Elements of Mechanical Engineering(BEMEM203) notes

ELEMENTS OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING

(Sub code:-BEMEM203)
(AS PER CHOICE BASED CREDIT SYSTEM)

Prepared by:
Mr. Prakhyath Jain
Assistant Professor

DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING

A J INSTITUTE OF ENGINEERING AND TECHNOLOGY
NH-66
KOTTARA CHOWKI
MANGALURU

Department of Mechanical Engineering, AJIET,Mangaluru 1

 VISION AND MISSION STATEMENT OF AJIET

Vision of the Institute

To produce top-quality engineers who are groomed for attaining excellence in their profession
and competitive enough to help in the growth of nation and global society.

Mission of the Institute

o To offer affordable high-quality graduate program in engineering with value education

and make the students socially responsible.
o To support and enhance the institutional environment to attain research excellence in
both faculty and students and to inspire them to push the boundaries of knowledge
base.
o To identify the common areas of interest amongst the individuals for the effective
industry- institute partnership in a sustainable way by systematically working together.
o To promote the entrepreneurial attitude and inculcate innovative ideas among the
engineering professionals.

Department of Mechanical Engineering

Vision of the Department

To create globally competent and self-reliant mechanical engineers adaptive to an

interdisciplinary environment contributing to society through development, authority and
entrepreneurship.

Mission of the Department

M 1. To offer high quality graduate program in the field of Mechanical Engineering with
value education to the students and make them responsive to societal needs.
M 2. To nurture the students with a global outlook for a sustainable future with high
moral and ethical values.
M 3. To strengthen collaboration with industries, academia and research organizations
to enrich learning environment, thus enhance research and entrepreneurship
culture.
M 4. To create awareness about the need of interdisciplinary applications through
alumni industry-institution interactions
 PROGRAM EDUCATIONAL OBJECTIVES (PEOs)
Prepare graduates with mathematical, scientific and engineering skills to design and
PEO1
develop energy efficient systems for sustainable development.
Excel graduates with high level of technical competency combined with research and
PEO2 complex problem-solving ability to generate innovative solutions in Mechanical and
multi-disciplinary areas.
PEO3 Equip graduates with modern tools, technology and advanced software’s for
deliberating engineering solutions.
Inculcate graduates with strong foundation in academic excellence, soft skills, leadership
PEO4
qualities, professional ethics, and social concerns and understand the need for lifelong
learning for a successful professional career.

PROGRAM OUTCOMES (POs)

Engineering knowledge: Apply the knowledge of mathematics, science, engineering fundamentals, and
PO1
specialization in Mechanical Engineering for the solution of complex engineering problems.
Problem analysis: Identify, formulate, research literature, and analyse complex engineering problems
PO2 reaching substantiated conclusions using first principles of mathematics, natural sciences, and engineering
sciences.
Design/development of solutions: Design solutions for complex engineering problems and design system
PO3 components or processes that meet the specified needs with appropriate consideration for public health and
safety, and cultural, societal, and environmental considerations.
Conduct investigations of complex problems: Use research-based knowledge and research methods
PO4 including design of experiments, analysis and interpretation of data, and synthesis of the information to
provide valid conclusions.
Modern tool usage: Create, select, and apply appropriate techniques, resources, and modern engineering
PO5 and IT tools, including prediction and modelling to complex engineering activities, with an understanding of
the limitations.
The engineer and society: Apply reasoning informed by the contextual knowledge to assess societal, health,
PO6 safety, legal, and cultural issues and the consequent responsibilities relevant to the professional engineering
practice

Environment and sustainability: Understand the impact of the professional engineering solutions in societal
PO7
and environmental contexts, and demonstrate the knowledge of, and need for sustainable development.
Ethics: Apply ethical principles and commit to professional ethics and responsibilities and norms of the
PO8
engineering practice.
Individual and team work: Function effectively as an individual, and as a member or leader in diverse
PO9
teams, and in multidisciplinary settings.
Communication: Communicate effectively on complex engineering activities with the engineering
PO10 community and with the society at large, such as, being able to comprehend and write effective reports and
design documentation, make effective presentations, and give and receive clear instructions.
Project Management and Finance: Demonstrate knowledge and understanding of the engineering and
PO11 management principles and apply these to one’s own work, as a member and leader in a team, to manage
projects and in multidisciplinary environment.
Life-long learning: Recognize the need for, and have the preparation and ability to engage in independent
PO12
and life-long learning in the broadest context of technological change.

PROGRAM SPECIFIC OUTCOMES (PSOs)

PSO1 Apply the knowledge of modern engineering tools to design and analyze the products and process
related to Mechanical Engineering systems
PSO2 Develop technical and interpersonal skills pertinent to mechanical and allied engineering for careers in
industry, academia and government organizations.
COURSE SYLLABUS

Elements of Mechanical Engineering Semester 2nd

Course Code BEMEM203 CIE Marks 50
Teaching Hours/Week 2:2:0:0 SEE Marks 50
(L:T:P: S)
Total Hours of 40 Total Marks 100
Pedagogy
Examination type (SEE) Theory
Module 1(08 hours)
Introduction to Mechanical Engineering (Overview only): Role of Mechanical
Engineering in Industries and Society- Emerging Trends and Technologies in different
sectors such as Energy, Manufacturing, Automotive, Aerospace, and Marine sectors.

Steam Formation and Application: Modes of heat transfer, Steam formation, Types of
steam, Steam properties and applications of steam (simple numerical problems).

Energy Sources and Power Plants: Basic working principles of Hydel power plant,
Thermal power plant, nuclear power plant, Solar power plant, Tidal power plant and Wind
power plant.
Module 2(08 hours)
Machine Tool Operations: Lathe: Principle of working of a center lathe, lathe operations:
Turning, facing, knurling, thread cutting, taper turning by swivelling the compound rest

Drilling Machine: Working of simple drilling machine, drilling operations: drilling, boring,
reaming, tapping, counter sinking, counter boring

Milling Machine: Working and types of milling machine, milling operations: plane milling,
end milling and slot milling. (No sketches of machine tools, sketches to be used only for
explaining the operations).

Introduction to Advanced Manufacturing Systems: Introduction, components of CNC,

advantages and applications of CNC, 3D printing.
Module 3(08 Hours)
Introduction to IC Engines: Components and working principles, 4-Stroke Petrol and
Diesel engines, Application of IC Engines, performance of IC engines (Simple numerical).

Introduction to Refrigeration and Air Conditioning: Principle of refrigeration,

Refrigerants and their desirable properties. Working principle of VCR refrigeration system,
working principle of room air conditioner & Applications of air Conditioners
Module 4(08 hours)
Mechanical Power Transmission: Gear Drives: Types - spur, helical, bevel, worm and rack
and pinion, velocity ratio, simple and compound gear trains (simple numerical problems)

Belt Drives: Introduction, Types of belt drives (Flat and V-Belt Drive), length of the belt
and tensions ratio (simple numerical problems) Joining Processes: Soldering, Brazing and
 Welding, Definitions, classification of welding process, Arc welding, Gas welding, (types
of flames), TIG welding, MIG welding and Fusion welding.
Module 5(08 hours)
Insight into future mobility technology; Electric and Hybrid Vehicles, Components of
Electric and Hybrid Vehicles. Advantages and disadvantages of Electric Vehicles (EVs) and
Hybrid vehicles.

Introduction to Mechatronics and Robotics: open-loop and closed-loop mechatronic

systems. Joints & links, Robot anatomy, Applications of Robots in material handling,
processing and assembly and inspection.

Course outcomes
At the end of the course the student will be able to:
CO1 Understand the role of mechanical engineering in industry and society,
fundamentals of steam and non-conventional energy sources
CO2 understand the various machine tool operations and advanced manufacturing
systems
CO3 Understand working of IC engines and basic concepts of Refrigeration?
CO4 Understand the different gear drives, gear trains, belt drives and joining
processes
CO5 Understand the aspects of future mobility and fundamentals of robotics

Suggested Learning Resources:

Text Books

1. Elements of Mechanical Engineering, K R Gopala Krishna, Subhash Publications, 2008

2. Elements of Workshop Technology (Vol. 1 and 2), Hazra Choudhry and Nirzar Roy, Media
Promoters and Publishers Pvt. Ltd., 2010.
Reference Books
1. An Introduction to Mechanical Engineering, Jonathan Wickert and Kemper Lewis, Third
Edition, 16-2-2023 4 2012
2. Manufacturing Technology- Foundry, Forming and Welding, P.N.Rao Tata McGraw Hill 3rd
Ed., 2003.
3. Robotics, Appu Kuttan KK K. International Pvt Ltd, volume 1
Web links and Video Lectures (e-Resources):
https://www.tlv.com/global/TI/steam-theory/principal-applications-for-steam.html
https://www.forbesmarshall.com/Knowledge/SteamPedia/AboutSteam/Fundamental-Applications-of-
Steam
https://rakhoh.com/en/applications-and-advantages-of-steam-in-manufacturing- andprocess-industry/)
Videos | Makino (For Machine Tool Operation)
 Elements of Mechanical Engineering (BEMEM203) Module 1 notes

Syllabus: Module-1
Introduction to Mechanical Engineering (Overview only): Role of Mechanical Engineering in
Industries and Society- Emerging Trends and Technologies in different sectors such as Energy,
Manufacturing, Automotive, Aerospace, and Marine sectors.
Steam Formation and Application: Modes of heat transfer, Steam formation, Types of steam, Steam
properties and applications of steam (simple numerical problems). Energy Sources and Power Plants:
Basic working principles of Hydel power plant, Thermal power plant, nuclear power plant, Solar
power plant, Tidal power plant and Wind power plant.
…………………………………………………………………………………………………
Introduction:
Mechanical engineering is an engineering branch that combines engineering
physics and mathematics principles with materials science, to design, analyze, manufacture,
and maintain mechanical systems. It is one of the oldest and broadest of the engineering
branches. The mechanical engineering field requires an understanding of core areas including
mechanics, dynamics, thermodynamics, materials science, structural analysis, and
electricity. In addition to these core principles, mechanical engineers use tools such as
computer-aided design (CAD), computer-aided manufacturing (CAM), and product lifecycle
management to design and analyze manufacturing plants, industrial equipment and
machinery, heating and cooling systems, transport systems, aircraft, watercraft, robotics,
medical devices, weapons, and others. It is the branch of engineering that involves the
design, production, and operationof machinery.

Mechanical engineering field has continually evolved to incorporate advancements; today

mechanical engineers are pursuing developments in such areas
as composites, mechatronics, and nanotechnology. It also overlaps with aerospace
engineering, metallurgical engineering, civil engineering, structural engineering, electrical
engineering, manufacturing engineering, chemical engineering, industrial engineering, and
other engineering disciplines to varying amounts. Mechanical engineers may also work in
the field of biomedical engineering, specifically with biomechanics, transport phenomena,
biomechatronics, bionanotechnology, and modelling of biological systems[Ref:
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia]

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What is Mechanical Engineering?

Mechanical Engineering is that branch of engineering which combines physics, mathematics,
engineering principles with materials science. This field aims at designing, analysing,
manufacturing and maintaining mechanical systems. Mechanical Engineering is considered to
be the broadest and the oldest of the engineering disciplines. This branch focuses on the core
areas that include thermodynamics, mechanics, dynamics, structural analysis, electricity and
materials science.

These core principles are combined with tools such as CAD (computer aided design) and
CAM (computer aided manufacturing) and product life cycle management for the designand
analysis of industrial equipment, machinery manufacturing plants, transport systems,
robotics, medical devices, heating and cooling systems and so on. This branch of engineering
is primarily concerned with the design, production and operation of machinery.

This field emerged in the 18th century during the Industrial Revolution and has been
continuously developing and advancing since then.

Mechanical Engineering is important because it introduces and helps implement useful

technology in our day to day lives and in modern society. It has a very crucial role to play in
manufactured technologies, right form refrigerators to cars to aeroplanes and much more.

ROLE OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING IN INDUSTRIES AND SOCIETY

Role of Mechanical Engineering in Industries

Knowledge of Mechanical Engineering in the industry helps to do the following
 Analyze problems to see how mechanical and thermal devices might help solve a
particular problem
 Design or redesign mechanical and thermal devices or subsystems, using analysis
and computer-aided design
 Investigate equipment failures or difficulties to diagnose faulty operation and to
recommend remedies
 Develop and test prototypes of devices they design
 Analyze the test results and change the design or system as needed

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 Oversee the manufacturing process for the device

Mechanical engineering is one of the broadest engineering fields. Mechanical engineers

design and oversee the manufacture of many products ranging from medical devices to new
batteries.
Mechanical engineering is required for design in power-producing machines, such aselectric
generators, internal combustion engines, and steam and gas turbines, as well as power-using
machines, such as refrigeration and air-conditioning systems.

By knowledge of Mechanical engineering, one can design other machines inside buildings,
such as elevators and escalators. They also design material-handling systems, such as
conveyor systems and automated transfer stations.

Like other engineers, mechanical engineers use computers extensively. Mechanical engineers
are routinely responsible for the integration of sensors, controllers, and machinery. Computer
technology helps mechanical engineers create and analyze designs, run simulations and test
how a machine is likely to work, interact with connected systems, and generate specifications
for parts.

The following are examples of types of mechanical engineers:

Auto research engineers seek to improve the performance of cars. These engineers work to
improve traditional features of cars such as suspension, and they also work on aerodynamics
and new possible fuels.

Heating and cooling systems engineers work to create and maintain environmental systems
wherever temperatures and humidity must be kept within certain limits. They develop such
systems for airplanes, trains, cars, schools, and even computer rooms.

Robotic engineers plan, build, and maintain robots. These engineers plan how robots will
use sensors for detecting things based on light or smell, and they design how these sensors
will fit into the designs of the robots.

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Role of Mechanical Engineers in Society

 Transportation
 Medical
 Agricultural
 Defense
 Power generation

Transportation
Mechanical engineering is largely concerned with road transportation, and networks, rail
and subway systems, airports, and shipping ports.

