIONS

Before balancing the overall redox equation, half-equations should

be balanced first. The following should be observed when balancing
redox reactions.
−¿¿
1. Balance first the atoms of the half-cell reaction. Add H 2 O 5. C l 2 →Cl O 3
+¿¿
molecule to balance oxygen atoms, and H ion to balance
hydrogen atoms.
2. Balance the charges of the reactant and the product side of
the half reaction. Make sure that you multiply the coefficient
to the charge of the substance to get the actual charge of the
−¿¿
particular side of the equation. Use e to balance charges.
−¿¿
3. If basic conditions are needed, add enough number of O H
+¿¿ Once you are able to balance the half reactions, to balance
to react completely with H ions present to form water. completely the redox reaction, combine the two half-reactions in
Cancel out similar H 2 O molecules present. such way that electrons are eliminated.

ACTIVITY ACTIVITY
Balance the following equations 1. Balance the redox reaction
3+ ¿¿ −¿¿
2+¿+2 e ¿
1. F e 2+¿ → F e ¿ A→ A
−¿→ B¿
¿
B3+¿+3 e

2+¿ ¿
2. Mn O −¿
4
→M n ¿

2. Balance the redox reaction in acidic medium −¿ ¿

2+ ¿+ClO 3 ¿
−¿+C l 2 → M n ¿
Mn O4

−2
3. Cr (OH )3 →Cr O 4

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General Chemistry I Lecture Guide
Decomposition reactions are the opposite of combination reactions.
Specifically, a decomposition reaction is the breakdown of a
compound into two or more components.

A → B+C
3. Balance the redox reaction in basic medium 3+¿ +NO¿
−¿→F e ¿
2+¿+ N O ¿
Fe 3
2 HgO( s) →2 H g (l )+O 2 ( g )

2 KCl O3( s ) → 2 KC l ( s) +3 O2 (g )

2 Na H ( s) →2 N a( s )+ H 2 ( g )

COMBUSTION REACTIONS

4. Balance the redox reaction in acidic medium 3+¿ ¿

A combustion reaction is a reaction in which a substance reacts with
2+¿ +F e ¿

−¿+ F e 2+ ¿→M n ¿
¿ oxygen, usually with the release of heat and light to produce a
Mn O 4
flame.

A+O2 ( g ) →C O2( g )+ H 2 O( g)

C 3 H 8 ( g )+5 O2 ( g) →3 C O2 ( g) + 4 H 2 O( g )

DISPLACEMENT REACTIONS

In a displacement reaction, an ion (or atom) in a compound is

replaced by an ion (or atom) of another element: Most displacement
reactions fit into one of three subcategories: hydrogen displacement,
SOME COMMON OXIDATION REDUCTION REACTIONS metal displacement, or halogen displacement.
COMBINATION REACTIONS 1. Hydrogen Displacement. All alkali metals and some
alkaline earth metals (Ca, Sr, and Ba), which are the most
A combination reaction is a reaction in which two or more
reactive of the metallic elements, will displace hydrogen from
substances combine to form a single product.
cold water.
A+ B →C
2 N a( s) +2 H 2 O(l ) → 2 NaO H (aq )+ H 2 (g )
S( s) +O 2 (g) → S O2(g ) C a(s ) +2 H 2 O(l ) → Ca ( OH )2 (s )+ H 2 (g )
3 M g ( s ) + N 2 ( g ) → M g3 N 2 ( s ) Many metals, including those that do not react with water,
are capable of displacing hydrogen from acids. For example,
DECOMPOSITION REACTIONS

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General Chemistry I Lecture Guide
zinc ( Zn) and magnesium ( Mg ) do not react with cold water 3. Halogen Displacement. Another activity series summarizes
but do react with hydrochloric acid, as follows: the halogens’ behavior in halogen displacement reactions:
Z n (s )+2 HC l (aq ) → ZnC l 2 ( aq) + H 2 (g ) F 2>C l 2 B r 2> I 2
M g (s )+ 2 HC l (aq ) → MgC l 2 ( aq) + H 2(g ) The power of these elements as oxidizing agents decreases
as we move down Group 7A from fluorine to iodine, so
molecular fluorine can replace chloride, bromide, and iodide
2. Metal Displacement. A metal in a compound can be
ions in solution.
displaced by another metal in the uncombined state.

C l 2 ( g) +2 KB r (aq) →2 KC l (aq )+ B r 2 (l )
Z n (s )+CuS O4 (aq ) → ZnS O 4 (aq )+C u (s )
C l 2 ( g) +2 Na I (aq ) → 2 NaC l ( aq) + I 2 ( aq)
C u (s )+2 AgN O3 ( aq) →Cu ( N O3 )2 (aq) +2 A g( s)

An easy way to predict whether a metal or hydrogen

displacement reaction will occur is to refer to an activity
series Basically, an activity series is a convenient summary of
the results of many possible displacement reactions similar to
the ones already discussed. According to this series, any
metal above hydrogen will displace it from water or from an
acid, but metals below hydrogen will not react with either
water or an acid.

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