Medical
A mechanical engineer specialized in medical science can be called as 'medical engineer'.
Engineer's responsibilities in medicine can include research, development, testing and
evaluation of medical devices, advisement on new biomedical purchases for hospitals and
medical centers.

Agricultural
The graduates are trained professionals who understand technology and are capable of
solving problems in the areas of agricultural production and management of rural areaswith
a special focus on machinery.

Defense
Manage the teams of skilled technicians that monitor, maintain and repair formidable
military hardware such as tanks, artillery guns and armoured logistic vehicles. Not all types
of entry are open for this job.
Power generation
When working in thermal power plants, mechanical engineers make sure heavy machinery
like boilers and turbines, are working in optimal condition and power is continually
generated. Mechanical engineers also work with the operations of the plant.

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EMERGING TRENDS AND TECHNOLOGIES IN DIFFERENT SECTOR.

 Energy sector - Mechanical engineers in the energy industry design and operate
fossil fuel, hydroelectric, conventional, nuclear, and cogeneration power plants. They
are involved in all aspects of the production and conversion of energy from one form
to another. Mechanical engineers are also involved in exciting projects such as
developing alternatives to thermal energy, power cycle devices, fuel cells, gas
turbines, and innovative uses of coal, wind, and tidal flow.

 Manufacturing industry- A majority of the roles in this sector are focused on supply
network logistics/operations or manufacturing/ engineering. The jobs in this sector are
not demarcated in different compartments. The jobs here are a mix of different
engineering disciplines.

 Automobile Industry – This industry is one of the fastest growing and has therefore
opened up numerous job opportunities. The role of a mechanical engineer spans the
design, manufacturing and maintenance of motor vehicles. With the advancement in
technology when breakthrough ideas like driverless cars, pod-based transportation
systems, bullet trains, are being considered. Top companies and automobile brands
are investing a lot on research and recruiting skilled and passionate mechanical
engineers.

 Aerospace industry – This industry has witnessed a lot of innovations and

discoveries. Flying cars to reusable satellites, rockets are now not unheard of as
technology is progressing so is the demand for newer inventions. The requirement

for skilled mechanical engineers with knowledge and expertise is growing day by
day. Numerous job roles are being offered here ranging from design, to manufactureto
testing to R&D. The mechanical engineers get a chance to employ the principles of
physics to aeromodelling and dynamics to improve the design and efficiency in
systems.

 Marine industry – Mechanical engineers in this industry design and build or operate
and maintain equipment and marine vessels. These engineers design, install, or
maintain engines, shafts, boilers and propellers. They could be a part of the team
that enforces regulations for air and sea pollution or be a part of designing futuristic
cleaner ships.
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 Materials and metals industry – This job role demands the design, development and
testing of a wide variety of complex mechanical system. This will include the entire
life cycle maintenance of the mechanical items that are used in the plant. A few of
those are gas and steam turbines, pipework, valves, fans, coals mills and so on.
Automotive Industry :
The automotive industry includes industries associated with theproduction, wholesaling, retailing,
and maintenance of motor vehicles.

Top 8 Automotive Industry Trends

 Autonomous Vehicles (AVs)

 Vehicle Connectivity.
 Electrification.
 Shared Mobility.
 Artificial Intelligence.
 Big Data & Analytics.
 Human-Machine Interfaces.
 3D Printing

Several automotive industry trends are impacting its future in 2023 and beyond. These trends
involve how vehicles are powered, driven, shopped for, and acquired. Plus, there are statistics
you must know about if you plan to buy a vehicle in 2023. Here are the top 10 trends shaping the
future of the rapidly changing auto industry and some critical motor vehicle-related statistics.

Trends Shaping the Auto Industry

1. Increased Production Of Electric Cars With Digital Technology
2. More Connected Cars
3. Autonomous Self-Driving Vehicles
4. Truck Platooning
5. Automakers And Technology Company Partnerships

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1. Increased Production of Electric Cars With Digital Technology

Automakers continue to integrate more digital technology into their vehicles. Technology
companieslike Google and Tesla are also working on electric and self-driving vehicles. As a
result, it’s clear that vehicles produced in 2023 and beyond with be full of technology to
address digital touch points. There’s fierce competition to develop software and digital and
electronic operating systems to power and control the new, innovative zero-emission electric
vehicles. These new vehicles will be filled with digital technology.

2. More Connected Cars

Connected cars are vehicles connected to the Internet of Things using wireless means. These
vehicles provide a safe, comfortable, convenient multimedia experience by using on-demand
features that allow you to do anything you want on the web while in your vehicle. Connected
cars can communicate bidirectionally with various other systems outside their local network.
The vehicles can share internet access and data with devices inside and outside the car.
Connected cars now senddigital data and remote diagnostics, vehicle health reports, data-only
telematics, access 4G LTE Wi-Fi Hotspots, get turn-by-turn directions, warn of car health
issues and directly intervene to prevent breakdowns. Over a billion customer requests were
processed by 2015, and connected car technology will explode on the scene in diverse ways
in 2023 using predictive intelligence and maintenance technology

3. The Emergence of Fuel Cell Electric Vehicles

In 2023, the worldwide emergence of fuel cell electric vehicles is poised. More and more
people embrace fuel cell electric vehicles because they recharge faster, have up to 5 times the
range of other electric vehicles, and only emit water out of their tailpipes. Many cars, truck,
and SUV manufacturers are investing in fuel cell electric vehicle development.

4. Autonomous Self-Driving Vehicles

Autonomous self-driving vehicles are here and will be more prevalent in 2023 and beyond.
Research has shown autonomous vehicles are safer, reduce downtime, expand the last-mile
delivery scope, reduce driver fatigue and negligence-related accidents, improve fuel
efficiency by 10%, and reduce CO2 emissions by 42 million metric tons annually. Several
trucking companies have installed self- driving technology and have tested it at locations
nationwide. Beginning in 2023, it will become commonplace to see a fleet of autonomous
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self-driving commercial trucks or a self-driving Tesla in the lane next to you.

5. Truck Platooning
Another automotive industry trend you will see more in 2023 is truck platooning. This is
when multiple trucks use vehicle-to-vehicle connectivity to drive close behind each other
while traveling athigh speeds.

6. Automakers and Technology Company Partnerships

With the rapid rate at which new technological advancements are being added to cars and
other vehicles, it’s not surprising to see automakers and technology companies forming
partnerships. Electric, connected, and autonomous vehicles require specialized software and
advanced technology to function safely and correctly. Car, truck and SUV manufacturers
must either make massive investments in their technology divisions or partner with tech
companies that can design and produce the new operating systems the next generation of
technologically advanced automobileswill need.

ENERGY- Capacity to do work.

 Most of the energy that we use is mainly derived from conventional energy sources.

 Due to the vast demand of energy, the rate of depletion of these resources has
reached alarmingly low levels.
 This situation has directed us to seek alternate energy sources such as solar, wind,
ocean, biomass, Hydel etc.
Energy Sources:

 The energy existing in the earth is known as CAPITAL energy.

 Energy that comes from outer space is called CELESTIAL or INCOME energy.

 The CAPITAL energy sources are mainly, fossil fuels, nuclear fuels and heat traps.

 CELESTIAL ENERGY SOURCES ARE- Electromagnetic, gravitational and particle

energyfrom stars, planets, moon etc.
 ELECTROMAGNETIC ENERGY of the earth’s sun is called DIRECT SOLAR
ENERGY. Thisresults in WIND, HYDEL, GEOTHERMAL, BIOFUEL, etc.
 GRAVITATIONAL ENERGY of earth’s moon produces TIDAL ENERGY.

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Renewable Sources of Energy:

Energy sources which are continuously produced in nature and are essentially
inexhaustible are called renewable energy sources.
1. Direct solar energy

2. Wind energy

3. Tidal energy

4. Hydel energy

5. Ocean thermal energy

6. Bio energy
7. Geo thermal energy

8. Peat

9. Fuel wood

10. Fuel cells

11. Solid wastes

12. Hydrogen

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Nonrenewable Energy Sources:

Energy sources which have been accumulated over the ages and not quickly replenishable
when they are exhausted.
1. Fossil fuels.

2. Nuclear fuels.

3. Heat traps.

Differences between Renewable and Non Renewable Energy Sources

Factor Renewable Energy Sources Non Renewable

Energy
Sources
Exhaustibility/Inexhaustibility Inexhaustible Exhaustible

Availability Abundantly and freely available Not abundantly available

Replenishment Replenished Naturally Cannot be replenished

Environmental Friendliness Environment friendly except in Not environment friendly
case

of biomass
Cost Factor Building Systems cost is high, Production cost is high
running

cost is low
Nature of Availability Intermittently available Continuously available
Regional restriction and No regional restriction Available in certain countries

dependency factor

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STEAM FORMATION AND APPLICATION

Steam is the gaseous phase of water. It utilizes heat during the process and carries large quantities
of heat later. Hence, it could be used as working substance for heat engine.
Steam exists in various types and conditions namely, wet steam, dry saturated steam (dry steam) &
Superheated steam
a) Wet steam
Wet steam is defined as a two-phase mixture containing saturated liquid and vapour
(steam) formed at the saturation temperature and at a given pressure. The wet steam formed
contains small water particles held in suspension that has not yet absorbed the latent heat and
evaporated
b) Dry saturated steam (Dry steam)
Dry steam is a pure steam that does not contain water particles in suspension. It is defined as the
steam that exists completely in pure vapour form at the saturation temperature and at a given
pressure.
c) Superheated steam(tsup)
It is defined as the steam that is heated beyond its dry saturated state to a temperature higher than
its saturation temperature and at a given pressure. The temperature at which the superheated
steam is formed is called the superheat temperature

FORMATION OF STEAM

 Steam is formed when water is heated above its boiling temperature. The process of
formation of steam is as follows
 Consider 1 kg. of water at 0°C taken in a cylinder, fitted with a freely moving piston. A
weight W is placed over the piston as shown in figure (a).
 The weight of the piston and the weight W placed over the piston exerts a constant
pressure P on the water.

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Let V be the volume occupied by the water in the cylinder. The condition of water at 0°C is
represented by a point A on the temperature enthalpy (T-H) diagram as shown in figure (A).
Fig A. temperature – enthalpy (T-H) diagram
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When water is heated at constant pressure, it is converted to steam. The various stages involved in this process
are discussed below.

1) On heating, the temperature of the water rises and at a certain temperature water begins to boil (evaporate).
The temperature at which water starts boiling is known as saturation temperature and is denoted by ts. The
heating of water from 0°C to the saturation temperature (ts) is shown by the line AB on T-H diagram. At this
temperature, there is a slight increase in the volume of water(Vf) as shown in figure (b)

2) When water is heated beyond the saturation temperature, evaporation of water takes place. At this stage,
water exists as a two-phase mixture containing saturated liquid and water vapour occupying volume Vfg, as
shown in figure (c). The steam in this condition is called wet steam. Evaporation of water continues at the
same saturation temperature until the whole of the water is completely converted into steam. This process is
shown by the line BC on T-H diagram.

3). At point C, the steam formed does not contain water vapour (water particles in suspension) and hence the
steam in this state is called thy steam or dry saturated steam. The volume occupied by the dry steam is shown
in figure (d).

4) If heating is further continued at point C, the temperature of the steam increases above the saturation
temperature and this temperature is called superheat temperature denoted by tsup. The steam in this condition
is called superheated steam.The process of heating the dry steam is called superheating and is shown by the
line CD on T-H diagram. The volume occupied by the superheated steam is shown in figure (e).

Steam properties

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Applications of steam

1. Steam for sugar industry

In the sugar factory, steam is mainly used to generate electricity, concentrate sugar juice and dry sugar. Most
sugar mills use bagasse and coal as fuel. The economic viability of sugar cane mills depends largely on the use
of bagasse as fuel to generate power and steam for processing. The steam is used for sugar crystallization

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2. Application of Steam in Power Generation:

Since from centuries, Steam is used to drive the locomotive and also in the production of electrical energy. A
steam/thermal power station uses heat energy generated from burning coal to produce electrical energy.
Thermal power plant uses the Rankine cycle. This is the cycle of the steam produced in the boiler, then taken to
the Steam turbine (prime mover). From the turbine the steam is cooled back to water in the Condenser, the
resulting water is fed back into the boiler to repeat the cycle.

3. Steam for dairy industry

Boiler for the milk industry is crucial to ensure that the raw milk should not contain any harmful bacteria
such as pathogens. Steam boilers are used for processing raw milk under high temperatures to ensure that it
is safe for usage and other milk processing operations

Raw milk processing takes place through the following procedures

Pasteurization

Pasteurization is a process where the temperature of the raw milk is increased to around 212℉ to assure that all
the harmful bacteria that may cause harm to the milk are neutralized

Ultra Heat temperature (UHT)

Ultra heat temperature is the process that increases the milk temperature and sterilizes it over 275℉ for around
5 seconds. The process ascertains the complete removal of the bacterial spores. Apart from these, boiler for
milk dairy generate steam for the purpose of sterilizing the boiler and equipment involved during the processing
operation and heating the dairy plant itself to ensure that there are not any bacteria present in the processing
operation

4. Steam for food processing industry for heating/sterilization

Sterilization is a controlled heating process used to completely eliminate all living micro organisms, including
thermoresistant spores in milk or other food. It can be achieved by moist heat, dry heat filtration, irradiation or
by chemical methods

5. Steam for paper industry

Paper mills and corrugated packaging plants use rolls that are internally heated with steam. Maintaining a
uniform temperature across the surface of the roll is essential for making quality product. Since steam is a

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gas, it fills the entire volume of the roll and evenly distributions

Steam is necessary for paper processing industry. Usually steam is used for drying to improve the strength
and smoothness of paper .The water content of wet paper still as high as 53% to 70% after squeezing and it
is not useful by using mechanical stress for an hydration. So use cast iron dryer to dry paper, cooperate with
the use of steam boiler. Except drying it can also use for corrugated paper processing and support the use of
calendar and glue paste roller

HYDEL POWER PLANT

In hydroelectric power plants the potential energy of water due to its high location isconverted
into electrical energy. The total power generation capacity of the hydroelectric power plants
depends on the head of water and volume of water flowing towards the water turbine. The
hydroelectric power plant, also called as dam or hydro power plant, is used for generation of
electricity from water on large scale basis. The dam is built across the large river that has
sufficient quantity of water throughout the river. In certain cases where the river is very large,
more than one dam can built across the river at different locations.

Reservoir

The reservoir is used to store water behind a hydroelectric dam that makes use of potential energy of
water for generating electricity.

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Penstock

Penstocks are used to increase the velocity of the water. It is large pipes laid on the slope. It carries
water from the reservoir or intake structure to the turbine.
Turbines

The turbine is used to convert the kinetic energy of water into mechanical energy. When the high-
pressure water coming from the penstock strikes the turbine blade, the turbine starts rotating.
Powerhouse

Power house is a building provided to protect the hydraulic and electrical equipment. Generally, the
whole equipment is supported by the foundation or substructure laid for the power house.
Draft tube

A draft tube connects the turbine outlet (turbine discharge) to the tailrace. To decrease the velocity of
water, the width of the draft tube is gradually increased.

Tailrace

The tailrace is a flow of water from the draft tube or turbine outlet. The powerhouse must be located
near to the stream..

WORKING

✓ Hydel energy is the energy obtained from the flowing water. The figure shows the layout of a
hydro electric power plant for utilizing hydel energy.
✓ The principle of electricity generation in the case of hydroelectric power plant is same as in the
thermal power plant; only difference is that the shaft power to the turbine is provided by pressure and
kinetic energy of water.
✓ The water stored with high potential energy in the reservoir is supplied to a turbine through a
penstock. The hydraulic energy of water being absorbed by the turbine and converted into
mechanical energy.
✓ A generator is directly coupled to the turbine shaft. It converts mechanical energy of turbine into
electrical energy. After doing useful work water is discharged to the tailrace

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THERMAL POWER PLANT

1. Conveyor Belt

The coal from the coal storage area is transported to the plant though a large conveyer belt. The load
carrying capacity of this belt is very high as a very large amount of coal is required every day.
2. Pulverizing Plant

The coal so arrived by the conveyor cannot be used the way it is, it is first converted into powder form
also known as pulverized coal. It is made to rotate in a cylindrical tank at high speed with lots of
spherical steel balls and thus converted into powder. Pulverizing plant also has the storage for un-
pulverized coal and can store upto 30 hours of coal feed.
3. Boiler

The pulverized coal is feed into the boiler through big fans blowing hot air. Boiler has many tubes
filled with water, in these tubes water boils upto 1000 degree Fahrenheit and flames goes as high as 50
meters in the boiler
4. Turbine

High pressure steam from boiler at one thousand degree Fahrenheit and 3500 pounds per square inch
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of pressure is then feed to the steam turbine which converts its pressure energy into mechanical
energy.
5. Generator

Generator uses the mechanical energy so generated by the turbines to generate electricity at
considerably high voltage
6. Condenser

steam leaving the turbines is condensed in a condenser, to be pumped back to the boiler. Cold water
from a water source (river) or expansion process is used to cool down the steam into water.

WORKING

The working of a coal power plant start with the arrival of coal from the coal mines through trains.
This coal is then taken to the pulverizing plant for converting it into powder form.
The main reason behind converting it into powder is to increase its efficiency of burning, by
increasing its exposed surface area that would come in contact with fire in burner, compared to solid
coal.
This coal dust is then feed to the boiler through a blower fan; thermal energy released from this fuel is
used to boil the water upto 1000 degree Fahrenheit, thus converting it into a high pressure steam
which is transferred to the turbines.

Advantages:

 Less initial cost as compared to other generating stations.

 It requires less land as compared to hydro power plant.

 The fuel (i.e. coal) is cheaper.

 The cost of generation is lesser than that of diesel power plants.

Disadvantages:

 It pollutes the atmosphere due to the production of large amount of smoke.

This is one of the causes of global warming.
 The overall efficiency of a thermal power station is low (less than 30%).

NUCLEAR ENERGY

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Nuclear energy is the energy associated with the nucleus of an atom. Huge amount of
energy can be obtained either by combining light nuclei (nuclear fusion) or by breaking up of heavy
nuclei (nuclear fission).

Fig:- Nuclear fission

The fuel most widely used in nuclear power plant for nuclear fission is uranium (U235). In
nuclear fission a small particle called neutron hits (bombards) the uranium atom splits it, releasing
great amount of energy in the form of heat and light. Also more neutrons are released due to
bombardment. These neutrons go on bombarding other uranium atoms and the process repeats
again and again resulting in a chain reaction. The chain reaction gives off enormous amount of heat
energy, used to produce super heated steam to run steam turbines and to produce electricity.

NUCLEAR POWER PLANT

The major components of the Nuclear power plant power plant are listed below

Nuclear reactor is the main parts of nuclear power plant `where the chain reaction takes place and
generates huge amount of heat energy. this generated heat energy is used to boil the water and this
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boiled water is then converted into steam and then this steam is used to run the turbine.
Steam generator

It is the part of the nuclear power plant where the generated heat energy is used to convert the water
into steam. Steam generated here is used to move turbine which is coupled with a synchronous
alternator.
Control rods It controls the energy generated by the chain reaction of the neutrons. These are in the
shape of fuel roads. The chain reaction can easily control by these rods by pushing them down.
These roads have neutron absorbing materials like boron, cadmium and indium. They have high
neutron absorption capacity
Steam Turbine

Steam turbine rotates to generate electricity. The generated steam is allow to expand in the turbine
and create high pressure and due this pressure turbine rotates the coupled alternator.
Condenser

Condenser is used to condense the steam coming out of turbine .it condenses steam into water which
circulates into heat exchanger to form steam.
Working principle:

✓ Energy released by nuclear power plants is used to convert water into steam, which is used to run
turbine. Figure below shows nuclear power plant. In this plant, enriched uranium is used as fuel

The main components of this station are nuclear reactor, heat exchanger or steam generator, steam or
gas turbine, cooling tower, and condenser.
✓ control rods are housed inside the reactor vessel which splits uranium atoms Both reactor & steam
generator are housed inside containment structure
✓ The nuclear reactor produces enormous amount of heat, which is transferred into a steam
generator where steam is produced by reaction of heat with cooling water.
✓ This steam is utilized to drive a turbine and power is generated using generator

Advantages of nuclear power plant

1. Since the requirement of fuel is very small, so the cost of fuel transportation, storage etc. is small.

2. Nuclear power plant needs less space as compared to any other power station of the same size

3. This type of power plant is very economical to produce large electric power.

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4. Nuclear power plant can be located near load centre because bulk amount of fuel (like water, coal)
is not required.
5. Nuclear power is most economical to generate large capacities of power like 100 MVA or more. It
produces huge amount of energy in every nuclear fission process.
6. Using a small amount of fuel, this plant produces large electrical energy.

7. This plant is very reliable in operation.

Disadvanatges of nuclear power plant

1. Initial installation cost is very high as compared to the other power station.

2. Nuclear fuel is very much expensive and it is difficult to recover.

3. Capital cost is higher in respect of other power station.

4. Good technical knowledge is required to operate such type plant. So, salary bill and other
maintenance cost will be higher to operate such of a plant.
5. There is a chance to spread of radioactive pollution from this type of plant.

6. Cooling water requirement is twice than a coal based steam power plant.

SOLAR POWER PLANT

WORKING OF SOLAR POWER PLANT

As sunlight falls over a solar cells, a large number of photons strike the p-type region of
silicon. Electron and hole pair will get separated after absorbing the energy of photon. The
electron travels from p-type region to n-type region due to the action of electric field at p-n
junction. Further the diode is reversed biased to increase this electric field. So this current
starts flowing in the circuit for individual solar cell. We combine the current of all the solar
cells of a solar panel, to get a significant output.

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Solar power plant have a large number of solar panels connected to each other to get a large
voltage output. The electrical energy coming from the combined effort of solar panelsis
stored in the Lithium ion batteries to be supplied at night time, when there is no sunlight.

Energy Storage

Storage of the energy generated by the solar panels is a important issue. Sometimes the
unused energy generated during daytime is used to pump water to some height, so that it
could be used to generate electricity using its potential energy when required or mainly at
night time.

Advantages of Solar Energy

 Most clean and renewable source of energy.

 It is available in abundance and endless.

 It provides electricity at low cost, as fuel is free.

 With new research in this sector we now have a good power storage solution.

 Keeping in mind the pollution and cost of fossil fuel, it’s becoming the most reliable
source of clean energy.

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Disadvantages of Solar Power Plant

 It requires a lot of land to be captured forever.

 Initial cost of installation is too high.

 The energy storage options are not efficient and moreover costly if efficient.

 Power production is quite low as compared to nuclear or other resources to produce

power.

 There is a problem if it is cloudy for few days.

 Their production causes pollution.

Applications

 Solar power plant is powering cities in most efficient manner.

 Solar panels could be used to generate electricity individually for each house
especially in remote areas.

TIDAL POWER PLANT

WORKING PRINCIPLE OF TIDAL POWER PLANTS

Tide or wave is periodic rise and fall of water level of the sea. Tides occur due to the
attraction of sea water by the moon. Tides contain large amount of potential energy whichis
used for power generation. When the water is above the mean sea level, it is called flood tide.
When the water level is below the mean level it is called ebb tide.
Working

The arrangement of this system is shown in figure. The ocean tides rise and fall and water can
be stored during the rise period and it can be discharged during fall. A dam is constructed
separating the tidal basin from the sea and a difference in water level is obtained between the
basin and sea.

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During high tide period, water flows from the sea into the tidal basin through the water
turbine. The height of tide is above that of tidal basin. Hence the turbine unit operates and
generates power, as it is directly coupled to a generator.
During low tide period, water flows from tidal basin to sea, as the water level in the basin is
more than that of the tide in the sea. During this period also, the flowing water rotates the
turbine and generator power.

The generation of power stops only when the sea level and the tidal basin level are equal.
For the generation of power economically using this source of energy requires some
minimum tide height and suitable site. Kislaya power plant of 250 MW capacity in Russia
and Rance power plant in France are the only examples of this type of power plant.
Advantages of tidal power plants.

1. It is free from pollution as it does not use any fuel.

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2. It is superior to hydro-power plant as it is totally independent of rain.

3. It improves the possibility of fish farming in the tidal basins and it can provide
recreation to visitors and holiday makers.
Disadvantages

1. Tidal power plants can be developed only if natural sites are available on the bay.

2. As the sites are available on the bays which are always far away from load centres, the
power generated has to be transmitted to long distances. This increases the transmission
cost and transmission losses.

WIND POWER PLANT

Wind energy is the kinetic energy of large masses of air moving over earth’s surface. The kinetic energy of wind
can be converted into mechanical work by a wind turbine.
✓ The mechanical work thus obtained can be used for grinding food grains, pumping underground water, generate
electricity, etc. The wind turbine shown in figure consists of special blades that are connected to a low speed
shaft; the shaft is connected to small generator as shown in figure.

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✓ Most of the turbines have 2 or 3 blades; the blades are made large to extract energy from the largest possible
volume of air.
✓ Since the wind speed increases with height, the blades are mounted high above the ground by means of tower.
✓ A gear box consisting of many gears connects the low speed shaft to the high speed generator shaft. Generally
30 to 60 rpm of the low speed shaft is increased to 1000 to 1800 rpm of the generator shaft by gear box

Working principle
• As the wind flows over the windmill, the blades of the mill start rotating slowly.
• Blade starts rotated because of their aerodynamic profile.
• The wings are connected to hub, which is in turn connected to main driving shaft, which is intern
connected to gearbox.
• The function of the gearbox is to increase the speed of the shaft which is connected to the generator.
• The generator, generates the power and transmitted to grid. The minimum velocity in air required to
run the windmill is more than five meter per second.

Advantages

• Wind is available at no cost.

• It does not cause any kind of pollution while generating power.

• It is available in many off-shore , on shore & remote areas which is helpful in supplying the
electric power in those areas.

• It has low maintenance cost & low power generation cost.

Disadvantages

• It has low energy density.

• It is favorable in locations which are away from cities.

• The wind supply is variable, unsteady, intermittent and some times dangerous also.

• The initial cost of plant set up is high.

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QUESTIONS
1) Briefly explain role of Mechanical Engineering in Industries and society.
2) Explain the working principle of solar power plant with neat sketch and justify the necessity of solar
power plant.
3) Explain the formation of steam with T-h diagram.
4) Explain the working principle of Hydel power plant with neat sketch.
5) Explain the working principle of Nuclear power plant with neat sketch.
6) Explain the working principle of Wind power plant with neat sketch.
7) Explain the working principle of Tidal power plant with neat sketch.
8) Briefly explain the Emerging Trends and Technologies in different sectors.
9) Briefly explain the applications of steam in industries.
10) Explain the working principle of Wind power plant with neat sketch.

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MODULE-2

Machine Tool Operations: Working Principle of lathe, Lathe operations: Turning, facing,
knurling. Working principles of Drilling Machine, drilling operations: drilling, boring,
reaming. Working of Milling Machine, Milling operations: plane milling and slot milling. (No
sketches of machine tools, sketches to be used only for explaining the operations).
Introduction to Advanced Manufacturing Systems: Introduction, components of CNC,
advantages and applications of CNC, 3D printing.

MACHINE TOOL OPERATIONS

MACHINE TOOLS:
A machine tool may be defined as a power driven machine which accomplishes the cutting or
machining operations on it.

Types of Machine Tools

1. Lathe Machine.

2. Drilling Machine.

3. Milling Machine.

4. Grinding Machine

LATHE MACHINE
It is defined as a machine tool used to remove excess material by forcing a cutting
tool against a rotating work piece.

Working principle of Lathe:

The lathe machine works on the principle that, a cutting tool can remove material when
it is moved against a rotating work piece. This is accomplished by rotating the work piece
between two rigid and strong supports, while the cutting tool is fed against it. The principle of
operation is shown in figure below

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Fig:- Working principle of Lathe

Parts of a Lathe:

1) Bed:
The bed is a heavy, rugged casting in which are mounted the working parts of the lathe.
It carries the headstock and tail stock for supporting the work piece and provides a base for the
movement of carriage assembly which carries the tool.
2) Headstock:
The headstock is clamped on the left hand side of the bed and it serves as housing for
the driving pulleys, back gears, headstock spindle, live centre and the feed reverse gear. The
headstock spindle is a hollow cylindrical shaft that provides a drive from the motor to work
holding devices.

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3) Tailstock:
The tailstock is a movable casting located opposite the headstock on the ways of the
bed. The tailstock can slide along the bed to accommodate different lengths of work piece
4) Gear Box:
The quick-change gear-box is placed below the headstock and contains a number of
different sized gears.
5) Carriage:
The carriage is located between the headstock and tailstock and serves the purpose
of supporting, guiding and feeding the tool against the job during operation. The main parts
of carriage are:
a) The saddle is an H-shaped casting mounted on the top of lathe ways. It provides support to
cross-slide, compound rest and tool post.
b) The cross slide is mounted on the top of saddle, and it provides a mounted or automatic
cross movement for the cutting tool.
c) The compound rest is fitted on the top of cross slide and is used to support the tool post
and the cutting tool.
d) The tool post is mounted on the compound rest, and it rigidly clamps the cutting tool or tool
holder at the proper height relative to the work centre line.
e) The apron is fastened to the saddle and it houses the gears, clutches and levers required to
move the carriage or cross slide. The engagement of split nut lever and the automatic feed lever
at the same time is prevented she carriage along the lathe bed.

LATHE OPERATIONS:

All most all the basic machining operations can be performed on a lathe.

1. Plain Turning

2. Facing

3. Knurling

4. Thread cutting

5. Taper turning by swivelling the compound rest

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Plain Turning

Fig:- Plain Turning

It is the operation of removing excess amount of material from the work piece to produce
a cylinder work piece. In this operation, shown in fig., the work is held either in the chuck or
between centers, the cutting tool is fed against the revolving work piece and is then moved
parallel to the lathe axis so as to produce a cylindrical surface.

Facing
It is the operation for generating a flat surface at the end of the work piece. In this
operation, as shown in fig., the work piece is held in the chuck and the facing tool is fed from
the center of the work piece towards the outer surface or from the outer surface to the center,
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with the help of a cross-slide. Facing is also carried out to reduce or cut the work piece to the
required length.

Fig:- Facing

Knurling

It is the process carried out on a lathe, where a visually-attractive diamond shaped pattern is
cut or rolled on the surface of metallic parts. In this operation, as shown in fig., the workpiece
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is held rigidly between two centers, the knurling tool is pressed against the rotating workpiece
and pressure is slowly increased until the tool produces a pattern on the workpiece. The surface
on the workpiece formed by knurling is used for applicatiions where grip is required to hold
the part. It is used to produce straight, angled or diamond pattern on the work piece mainly for
gripping purpose.

Taper turning

It is the operation of producing conical surfaces on the work pieces. A taper can be produced
by any one of the following methods.
 By swivelling the compound rest
 By off-setting the tailstock
 By using a taper turning attachment
 By form tool method

Taper turning by swivelling the compound rest.

Fig:- Taper turning by swivelling the compound rest

This method of taper turning shown in Fig. it is more suitable for work pieces ,which
require steep taper for short lengths. The compound tool rest is swivelled to the required taper
angle and then locked in the angular position.

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The carriage is also locked at that position. For taper turning, the compound tool rest is
moved linearly at an angle so that the cutting tool produces the tapered surface on the work
piece. This method is limited to short tapered lengths due to the limited movement of the
compound tool rest.

Taper angle of rod at which compound rest to be swiveled is

D−d
tan ∝ =
2L
Or α = tan-1 (D-d)/2L

where,
D = Larger diameter of taper in mm
d = Smaller diameter of taper in mm
L = Length of taper in mm and
α = Half taper angle in degrees

DRILLING MACHINE
INTRODUCTION

Drilling:
Drilling is a machining operation of producing a cylindrical hole in a solid work piece
by means of a revolving tool called twist drill.

The drilling machine or drill press is one of the most common and useful machine employed
in industry for producing forming and finishing holes in a workpiece. The unit essentially
consists of:

 A spindle which turns the tool (called drill) which can be advanced in the workpiece
either automatically or by hand.
 A work table which holds the workpiece rigidly in position

Working principle:
The rotating edge of the drill exerts a large force on the workpiece and the hole is generated.
The removal of metal in a drilling operation is by shearing and extrusion.

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Fig:- Working principle:

Classification of drilling machines:

Based on the construction and functions, drilling machines are classified as follows
1. Portable drilling machine
2. Bench or sensitive drilling machine
3. Radial drilling machine
4. Upright drilling machine
5. Gang drilling machine
6. Automatic drilling machine
7. Deep hole drilling machine
8. Multi-spindle drilling machine
9. CNC drilling machine (Computer Numerical Control)

Bench or sensitive drilling machine:

Bench drilling machines are used for drilling small holes at high speeds in small sized
work pieces. The diameter of the hole usually ranges from 1.5mm to 15mm.

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Fig:- Bench or sensitive drilling machine

Construction: It consists of a base, which is bolted on to a bench. It supports a column and
other parts of the machine. A worktable is clamped tot the down side of the column, so that it
can slide up and down as well as radially about the column axis. A head carrying a driving
motor and a V- belt drive unit of a stepped cone pulley is mounted on the upper side of the
column. The driving mechanism consists of a sleeve. A vertical spindle is housed in it, which
can be moved up and down with the help of a hand wheel. A drill chuck is fitted into the spindle.
Working:
In operation, the workpiece is clamped rigidly on the worktable. With the help of a
center punch, an indentation mark is made on the workpiece at the location where the hole is
to be drilled. The drill bit is made to rotate at a suitable speed by adjusting the V-belt on the
stepped cone pulley.
With the help of hand feed lever, the drill bit is moved downwards till the point of the
drill bit touches the indentation mark. Gradual feed to the drill bit is given by operating the
hand feed lever till the desired depth of the hole is achieved. The drill bit is withdrawn slowly
from the workpiece by operating the hand feed lever in the reverse direction.

Radial drilling machine:

Radial drilling machines are used for drilling medium or large diameter holes of upto
50mm in heavy work pieces
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Construction: it consists of a large heavy base with a stationary worktable. A heavy cylindrical
column is mounted over it. It support a heavy large radial arm which can be raised, lowered or
swung around its axis to any position and clamps automatically in that position. It receives
power from a motor, which is mounted over it. It can slide vertically over the elevating screw.
A drill head contains the sleeve and spindle unit. A gearbox is housed inside the drill head to
obtain required feed and speed. These receive power from another motor, which is mounted
over the head. The head can be moved horizontally over the arm on the guide ways and clamped
at any desired position. A hand wheel helps in giving a manual or automatic down feed for
drill. The operative switches are fixed over the head.

Operation: After locating the hole positions, the work piece is mounted on the worktable
using suitable fixtures. Suitable drill and coolant are selected. The drill is fitted into the
spindle. The tool head is brought over the work piece by swinging and moving the arm in the
necessary up, down, left, or right directions. The necessary feed and speed are given. The
machine is started and drilling may then be performed as usual.
Drilling Machine Operations:

Apart from drilling, a number of other operations that can be performed on a drilling
machine using the various tools are:

1 Drilling

2 Reaming

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3 Boring

4 Counter boring

5 Countersinking

6 Tapping

Drilling

Fig:- Drilling

Drilling is a machining operation of producing a cylindrical hole in a solid workpiece

by means of a revolving tool called drill bit. In operation, the drill bit is held rigidly in the
chuck of the machine and rotated by the spindle at high speeds. With the help of hand wheel,
a drill bit is forced to move against the rigidly clamped workpiece. A hole is generated by the
sharp cutting edges of the rotating drill bit and meanwhile, the excess material removed gets
curled and escapes through the helical grooves provided in the drill bit.

Reaming
It is the operation of finishing a previously drilled hole to bring it to a more exact size
and to improve the surface finish of the hole. This operation is carried out using a multi-tooth
revolving tool called reamer. A reamer is similar to the twist drill, but has straight flutes.
Reaming should be used only to remove small amounts of material

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Fig:- Reaming

Boring

Fig:-Boring

It is the operation of enlarging a previously drilled hole by means of an adjustable

cutting tool having only one cutting edge. This operation is performed when a drill bit of the
required dimension is not available. In such cases, a hole is first drilled to the nearest
dimension, and then a single point cutting tool is fastened and adjusted to a boring bar to enlarge
the size of the existing hole to the required dimension.

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MILLING MAHINE
Introduction:

Milling is the cutting operation that removes metal by feeding the work against a
rotating, cutter having single or multiple cutting edges. Flat or curved surfaces of many shapes
can be machined by milling with good finish and accuracy. A milling machine may also be
used for drilling, slotting, making a circular profile and gear cutting by having suitable
attachments.

Working Principle:

The work piece is holding on the worktable of the machine. The table movement
controls the feed of work piece against the rotating cutter. The cutter is mounted on a spindle
or arbor and revolves at high speed. Except for rotation the cutter has no other motion. As the
work piece advances, the cutter teeth remove the metal from the surface of work piece and the
desired shape is produced.

Fig:- Working Principle

Up Milling and Down Milling:

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Up Milling Down Milling

1 In Up milling the cutter rotates In Down milling, the cutter rotates with direction of feed.
against direction of feed.

2 It is also known as conventional It is also known as climb milling.

milling.

3 In this, chip width size is zero at In this cutting process, chip size is maximum at start of
initial cut and increase cut and decrease with the feed. It is zero at the end of
feed.

4 In this process, heat is diffuse to the In down milling most of heat diffuse to the chip does not
work piece which change the work piece properties.
causes the change in metal
properties.
5 In up milling, tool wear is more In this, tool wear is less compare to the up milling, due
because the tool runs to the cutter rotate with the feed.
against the feed.
6 Tool life is low. Tool life is high.

7 The cutting chips are carried The chips are carried downward by the tool so known as
upward by the tool so known down milling.
as up milling.
8 The cutting chips fall down in front The cutting chips fall down behind the tool. This gives
of the cutting tool better surface finish.
which again cut the chips cause less
surface finish.
9 Due to upward force by tool, high In down milling, downward force act on work piece
strength zig and fixture normal
required to hold the work piece. zig and fixture required.
10 High quality cutting fluid is In this process heat does not diffuse in the work piece,
required because heat so simple cutting fluid is required.
diffuse in the work piece.
11 It required high cutting force It required low cutting force.
compare to down milling.

Classification of Milling Machines

Milling machines are classified on the basis of their nature of work i.e., general purpose,
special purpose, mass production, reproduction etc., They may be broadly classified as follows:

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1. Horizontal milling machine

2. Vertical milling machine
3. Universal milling machine
4. Planer milling machine and
5. Special type milling machines

Horizontal Milling Machine

Construction
Its base serves as a foundation member. All the other parts rest upon it, It carries a
column at its one end. The column houses all driving mechanisms of spindle and table feed.
The spindle receives power mainly from a motor. It supports an overarm at its top, the spindle
nose and a knee. The knee is supported on an elevating screw and on the guide ways on the
column. It can be moved up and down with the help of the handle. The knee supports the
working table with the saddle and houses the feed mechanism for them. The table may be
moved longitudinally using the handle. The table is accurately finished with T-slots to clamp
the work piece and other fixtures on it. Its circular base is graduated in degrees. The saddle
may be moved horizontally using the hand wheel which is engaged to a lead screw (not shown
in the fig) below the table, An arbor (shaft) is supported between the spindle nose and the yoke
of the over arm and receives power from the spindle. One end of the arbor is tapered so as to
fit. in the spindle nose. The milling cutter is mounted on the arbor. It is provided with spacers
to facilitate the adjustment for cutter position

Operation
The work piece is mounted oil the table with the help of suitable fixtures. The desired
contour, feed and depth of cut for the job are noted down. A suitable milling cutter for the
specified job is selected and mounted on the arbor. The knee is raised till the cutter just touches
the work piece. The machine is started. By moving the table, saddle and the knee, for the
specified feed and depth of cut, the desired Job may be finished. The machine may then be
switched off.

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Vertical Milling Machine (Knee and Column Type)

Construction
The base serves as a foundation member. All the other parts rest upon it. It is casted
with a column at its one end. A spindle head with a swivelling base assembled at the other end
of the column. A vertical spindle is housed in the head and connected to the swivel base. The
spindle receives power and a motor which is mounted over the spindle head. The cutter is
mounted to the spindle. It can be moved up and down using the handle A knee is supported on
an elevating screw and on the guide ways on the column. It can be moved up and down with
the help of the hand wheel The knee supports the working table with the saddle and houses the
feed mechanism. The table may be moved longitudinally using the hand wheel. The table is
accurately finished with T-slots to clamp the work piece and other fixtures on it. Its circular
base is graduated in degrees. The saddle may be moved horizontally using the hand wheel
which is engaged to a lead screw (not shown in figure) below the table.

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Fig:- Vertical Milling Machine

Operation
The work piece is mounted on the table with the help of suitable fixtures. The desired
contour feed and depth of cut for the job are noted down. A suitable milling cutter for the
specified job is selected and mounted to the spindle. Both the knee and the cutter are moved
vertically opposite to each other suitably, such that the cutter just touches the work piece. The
machine is started. By moving the table, saddle swivelling base and the knee for the specified
feed, angle, depth of cut etc., the desired job may be finished. The machine may then be
switched off

MILLING OPERATIONS
Various milling operations can be performed on a milling machine to produce flat, vertical,
inclined surfaces, grooves, slots, keyways, gear teeth etc. Some of the most commonly
operations are,

 plain or slab milling,

 End milling

 angular milling,

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 face milling,

 form milling,

 slot milling, and

 Straddle milling.

Plain or slab milling

Plain milling is used to machine flat and horizontal surfaces. Here plain milling cutter
is used, which is held in the arbor and rotated. The table is moved upwards to give the required
depth of cut.

Fig:- Plain or slab milling

Slot Milling
The process of producing keyways grooves and slots of varying shapes and sizes is
known as slotting. A large variety of slots can be machined using end-milling cutters.
Following are some of the common types of slots for which slot milling is used: Plain slot. T-
slot, dovetail slot, V groove.

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Fig: Slot milling

Introduction to Advanced Manufacturing Systems

Advanced manufacturing is the use of innovative technology to improve products or processes,
with the relevant technology being described as advanced, innovative or cutting edge.
Advanced manufacturing industries increasingly integrate new innovative technologies in both
products and processes.

Computer Numerical Control (CNC) machine

It refers to computer controller that accepts a program or set of instructions & stores it
in the memory of the computer. In this, program can be edited or modified whenever required

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Main Parts of CNC Machine

The main parts of the CNC machine are

(i) Input Devices:

 These are the devices which are used to input the part program in the CNC
machine.
 There are three commonly used input devices and these are punch tape reader,
magnetic tape reader and computer .
(ii) Machine Control Unit (MCU):

It is the heart of the CNC machine. It performs all the controlling action of the CNC
machine, the various functions performed by the MCU are

 It reads the coded instructions fed into it.

 It decodes the coded instruction.
 It implements interpolation (linear, circular and helical) to generate axis motion
commands.
 It feeds the axis motion commands to the amplifier circuits for driving the axis
mechanisms.

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 It receives the feedback signals of position and speed for each drive axis.
 It implements the auxiliary control functions such as coolant or spindle on/off
and tool change.
(iii) Machine Tool:
 A CNC machine tool always has a slide table and a spindle to control of the
position and speed.
 The machine table is controlled in X and Y axis direction and the spindle is
controlled in the Z axis direction.
(iv) Driving System:
 The driving system of a CNC machine consists of amplifier circuits, drive
motors and ball lead screw.
 The MCU feeds the signals (i.e. of position and speed) of each axis to the
amplifier circuits.
 The control signals are than augmented (increased) to actuate the drive motors.
And the actuated drive motors rotate the ball lead screw to position the machine
table.
(v) Feedback System:
 This system consists of transducers that act as sensors.
 It is also called a measuring system. It contains position and speed transducers
that continuously monitor the position and speed of the cutting tool located at
any instant.
 The MCU receives the signals from these transducers and it uses the difference
between the reference signals and feedback signals to generate the control
signals for correcting the position and speed errors.
(vi) Display Unit:
 A monitor is used to display the programs, commands and other useful data
of CNC machine.

Working:

 First, the part program is inserted into the MCU of the CNC.
 In MCU all the data process takes place and according to the program prepared, it
prepares all the motion commands and sends it to the driving system.

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 The drive system works as the motion commands are sent by MCU. The drive system
controls the motion and velocity of the machine tool.
 The feedback system records the position and velocity measurement of the machine
tool and sends a feedback signal to the MCU.
 In MCU, the feedback signals are compared with the reference signals and if there are
errors, it corrects it and sends new signals to the machine tool for the right operation
to happen.
 A display unit is used to see all the commands, programs and other important data. It
acts as the eye of the machine.

Advantages

1. It can produce jobs with the highest accuracy and precision than any other manual
machine.

2. It can be run for 24 hours a day.

3. The parts produced by it have the same accuracy. There is no variation in the parts
manufactured.

4. A highly skilled operator is not required to operate it. A semi-skilled operator can also
operate accurately and more precisely.

5. Operators can easily make changes and improvements and reduce the delay time.

6. It has the capability to produce complex designs with high accuracy in minimum
possible time.

7. The modern design software, allows the designer to simulate the manufacturer of
his/her idea. And this removes the need for making a prototype or model and saves time
and money.

8. Fewer workers are required to operate a CNC and save labor costs.

Disadvantages

1. The cost of the CNC machine is very high as compared with a manually operated
machine.

2. The parts of the CNC machines are expensive.

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3. The maintenance cost in the case of CNC is quite high.

4. It does not eliminate the need for costly tools.

Applications of CNC

• The applications of CNC include both for machine tool as well as non-machine tool
areas.

• In the machine tool category, CNC is widely used for lathe, drill press, milling machine,
grinding unit, laser, sheet-metal press working machine, tube bending machine etc.

• Highly automated machine tools such as turning centre and machining centre which
change the cutting tools automatically under CNC control have been developed.

• In the non-machine tool category, CNC applications include welding machines (arc and
resistance), coordinate measuring machine, electronic assembly, tape laying and
filament winding machines for composites etc.

Aerospace Industry

• The applications of CNC machining in the aerospace industry are wide and reliable.
Some of the machinable aerospace components include engine mounts, fuel flow
components, landing gear components, and fuel access panels.

Automotive Industry

• CNC machining in the automotive industry is also useful for creating one-off custom
parts. The creation of various replacement parts is also possible with CNC.

Consumer Electronics

• In the electronics industry, CNC machining helps to create PCBs, housings, jigs,
fixtures, and other components.

Defense Industry

• The military sector frequently turns to CNC machining for the prototyping of rugged
and reliable parts.

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Healthcare Sector

• CNC machinable medical parts include surgical instruments, electronic enclosures,

orthotics, and implants.

Oil & Gas Industry

• This sector leverage the uses of CNC milling machine for precise, reliable parts such
as pistons, cylinders, rods, pins, and valves.

Rapid Prototyping

• CNC machines have fast turnarounds because they are highly autonomous. Once a
digital design is complete, machinists can send them to the CNC machine and fabricate
them in a short space of time.

• This makes CNC machining highly useful for prototype machining.

Hybrid Manufacturing

• CNC machining does not have to be used independently of another manufacturing

process. Combining it with other processes like 3D printing or metal casting can lead
to superior parts and products.

3D printing (Additive Manufacturing)

• 3D printing or additive manufacturing is a process of making three dimensional solid

objects from a digital file.

• The creation of a 3D printed object is achieved using additive processes.

• In an additive process an object is created by laying down successive layers of

material until the entire object is created.

• Each of these layers can be seen as a thinly sliced horizontal cross-section of the
eventual object.

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The Generic AM (Additive Manufacturing) Process

Step 1: CAD
All AM parts must start from a software model that fully describes the external geometry. This
can involve the use of almost any professional CAD solid modelling software, but the output
must be a 3D solid or surface representation.
Step 2: Conversion to STL
Nearly every AM machine accepts the STL file format, which has become a de facto standard,
and nowadays nearly every CAD system can output such a file format. This file describes the
external closed surfaces of the original CAD model and forms the basis for calculation of the
slices.
Step 3: Transfer to AM Machine and STL File Manipulation
The STL file describing the part must be transferred to the AM machine. Here, there may be
some general manipulation of the file so that it is the correct size, position, and orientation for
building.
Step 4: Machine Setup

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The AM machine must be properly set up prior to the build process. Such settings would relate
to the build parameters like the material constraints, energy source,layer thickness, timings,
etc.
Step 5: Build
Building the part is mainly an automated process and the machine can largely carry on without
supervision. Only superficial monitoring of the machine needs to take place at this time to
ensure no errors have taken place like running out of material, power or software glitches, etc.
Step 6: Removal
Once the AM machine has completed the build, the parts must be removed. This may require
interaction with the machine, which may have safety interlocks to ensure for example that the
operating temperatures are sufficiently low or that there are no actively moving parts.
Step 7: Post-processing
Once removed from the machine, parts may require an amount of additional cleaning up before
they are ready for use. Parts may be weak at this stage or they may have supporting features
that must be removed. This therefore often requires time and careful, experienced manual
manipulation.
Step 8: Application
Parts may now be ready to be used. However, they may also require additional treatment before
they are acceptable for use. For example, they may require priming and painting to give an
acceptable surface texture and finish. Treatments may be laborious and lengthy if the finishing
requirements are very demanding.

Fig: Steps Involved

Types of 3D Printing

1. Liquid polymer system- Sterolithography systems

2. Discrete particle system-Selective Laser Sintering
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3. Molten material system- Fused Deposition Modelling process

4. Solid Sheet system

Photo polymerization/StereoLithography (SL) is the best known rapid prototyping system.

The technique builds three-dimensional models from liquid photosensitive polymers that
solidify when exposed to laser beam. The model is built upon a platform in a vat of photo
sensitive liquid. A focused UV laser traces out the first layer, solidifying the model cross
section while leaving excess areas liquid. In the next step, an elevator lowers the platform into
the liquid polymer by an amount equal to layer thickness. A sweeper recoats the solidified layer
with liquid, and the laser traces the second layer on the first. This process is repeated until the
prototype is complete. Afterwards, the solid part is removed from the vat and rinsed clean of
excess liquid. Supports are broken off and the model is then placed in an ultraviolet oven for
complete curing.

Fig: Photo polymerization/Stereo Lithography

Selective Laser Sintering:

• This technology uses a high power laser to fuse small particles of plastic, metal, ceramic
or glass powders into a mass that has the desired three dimensional shape.

• The laser selectively fuses the powdered material by scanning the cross-sections (or
layers) generated by the 3D modeling program on the surface of a powder bed.

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• After each cross section is scanned, the powder bed is lowered by one layer thickness.
Then a new layer of material is applied on top and the process is repeated until the
object is completed.

Fig: Selective Laser Sintering

Fused Deposition Modeling (FDM)

• The FDM technology works using a plastic filament or metal wire which is unwound
from a coil and supplies material to an extrusion nozzle which can turn the flow on and
off.

• The nozzle is heated to melt the material and can be moved in both horizontal and
vertical directions by a numerically controlled mechanism, directly controlled by a
computer-aided manufacturing (CAM) software package.

• The object is produced by extruding melted material to form layers as the material
hardens immediately after extrusion from the nozzle.

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Fig: Selective Laser Sintering

Advantages of 3D printing :

1. Complexity is free: It actually costs less to print a complex part instead of a simple cube
of the same size. The more complex (or, the less solid the object is), the faster and cheaper
it can be made through additive manufacturing.
2. Variety is free: If a part needs to be changed, the change can simply be made on the
original CAD file, and the new product can be printed right away.
3. No assembly required: Moving parts such as hinges and bicycle chains can be printed in
metal directly into the product, which can significantly reduce the part numbers.
4. Little lead time: Engineers can create a prototype with a 3-D printer immediately after
finishing the part’s stereo lithography (STL) file. As soon as the part has printed, engineers
may then begin testing its properties instead of waiting weeks or months for a prototype or
part to come in.
5. Little-skill manufacturing: While complicated parts with specific parameters and high-
tech applications ought to be left to the professionals, even children in elementary school
have created their own figures using 3-D printing processes.

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6. Few constraints: Anything you can dream up and design in the CAD software, you can
create with additive manufacturing.
7. Less waste: Because only the material that is needed is used, there is very little (if any)
material wasted.
8. Infinite shades of materials: Engineers can program parts to have specific colors in their
CAD files, and printers can use materials of any color to print them.

Disadvantages of 3D Printing

1. Slow build rates: Many printers lay down material at a speed of one to five cubic
inches per hour. Depending on the part needed, other manufacturing processes may
be significantly faster.
2. High production costs: Sometimes, parts can be made faster using techniques
other than additive manufacturing, so the extra time can lead to higher costs.
Additionally, high-quality additive manufacturing machines can cost anywhere in
a range of crores.
3. Considerable effort in application design and setting process
parameters: Extensive knowledge of material design and the additive
manufacturing machine itself is required to make quality parts.
4. Requires post-processing: The surface finish and dimensional accuracy may be
lower quality than other manufacturing methods.
5. Discontinuous production process: Parts can only be printed one at a time,
preventing economics of scale.
6. Limited component size/small build volume: In most cases, polymer products are
about 1 cubic yard in size, while metal parts may only be one cubic foot. While
larger machines are available, they will come at a cost.
7. Poor mechanical properties: Layering and multiple interfaces can cause defects
in the product.

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QUESTION BANK

1. Define Lathe. With neat sketch and explain the following machining
operations
i. Turning
ii. Facing
iii. Knurling
iv. Boring (JAN/FEB 2023)

2. Define CNC. With block diagram, explain the different components used in
CNC(JAN/FEB 2023)

3. Define 3-D printing and classify(JAN/FEB 2023)

4. Write the advantages and applications of CNC(JAN/FEB 2023)

5. Define milling machine. With neat sketch explain the following machining
operations
i. Drilling
ii. Reaming
iii. Plain Milling
iv. Slot milling (JAN/FEB 2023)

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Module-3

Introduction to IC Engines: Components and working principles, 4-Stroke Petrol and

Diesel engines, Application of IC Engines, performance of IC engines (Simple numerical).

Introduction to Refrigeration and Air Conditioning: Principle of refrigeration,

Refrigerants and their desirable properties. Working principle of VCR refrigeration system,
working principle of room air conditioner & Applications of air Conditioners

Heat engine:
A heat engine is a device which transforms the chemical energy of a fuel into thermal
energy and uses this energy to produce mechanical work.

It is classified into two types-

1. External combustion engine

2. Internal combustion engine
External combustion engine:
External combustion engines are those in which combustion takes place outside the
engine. These engines are generally called EC engines. Ex: Steam engines, steam turbines,
closed cycle gas turbine etc.

Internal combustion engine:

Internal combustion engines are those in which combustion takes place inside the
engine. These engines are generally called IC engines. Ex: Petrol engine, diesel engine, gas
engine etc.

CLASSIFICATION OF INTERNAL COMBUSTION ENGINES.

There are different types of IC engines that can be classified on the following basis.

1. According to thermodynamic cycle

i) Otto cycle engine or Constant volume heat supplied cycle.
ii) Diesel cycle engine or Constant pressure heat supplied cycle
iii) Dual-combustion cycle engine

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2. According to the fuel used:

i) Petrol engine ii) Diesel engine iii) Gas engine

2. According to the cycle of operation:

i) Two stroke cycle engine ii) Four stroke cycle engine

4. According to the method of ignition:

i) Spark ignition (S.I) engine ii) Compression ignition (C I ) engine

5. According to the number of cylinders.

i) Single cylinder engine ii) Multi cylinder engine

6. According to the arrangement of cylinder:

i) Horizontal engine ii) Vertical engine iii) V-engine
v) In-line engine vi) Radial engine, etc.

7. According to the method of cooling the cylinder:

i) Air cooled engine ii) Water cooled engine
8. According to their applications:
i) Stationary engine ii) Automobile iii) Aero engine
iv) Locomotive engine v) Marine engine, etc.

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Parts of I.C engine

1. Cylinder: The heart of the engine is the cylinder in which the fuel is burnt and the
power is developed. The inside diameter is called bore. To prevent the wearing of
cylinder block, a sleeve will be fitted tightly in the cylinder. The piston reciprocates
inside the cylinder.
2. Cylinder head: The top end of the cylinder is closed by a removable cylinder head.
The cylinder head consists of two valves 'inlet valve' and 'exhaust valve'.
3. Piston: The piston is a close fitting hollow cylindrical plunger moving to-and-fro in
the cylinder. The power developed by the combustion of the fuel is transmitted by the
piston to the crankshaft through the connecting rod.
4. Piston rings: The piston rings are the metallic rings inserted into the circumferential
grooves provided at the top end of the piston. These rings maintain a gas-tight joint
between the piston and the cylinder while the piston is reciprocating in the cylinder.
They also help in conducting the heat from the piston to the cylinder.
5. Connecting rod: It is a link that connects the piston and the crankshaft by means of
pin joints. It converts the rectilinear motion of the piston into rotary motion of the
crankshaft.
6. Crank and crankshaft: The crank is lever that is connected to the end of the
connecting rod by a pin joint with its other end rigidly connected to a shaft called
crankshaft. It rotates about the axis of the crankshaft and causes the connecting rod to
oscillate.

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7. Crank case: It is the lower part of the engine serving as an enclosure for the
crankshaft and also sump for the lubricating oil.
8. Valves: The valves are the devices which controls the flow of the intake and the
exhaust gas to and from the cylinder. They are also called poppet valves. These valves
are operated by means of cams driven by crankshaft through a timing gear and chain.
9. Fly wheel: It is a heavy wheel mounted on the crankshaft of the engine to maintain
uniform rotation of the crankshaft.

I.C engine terminology

1. Stroke: It is the distance travelled by the piston from the cover end (TDC)to the crank
end or from crank end to the cover end(BDC). It is denoted by L.

2. Bore: It is the diameter of the cylinder or outer diameter of the piston. It is denoted by
D.

3. Top dead centre (TDC) or cover end: It is the extreme position of the piston, when
the piston is near cylinder head.

3. Bottom dead centre (BDC) or crank end: It is the extreme position of the piston,
when the piston is near the crankshaft end.

4. Clearance volume (Vc): It is the volume occupied by the charge at the end of
compression stroke when the piston is at TDC.
5. Swept volume(Vs):- It is the volume swept by the piston in moving from TDC to
BDC
6. Compression ratio (CR): It is the ratio of total volume (Vt) of the cylinder to the
clearance volume. i.e., CR or r = Total volume/clearance volume

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7. Piston speed: The total linear distance travelled by the piston per unit time is called
piston speed.
It is expressed in m/min and is given by,
Piston speed = 2LN m/min
L = length of stroke in m
N = speed of the engine in rpm.

Four-Stroke Petrol Engine or Four stroke Spark Ignition Engine (S.I.

engine)
The four-stroke cycle petrol engines operate on Otto (constant volume) cycle. Since
ignition in these engines is due to a spark, they are also called spark ignition engines. The
four different strokes are:
i) Suction stroke
ii) Compression stroke
iii) Working or power or expansion stroke
iv) Exhaust stroke.

Fig :-P-V diagram for 4-stroke petrol engine

The construction and working of a four-stroke petrol engine is shown below

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Fig: - four-stroke cycle petrol engines

Suction Stroke:
During suction stroke, the piston is moved from the top dead centre to the bottom
dead centre by the crank shaft. The crank shaft is revolved either by the momentum of the
flywheel or by the electric starting motor. The inlet valve remains open and the exhaust valve
is closed during this stroke. The proportionate air-petrol mixture is sucked into the cylinder
due to the downward movement of the piston. This operation is represented by the line AB on
the P-V diagram.

Compression Stroke:
During compression stroke, the piston moves from bottom dead centre to the top dead
centre, thus compressing air petrol mixture. Due to compression, the pressure and
temperature are increased and is shown by the line BC on the P-V diagram. Just before the
end of this stroke the spark - plug initiates a spark, which ignites the mixture and combustion
takes place at constant volume as shown by the line CD. Both the inlet and exhaust valves
remain closed during this stroke.

Working Stroke:
The expansion of hot gases exerts a pressure on the piston. Due to this pressure, the
piston moves from top dead centre to bottom dead centre and thus the work is obtained in this

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stroke. Both the inlet and exhaust valves remain closed during this stroke. The expansion of
the gas is shown by the curve DE.

Exhaust Stroke:
During this stroke, the inlet valve remains closed and the exhaust valve opens. The
greater part of the burnt gases escapes because of their own expansion. The drop in pressure
at constant volume is represented by the line EB. The piston moves from bottom dead centre
to top dead centre and pushes the remaining gases to the atmosphere. When the piston
reaches the top dead centre the exhaust valve closes and cycle is completed. This stroke is
represented by the line BA on the P- V diagram. The operations are repeated over and over
again in running the engine. Thus a four stroke engine completes one working cycle, during
this the crank rotate by two revolutions.

Four Stroke Diesel Engine (Four Stroke Compression Ignition Engine—

C.I.Engine)

The four stroke cycle diesel engine operates on diesel cycle or constant pressure
cycle. Since ignition in these engines is due to the temperature of the compressed air, they are
also called compression ignition engines. The four strokes are as follows:
i) Suction stroke
ii) Compression stroke
iii) Working or power or expansion stroke
iv) Exhaust stroke.

Fig:- 4 –Stroke Diesel cycle (P-V diagram)

The construction and working of a four-stroke petrol engine is shown below

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Suction Stroke:
During suction stroke, the piston is moved from the top dead centre to the bottom
dead centre by the crankshaft. The crankshaft is revolved either by the momentum of the
flywheel or by the power generated by the electric starting motor. The inlet valve remains
open and the exhaust valve is closed during this stroke. The air is sucked into the cylinder due
to the downward movement of the piston. The line AB on the P- V diagram represents this
operation.

Compression Stroke:
The air drawn at the atmospheric pressure during suction stroke is compressed to
high pressure and temperature as piston moves from the bottom dead centre to top dead
centre. This operation is represented by the curve BC on the P- V diagram. Just before the
end of this stroke, a metered quantity of fuel is injected into the hot compressed air in the
form of fine sprays by means of fuel injector. The fuel starts burning at constant pressure
shown by the line CD. At point D, fuel supply is cut off, Both the inlet and exhaust valves
remain closed during this stroke

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Working Stroke:
The expansion of gases due to the heat of combustion exerts a pressure on the piston.
Under this impulse, the piston moves from top dead centre to the bottom dead centre and thus
work is obtained in this stroke. Both the inlet and exhaust valves remain closed during this
stroke. The expansion of the gas is shown by the curve DE.

Exhaust Stroke:
During this stroke, the inlet valve remains closed and the exhaust valve opens. The
greater part of the burnt gases escapes because of their own expansion. The vertical line EB
represents the drop in pressure at constant volume. The piston moves from bottom dead
centre to top dead centre and pushes the remaining gases to the atmosphere. When the piston
reaches the top dead centre the exhaust valve closes and the cycle is completed. The line BA
on the P- V diagram represents this stroke.

COMPARISON OF PETROL AND DIESEL ENGINE

Petrol Engine (SI Engine) Diesel Engine (CI Engine)

Draws a mixture of petrol and air during Draws only air during suction stroke.
suction stroke
. Works on theoretical Otto Cycle Works on theoretical Diesel Cycle

The combustion of fuel takes place The combustion of fuel takes place
approximately at constant pressure
approximately at constant volume.
Compression ratio ranges from
Compression ratio ranges from 7: 1 to 12.1
18:1 to 22.1
The maintenance cost is less. The maintenance cost is more.

Thermal efficiency is low. Thermal efficiency is high

TERMS USED IN IC-ENGINE

1) Mean effective pressure (Pm)

It is defined as the mean or average pressure acting on the piston throughout the power
stroke. It is expressed in N/m2

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Where,

Pm = Actual Mean Effective Pressure, N/m2

a = Area of the actual indicator diagram, Sq.cm
l= Base width of the indicator diagram, cm
s = Spring Value of the spring used in the indicator, N/m2/cm

2) Indicated power (IP)

It is defined as the total power developed inside the engine cylinder due to combustion of
fuel. It is expressed in kw

For 4-stroke engine,

For 2-stroke engine

Where,

Pm=Mean Effective Pressure, N/m2

L=Length of Stroke, m

A=Area of Cross section of the Cylinder,

N=RPM of the Crankshaft.

N=Number of cycles per minute.

3) Brake Power (BP)

The net power available at the crankshaft of the engine for performing useful work. It is
expressed in kw

Where,

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N=RPM of the Crankshaft.

T= torque in N-m
Also

Where,

W = Net load acting on the brake drum, kg

R = Radius of the brake drum, m

4) Friction power (FP)

The amount of power is lost due to friction parts are called as friction force. It is also the
difference between indicated power & brake power
FP =IP – BP
5 )Mechanical efficiency (ηmech)
It is defined as the ratio of brake power to the indicated power. It is expressed in percentage

6)Thermal efficiency (ηth)

It is defined as the ratio of power output to heat supplied by the burning fuel It is expressed in
percentage

7)Indicated Thermal efficiency (ηth )

It is defined as the ratio of indicated power output to heat supplied by the burning fuel It is
expressed in percentage

Where,
m=Mass of the fuel supplied, kg/s
CV=Calorific Value of the fuel, kJ/kg
IP=indicated Power, kW

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8)Brake Thermal efficiency (ηth )

It is defined as the ratio of brake power output to heat supplied by the burning fuel It is
expressed in percentage

Where,
m=Mass of the fuel supplied, kg/s
CV=Calorific Value of the fuel, kJ/kg
BP= brake power, kW
9) Specific Fuel Consumption:

It is defined as amount of fuel consumed by an engine per unit power output. It is an measure
of the fuel efficiency of the I.C engine. It is expressed in kg/kW/hr or kg/kW-hr.

Problems
1) A four-stroke I.C. engine running at 450 rpm has a bore diameter of 100 mm
and stroke length 120 mm. The indicator diagram details are ; area of the
diagram 4 cm2, length of indicator diagram 6.5 cm and the spring value of the
spring used is 10 bar / cm. Calculate the indicated power of the engine.

Solution
Given Data

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2 )Find the indicated power of a four stroke petrol engine. The average piston
speed is 70 m per min. The mean effective pressure is 5.5. bar. The diameter of
the piston is 150 mm

Solution

Given data,

Piston speed = 70 m/min,

Pm=5.5 bar,

D =150mm

3 ) A six cylinder 4 stroke I.C. Engine develops 50 kW of indicated power at

mep of 7 bar. The bore and stroke of the engine cylinder is 70 mm and 100 mm
respectively. If the engine speed is 3700 rpm, find the average misfires per
minute.

Solution

Given data

IP= 50kW,

pm=7 bar,

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D=70mm,

L=100mm,

N=3700 rpm,

No of cylinders =6

4) The following readings were taken on a four-stroke I.C. engine:

Diameter of the brake drum = 1.5 m
Diameter of the rope = 10 mm
Load suspended on the brake drum = 100 kg
Spring balance reading =5kg
Crankshaft speed = 200 rpm
Determine the brake power of the engine.
Solution
Given data
N=200rpm
DB =1.5m

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Dr=10 mm
Load on the brake drum = 100 kg
Spring balance reading =5kg

5) A four-stroke single cylinder I.C. engine of 250 mm cylinder diameter and

400 mm stroke runs at a piston speed of 8 m/s. If the engine develops 50 kW
indicated power, find its mean effective pressure and the crankshaft speed.

Solution
Given data
D= 259 mm
L= 400 mm
IP=50KW

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Piston speed =8m/s

6) Find the indicated power of a four–stroke petrol engine of swept volume of 6

litres and running at 1000 rpm. The mean effective pressure is 600 kN/m2

Solution

Given data

7) A four cylinder four–stroke engine running at 1000 rpm develops an

indicated power of 15 kW The mean effective pressure is 5 x 105 N/m2. Find the
diameter of the cylinder and the stroke of the piston when the ratio of
diameter to stroke is 0.8

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Solution

Given data

N=1000rpm,

IP =15kW,

pm=5X105 N/m2 ,

D/L =0.8

8) The following data refers to a single cylinder 4 stroke petrol engine. .

Cylinder diameter = 20 cm
Stroke of the piston = 40 cm
Engine speed = 400 rpm
Indicated mean effective pressure = 7 bar
Fuel consumption = 10 litres /hour
Calorific value of the fuel = 45000 kJ/kg
Specific gravity of the fuel = 0.8
Find the indicated thermal efficiency.

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Solution
Given data

9) A gas engine working on a four-stroke cycle has a cylinder of 250 mm

diameter, length of stroke is450 mm and is running at 180 rpm. Its mechanical
efficiency is 80% when the mean effective is 0.65 MPa. Find (i) indicated
power, (ii) brake power and (iii) friction power.
Solution
Given Data
D=250 mm ,
Pm= 0.65 Mpa ,
η mech = 80 %,
L = 450 mm

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10) The following observations were obtained during a trial on a four-stroke

diesel engine. Cylinder diameter = 25 cm Stroke of the Piston = 40 cm
Crankshaft speed = 250 rpm Brake load = 70 kg Brake drum diameter = 2 m
Mean effective pressure = 6 bar Diesel oil consumption = 0.1 m3/min Specific
gravity of diesel = 0.78 Calorific Value of diesel = 43900 kJ/kg
Find:
1. Brake Power
2. Indicated Power
3 Frictional Power
4. Mechanical Efficiency
5. Brake Thermal Efficiency
6. Indicated Thermal Efficiency
Solution
Given data
N=250rpm
D=25 cm
L =40cm
Pm =6 bar
Cv =43,900 KJ/Kg

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3.Frictional power:
Frictional power = Indicated power – Brake power
=24.54 – 17.95
= 6.59 kW
4. Mechanical Efficiency:

= 73.14 %
5. Brake Thermal efficiency

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=31.45%
6.Indicated Thermal efficiency

= 43%

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REFRIGERATION & AIR-CONDITIONING

Refrigeration
It is defined as the method of reducing the temperature of a system below that of the
surroundings & maintains it at the lower temperature by continuously abstracting the heat
from it

Principle of refrigeration

The principle of refrigeration is based on Second law of thermodynamics. It states

that heat does not flow from a low temperature body to a
high temperature body without the help of an external work.
In refrigeration process, since the heat has to be transferred
from a low temperature body to a high temperature body
some external work has to be done according to the second
law of thermodynamics as shown in Fig.. This external
work is done by means of compressor.

Fig:- Principle of refrigeration

Terms used in refrigeration

1. Refrigerator:
It is a machine used to extract heat from a body at low temperature and reject thisheat
to a body at high temperature. Thus it cools the body.

2. Refrigerant:
It is substance, which is used as a working fluid in refrigerators. The refrigeranthas
low boiling point, which means that it vaporizes at low temperature and takes away the heat
from a substance.
Examples: Freon 12 used in Domestic refrigerators. Freon 22 used in Air Conditioners.

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3. Refrigeration Effect:
It is the amount of heat energy removed per unit time from the space to be cooled by the
refrigeration process, Hence it is also called as capacity of a refrigerator. It is expressed in
KW or kJ/s

Refrigeration Effect = Heat removed / Time taken

4. Coefficient of Performance (COP):

It is defined as the ratio of heat absorbed in a system to the work supplied.
If Q = Heat Absorbed or Removed (kW),

W = Work supplied, kW Then,

COP

5. Relative COP:
The ratio of the actual COP to the theoretical COP is known as relative COP.

Relative COP = Actual COP

Theoretical COP

6. Tons of refrigeration:
A ton of refrigeration is defined as the quantity of heat absorbed in order to form one
ton of ice in 24 hours when the initial temperature of the water is 0°C.

In S.I. System,

1 Ton of Refrigeration = 210 kJ/min

= 3.5 kW

7. Ice making capacity:

It is defined as the capacity of the refrigerating system to make ice beginning from the
water (at room temperature) to solid ice.It is specified by Kg/hr.

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Parts of a Refrigerator:
To accomplish the task of producing the cooling effect, a refrigerator must consist of
the following main parts,

1. Evaporator

2. Circulating System

3. Condenser

4. Expansion Device

1. Evaporator
In the evaporator (heart of the refrigerator) liquid refrigerant is evaporated by the
absorption of heat from the refrigerator cabinet in which the substances which have to be
cooled are kept. The evaporator consists of simply metal tubing which surrounds around the
freezing and cooling compartments to produce the cooling effect required for freezing ice or
lowering the temperature of perishables placed in the cooling compartment. Since it produces
the cooling effect it is also sometimes called as cooling coil or freezer coil.

2. Circulating System
The circulating system comprises of the mechanical devices such as compressors or
pumps necessary to circulate the refrigerant to undergo the refrigeration cycle. They increase
the pressure and therefore, the temperature of the refrigerant. Generally these devices are
driven by the electric motors. The electrical energy input to the motor is the energy input to
the refrigerators.

3. Condenser
A condenser is an appliance in which the heat from the refrigerant is rejected at higher
temperature to another medium, usually the atmospheric air. In a condenser the refrigerant
vapour gives off its latent heat to the air and consequently condenses into liquid so that it can
be re-circulated in the refrigeration cycle. The latent heat of the refrigerant that is given off in
the condenser comprises mainly of the heat absorbed in the refrigerator cabinet and the heat
developed due to compression.

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4. Expansion Device
An expansion valve serves as a device to reduce the pressure and temperature of the
liquid refrigerant before it passes to the evaporator. The liquid refrigerant from the condenser
is passed through an expansion valve where it reduces its pressure and temperature.

Commonly used refrigerants

The most commonly used refrigerants are:

a) Ammonia - In vapour absorption refrigerator.
b) Carbon dioxide - In marine refrigerators.
c) Sulphur dioxide - In household refrigerators.
d) Methyl chloride - In small scale refrigeration and domestic refrigerators.
e) Freon - 12 - In domestic vapour compression refrigerators.
f) Freon-22 - In Air Conditioners.

Ammonia
Ammonia as a refrigerant is employed in refrigerators operating on the absorption
principles. Because of its high latent heat (1300 kJ/kg at -15°C) and low specific volume
(0.509mVkg at -15°C) it produces high refrigeration effects even in small refrigerators. Since
ammonia will not harm the ozone, it is environmental friendly. It is widely used in cold
storage, ice making plants, etc.Its toxic, flammable, irritating and food destroying properties
makes it unsuitable for domestic refrigerators.

Carbon dioxide
The efficiency of the refrigerators using carbon dioxide refrigerant is low. Therefore it
is seldom used in domestic refrigerators, but is used in dry ice making plants. It is colourless,
odourless, non-toxic, non-inflammable and non-corrosive.

Sulphur dioxide
Earlier sulphur dioxide was one of the most commonly used refrigerants in domestic
refrigerators. Although it has better thermodynamic properties, it has low refrigerating effect
and high specific volume; therefore large capacity high speed compressors are required.
Since it combines with water and forms sulfurous and sulfuric acids which are corrosive to
metals, the refrigerators using sulphur dioxide as refrigerant are seldom used.

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Methyl Chloride
Methyl chloride was used earlier in domestic and small scale industrial refrigerators.
Since it will burn under some conditions and slightly toxic, is not generally used.

Freon
Freon group of refrigerants is used almost universally in domestic refrigerators. These
refrigerants are colourless, almost odourless, non-toxic, non-inflammable, non-explosive and
non-corrosive, Freon-12 and Freon-22 are the two freon refrigerants commonly used in
domestic refrigerators and air conditioners. Although these refrigerants are being now used
extensively in the refrigerators and the air conditioners, it has been found that these
refrigerants posing a major threat to the global environment through their role in the
destruction of the ozone layer.

Desirable Properties of a good Refrigerant

Thermodynamic Properties:

 Boiling point: An ideal refrigerant must have low boiling temperature at atmospheric
pressure.
 Freezing point: It must have a very low freezing point because the refrigerant should
not evaporator temperatures.
 Specific Heat: A good refrigerant must have low specific heat when it is in liquid
state and high specific heat when it is vapourised. The low specific heat of the
refrigerant helps in more heat absorption in the evaporator and high specific heat of
the vapour helps in easy condensing. Both these desirable properties will increase the
refrigerating effect.
 Evaporator and condenser pressure: To avoid the leakage of the atmospheric air and
also to enable the detection of the refrigerant, both the evaporator and condenser
pressures should be slightly above the atmospheric pressure.
 Latent heat of evaporation: This must be very high so that a minimum amount of
refrigerant will give the desired result. In other words, it increases the refrigeration
effect.
 Critical temperature and pressure. The critical temperature of a refrigerant is the
highest temperature at which it can be condensed to a liquid, regardless of a higher
pressure and it should be above the highest condensing temperature.

Physical Properties:
 Specific Volume: The specific volume of the refrigerant must be very low. The lower
specific volume of the refrigerant at the suction of the compressor reduces the size of
the compressor.

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 Viscosity: The viscosity of a refrigerant at both the liquid and vapour states must be
very low as it improves the heat transfer and reduces the pumping effort required.

Safe Working Properties:

 Toxicity: A good refrigerant should be non-toxic, because any leakage of the toxic
refrigerant increases suffocation and poisons the atmosphere or any food items stored
 Corrosiveness: A good refrigerant should be non-corrosive to prevent the corrosion of
the metallic parts of the refrigerators.
 Chemical Stability: An ideal refrigerant must not decompose under operating
conditions.

Other Properties:
 Coefficient of Performance: The coefficient of performance of a refrigerant must be
high so that the energy spent in refrigeration will be less.
 Odour: A good refrigerant must be odourless; otherwise some food stuff such as
meat, butter, etc. loses their taste.
 Leakage: The refrigerant must be such that any leakage can be detected by simple
tests.
 Action with Lubricating Oil: A good refrigerant must not react with the lubricating
oil used in lubricating the parts of the compressor.

Types of Refrigerators
The mechanical refrigerators are classified into 2 types they are

1. Vapour Compression Refrigerators

2. Vapour Absorption Refrigerators

Vapour compression refrigerator

Principle
The mechanical energy is utilized to achieve refrigeration. A compressor is used to
increase the temperature and pressure of the refrigerant vapour. The refrigerant alternatively
evaporates and condenses. This type of refrigeration system is the most commonly used
system in domestic refrigerators.

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Construction
Vapour compression refrigerator consists of an evaporator made of coiled tubes
installed in the cabinet/refrigerated space and connected to the suction side of the compressor
and a throttle valve .The delivery side of the compressor is connected to a condenser which in
turn is connected to a throttle valve.

The object of including a compressor in this system is to draw the vapours from the
evaporator and compress them to higher pressures so that the saturation temperature
corresponding to these pressures is higher than that of the cooling medium flowing into the
condenser, so that the high pressure vapour can reject heat into the condenser and be ready to
expand to the evaporator pressure again.

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Working
The liquid refrigerant in the evaporator absorbs the heat from the medium
(cabinate/refrigerated space) which is to be cooled and undergoes a change of phase from
liquid to vapour. The vapour at low temperature and pressure is drawn into the compressor
where it is compressed to a high pressure and temperature.

The compressed vapour then enters the compressor. In the condenser vapour
refrigerant is cooled & condensed by giving its latent heat to the circulating cooling medium
(air or water).the high pressure liquid refrigerant leaves the condenser & passes through the
expansion valve where it is expanded to low pressure & temperature. The temperature of the
refrigerant falls to a value less than that of the refrigerated space
The low pressure-low temperature. refrigerant again enters the evaporator where it
absorbs the heat from the medium & evaporates. The low pressure-low temperature vapour is
drawn into the compressor & the cycle repeats. Thus, heat is continuously extracted from the
medium. There by keeping the contents at the required lower temperature.

Vapour absorption refrigerator

Principle:
The heat energy is utilized to achieve the refrigeration. An electric heater or steam is
used to add the heat to the refrigerant for its evaporation. Also an absorber, a pump and a
generator are used to complete the cycle.
Construction
In vapour absorption system .the compressor is replaced by an absorber , a generator
& a pump. The refrigerant used in this system must be highly soluble in the solution known
as absorbent. The system uses ammonia as the refrigerant & water as absorbent

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.
Fig:- Vapour absorption refrigerator

Working
The liquid refrigerant (ammonia) in the evaporator absorbs the heat from the medium
that is to be cooled & it undergoes a change of phase from liquid to vapour. The low pressure
vapour is then Passed to the absorber.
In the absorber, the low pressure ammonia vapour is dissolved in the weak ammonia
solution producing strong ammonia solution at low pressure. The strong ammonia solution is
then pumped to a generator through the heat exchanger at high pressure. While passing
through the heat exchanger, the strong ammonia solution is warmed up by the hot weak
ammonia solution flowing from the generator to the absorber
The warm strong ammonia solution is heated by an external source in the generator.
Due to heating the vapour gets separated from the solution. The vapour which is at high
pressure & high temperature is condensed to low temperature in a condenser by cold water
circulation. The high pressure liquid ammonia then passes through the expansion valve where
it is expanded to low pressure & temperature. The low pressure-low temperature ammonia
liquid again enters the evaporator where it absorbs the heat from the medium & the cycle
repeats

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Comparison between Vapour compression refrigerator &Vapour

absorption refrigerator
Vapour compression refrigeration Vapour absorption refrigeration
Works using mechanical energy Works using heat energy
Refrigeration capacity is less than 1000 tons Refrigeration capacity is greater than 1000tons
COP is much higher COP is less.
Noisy due to compressor. Pump noise is less.
Chances of leakage of refrigerant are more No leakage.
Maintenance and operating cost are high. Less.
Smaller in size Larger
Wear and tear are more Wear and tear are less

Applications of Refrigeration:
The major applications of refrigeration’s are the following
 In manufacturing ice
 For Preserving perishable food materials
 For Cooling water
 For preserving of blood, tissues and medicines

Air-Conditioning
Air conditioning is defined as the process of simultaneous control of temperature,
humidity, cleanliness and air-motion of the confined space.
The artificial cooling of air and conditioning it to provide maximum comfort to human
beings is called comfort air conditioning.
The artificial cooling of air and conditioning it to provide a controlled atmosphere
required in some engineering, manufacturing and processing is called industrial air
conditioning.

Principle of air conditioning

An air conditioner operates on the principle of refrigeration by cooling the air drawn
from the conditioned space and returning the cool, fresh air to the conditioned space.

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Room Air conditioning

Construction
Room air-conditioner mainly consists of an evaporator, condenser, compressor, two
fans one each for the evaporator and condenser units usually driven by the single motor,
capillary, etc. It is generally mounted on a window sill such that the evaporator unit is inside
the room and the condenser part projecting outside the building.

Working
The high-pressure, low-temperature liquid refrigerant from the condenser is passed to
the evaporator coils through the capillary tube where it undergoes expansion. The low-
pressure, low temperature liquid refrigerant passes through the evaporator coils.
The evaporator-fan continuous draws the air from the interior space with in the room
through an air filter by forcing it to pass over the evaporator coils. The air from the interior
passing over the evaporator coils is cooled by the refrigerant which consequently evaporates
by absorbing the heat from the air.

The high-temperature evaporated refrigerant from the evaporator is drawn by the

suction of the compressor which compresses it and delivers it to the condenser. The high-
pressure, high-temperature refrigerant vapour now flows through the condenser coils. The

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condenser-fan draws the atmospheric air from the exposed side-portions of the air conditioner
which is projecting outside the building into the space behind it and discharges to pass
through the center section of the condenser unit over the condenser coils.

The high-pressure, high-temperature refrigerant passing inside the condenser coils

condenses by giving off the heat to the atmospheric air. The cooled high-pressure refrigerant
from the condenser passes through the capillary tube where it undergoes expansion and is
again re-circulated to repeat the cycle continuously.

Limitations
1. It produce noise in the room because of compressor is very near to the room

2. The evaporator and condenser are enclosed in single unit. Therefore evaporator
cannot be usedas an interior of room because condenser requires outside air for
cooling.
3. It requires appropriate size of window or hole in wall to fit the conditioner.
4. Most of window A/C doesn’t provide heating for winter.
5. No provision for humidification is possible in window AC.
6. It has no control over humidity through it carries out dehumidification.

Split air conditioner

It is modification of window air conditioner.

Construction
 This unit differs from window air conditioner. In terms of split of unit into
two parts. Insplit air conditioner, the window air conditioner divided (split)
into two parts.
 First part: Includes the evaporator, filter, evaporator fan and grille
(cooling coil). Theyplaced inside the room.
 Second part: Includes condenser, condenser fan, and compressor. This
placed outside theroom.

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Figure : Split air conditioner

 of room) and second part (outside of room) is connected by small

diametertubes. Therefore, small hole required in wall for installation of split
air conditioner.
Working
 The high-pressure, low-temperature liquid refrigerant from the condenser is
passed to theevaporator coils through the capillary tube where it undergoes
expansion.
 The low-pressure, low temperature liquid refrigerant passes through the
evaporator coils.
 The evaporator-fan continuous draws the air from the interior space with in
the room through an air filter by forcing it to pass over the evaporator coils.
 The air from the interior passing over the evaporator coils is cooled by the
refrigerant which consequently evaporates by absorbing the heat from the
air.

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 The high-temperature evaporated refrigerant from the evaporator is drawn

by the suction of the compressor which compresses it and delivers it to the
condenser.
 The high-pressure, high-temperature refrigerant vapournow flows through
the condenser coils. The condenser-fan draws the atmospheric air from the
exposed side-portions of the air conditioner which is projecting outside the
building into the space behind it and discharges to pass through the center
section of the condenser unit over the condenser coils.
 The high-pressure, high-temperature refrigerant passing inside the
condenser coils condenses by giving off the heat to the atmospheric air.
 The cooled high-pressure refrigerant from the condenser passes through the
capillary tube where it undergoes expansion and is again re-circulated to
repeat the cycle continuously.
The advantages of split air conditioner over window air conditioner
1. The compressor is outside of room, therefore no compressor noise in the room.
2. No window opening and fixing needed.
3. The first part can be located in the room with decorative display. The first unit
can be mountedon floor, ceiling, and wall or behind a decorative structure.

THEORY QUESTIONS

1) Differentiate between 4 stroke petrol and diesel engine

2) Explain the working principal of VCR refrigeration system.(AUG/SEPT 2020)
3) Explain the selection of good refrigerants on the basis of properties.
4) Explain the construction and working of 4-s Petrol Engine with neat sketch(DEC
2019/JAN 2020)
5) Explain the construction and working of 4-s Diesel Engine with neat
sketch(AUG/SEPT 2020)
6) Explain the construction and working of air conditioner
7) Write the Desirable Properties of a good Refrigerant(DEC 2019/JAN 2020)
8) What is refrigerant? Explain commonly used refrigerants

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MODULE 4

Mechanical Power Transmission: Gear Drives: Types - spur, helical, bevel, worm and rack
and pinion, velocity ratio, simple and compound gear trains (simple numerical problems)
Belt Drives: Introduction, Types of belt drives (Flat and V-Belt Drive), length of the belt and
tensions ratio (simple numerical problems)
Joining Processes: Soldering, Brazing and Welding, Definitions, classification of welding
process, Arc welding, Gas welding, (types of flames), TIG welding, MIG welding and Fusion
welding

Gear Drives
Gears are used to transmit motion or power from one shaft to another preferably if the centre
distance between the two shafts is small.
GEAR CLASSIFICATION
According to the position of axes of the shafts.
a. Parallel - Spur Gears
b. Intersecting- Bevel Gears
c. Non-intersecting and Non-parallel- worm and worm gears
According to the peripheral velocity of the gears.
a. Low velocity, (less than 3 m/s )

b. Medium velocity (3 - 15 m/s) and

c. High velocity(more than 15 m/s)

 According to the type of gearing

(a) External gearing,

(b) Internal gearing, and
(c) Rack and pinion
According to the position of teeth on the gear surface
(a) Straight
(b) Inclined
(c) Curved.
spur gears have straight teeth whereas helical gears have their teeth inclined to the wheel rim.
In case of spiral gears, the teeth are curved.

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 Elements of Mechanical Engineering(BEMEM203) Module 4 Notes

• Spur gear- For parallel axes shafts.

• Helical gears- For parallel axes shafts

• Spiral gears- For Non parallel and non intersecting axes shafts.

• Bevel gears- For intersecting axes shafts..

• Worm gear- For non parallel and non co-planar axes shafts.

• Rack and pinion- For converting rotary motion into linear motion.

Spur Gear:-
Spur Gears are the simplest and the most commonly used gears designed to transmit motion
between two parallel shafts
Used in Electric screw driver, alarm clock, washing machine and clothes dryer etc.

Helical Gears
• Helical gears are cylindrical gears with teeth that are at an angle to the axis of rotation
of the gear wheel.

• Helical gears are widely used in gearboxes because of their smooth engagement when
the gears are changed.

Bevel Gears
Bevel gears are gears where the axes of the two shafts intersect and the tooth-bearing
faces of the gears themselves are conically shaped. Bevel gears are most often mounted
on shafts that are 90 degrees apart, but can be designed to work at other angles as well.

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 Elements of Mechanical Engineering(BEMEM203) Module 4 Notes

Worm Gear
Worm gear is a type of screw gearing that consists of a screw meshing with a helical gear.
The screw is called Worm and the gear wheel meshing with the wheel is called Worm Gear
or Worm Wheel

Rack and Pinion Gears

Rack & Pinion:- Rack is a gear having teeth cut along a straight line, while a Pinion is a gear
with teeth cut along its periphery. With the help of Rack and Pinion, rotary motion can be
converted in to linear motion.

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 Elements of Mechanical Engineering(BEMEM203) Module 4 Notes

Spiral Gears
Spiral Gear:- Spiral Gears are used to connect non-parallel and non-intersecting shafts. The
gears are cylindrical in shape and teeth have point contact. Hence they are used to transmit
small power.

Velocity ratio of Gear drive

The velocity ratio of a gear drive is defined as the ratio of the speed of the driving gear to the
speed of the driven gear
Let d1 = pitch circle diameter of the driver gear
d2 = pitch circle diameter of the driven gear
T1 = Number of teeth on the driver gear
T2 = Number of teeth on the driven gear
N1 =speed of the driver gear in rpm
N2= speed of the driven gear in rpm
Since there is no slip between the pitch cylinders of the two gear wheels, the linear speed of
the two pitch cylinders must be equal.
∴ Linear speed of the pitch cylinder representing the driving gear = Linear speed of the pitch
cylinder representing the driven gear
i.e, 𝜋𝑑1𝑁1 = 𝜋𝑑2𝑁2
𝑁1 𝑑2
= … … … … … … … … … . (1)
𝑁2 𝑑1
The circular pitch for the meshing gears remain same
i.e, 𝜋𝑑1 𝜋𝑑2
𝑐
= =
𝑇1 𝑇2
𝑇2 ..................................................................................
i.e, 𝑑2 = (2)
𝑑1 𝑇1

From equations (1) and (2)

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 Elements of Mechanical Engineering(BEMEM203) Module 4 Notes

𝑑2 𝑇2
Velcoity ratio of gear drives =𝑁1 = =
𝑁2 𝑑1 𝑇1

Advantages of Gear Drives

1. It transmits exact velocity ratio.
2. It may be used to transmit large power.
3. It may be used for small centre distances of shafts.
4. It has high efficiency.
5. It has reliable service.
6. It has compact layout.
Disadvantages of Gear Drives
1. Since the manufacture of gears require special tools and equipment, therefore it is costlier
than other drives.
2. The error in cutting teeth may cause vibrations and noise during operation.
3. It requires suitable lubricant and reliable method of applying it, for the proper operation of
gear drives.
GEAR TRAINS
Two or more gears are made to mesh with each other to transmit power from one shaft to
another. Such a combination is called gear train or train of toothed wheels.
Types of Gear Trains:
• 1. Simple gear train,

• 2. Compound gear train,

• 3. Reverted gear train, and

• 4. Epicyclic gear train.

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A drives B
𝑁𝐴 𝑇𝐵
= … … … … … … … … … … … … (𝑖)
𝑁𝐵 𝑇𝐴
B drives C
𝑁𝐵 𝑇𝐶
= … … … … … … … … … … … … . (𝑖𝑖)
𝑁𝐶 𝑇𝐵
C Drives D
𝑁𝐶 𝑇𝐷
= … … … … … … … … … … … … … (𝑖𝑖𝑖)
𝑁𝐷 𝑇𝐶

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Velocity ratio between the driver and driven gears is given by,
𝑁𝐶 𝑁𝐵 𝑁𝐴
Velocity Ratio =𝑁𝐴 = ∗ ∗
𝑁𝐷 𝑁𝐷 𝑁𝐶 𝑁𝐵

Substituting from (i), (ii) and (iii)

𝑇𝐷 𝑇𝐶 𝑇𝐵
Velocity Ratio =𝑁𝐴 = ∗ ∗
𝑁𝐷 𝑇𝐶 𝑇𝐵 𝑇𝐴
𝑇𝐷
Velocity Ratio =𝑁𝐴 =
𝑁𝐷 𝑇𝐴

Compound gear train

In a compound gear train, the intermediate shaft carries two gears which are keyed to it
When the velocity ratio is very high, a simple gear train becomes practically; impossible. In
such cases a compound gear train is used

A drives B
𝑁𝐴 𝑇𝐵
= … … … … … … … … … … … … (𝑖)
𝑁𝐵 𝑇𝐴
Since the gears B and C are keyed to the same shaft, both of them rotates at the same speed
But NC=NB TC≠TB
C Drives D
𝑁𝐶 𝑇𝐷
= … … … … … … … … … … … … … (𝑖𝑖)
𝑁𝐷 𝑇𝐶
Velocity ratio between the driving and riven wheels =𝑁𝐴
𝑁𝐷

𝑁𝐴 𝑁𝐶 𝑁𝐴
= ∗
𝑁𝐷 𝑁𝐷 𝑁𝐵
Substituting from (i) & (ii)
𝑁𝐴 𝑇𝐷 𝑇𝐵
= ∗
𝑁𝐷 𝑇𝐶 𝑇𝐴

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𝑁𝐴 𝑇𝐷 𝑇𝐵
𝑉𝑒𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜 = = ∗
𝑁𝐷 𝑇𝐶 𝑇𝐴

Flat Belt Drives

Flat Belts are used to transmit power between two shafts when the center distance between
the shaft is large. Flat Belts are usually endless and the belt runs over the pulley
Types of Flat Belt Drives
 Open belt drive

 Crossed or twist belt drive

Open Belt Drive

Crossed or twist belt drive

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Advantages
• It is used when the center distance between the two shafts is more.

• The speeds can be varied by varying the diameters of the pulleys.

• Low installation and operating costs.

• It is highly flexible to over loads with longer life and can be subject to rough
operation.

Disadvantages
• They are not efficient when the center distance between the two shafts is small.

• The slip between the belt and pulleys causes the driven pulley to rotate at lesser speed.
This reduces the power transmission.

• They are used for transmitting only between parallel shafts.

• Exact velocity ratio cannot be maintained.

V – Belt Drive
V – Belts are used to transmit power between two shafts when the center distance between
the shaft is small. V – Belts are usually endless and trapezoidal in cross section
Advantages
• They can transmit higher power.

• They can be used for small center distances.

• There is no slipping of the belt from the pulley.

• They can be used to get high velocity ratio.

• It is possible to operate with the shaft axes in any positions.

Dis-Advantages
• It cannot be used for large center distance.

• They have shorter life span due to continuous rubbing of the belt in the groove.

• Their construction is not simple.

• Their cost is high.

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Application of Belt Drives

• A belt drive is used to transfer power.

• The belt drive is used in the Mill industry.

• The belt drive is used in Conveyor

Expression for ratio of tensions in V belt drive

𝑇1 𝜇𝜃
= 𝑒𝑠𝑖𝑛𝛼
𝑇2
Where 𝛼 is semi groove angle
𝑇1 = 𝑇𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 𝑠𝑖𝑑𝑒 𝑡𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑜𝑛
𝑇2 = 𝑆𝑙𝑎𝑐𝑘 𝑠𝑖𝑑𝑒 𝑡𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑜𝑛

Length of Belt
1. Open system

Let the two pulleys P and Q be connected by an open belt as shown in fig. From the centre 𝐶2
of the smaller pulley draw a line 𝐶2𝐺 parallel to CD
Let 𝑟1= radius of the larger pulley P
𝑟2= radius of the Smaller pulley Q
X= Distance between the centres of the two pulleys
From the geometry of the belt drive shown in fig, the length of belt is given by

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𝐿 = 𝐴𝑟𝑐 𝐿𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ 𝐴𝐵𝐶 + 𝐿𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ 𝐶𝐷 + 𝐴𝑟𝑐 𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ 𝐷𝐸𝐹 + 𝐿𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ 𝐹𝐴

= 2[𝐴𝑟𝑐 𝐿𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ 𝐵𝐶 + 𝐿𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ 𝐶𝐷 + 𝐴𝑟𝑐 𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ 𝐷𝐸]
𝜋 𝜋
= 2 [{ + ∅} 𝑟1 + 𝐿𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ 𝐶𝐷 + { − ∅} 𝑟2]
2 2
𝜋 𝜋
= 2 [{ + ∅} 𝑟 + 𝐿𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ 𝐺𝐶 + { − ∅} 𝑟 ] (𝑆𝑖𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝐶𝐷 = 𝐺𝐶 )
2 1 2 2 2 2
𝜋 𝜋 𝐺𝐶2
= 2 [{ + ∅} 𝑟 + 𝑋𝐶𝑜𝑠∅ + { − ∅} 𝑟 ] (𝑆𝑖𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝐶𝑜𝑠∅ = )
2 1 2 2 𝑋

𝜋
= 2 [ (𝑟1 + 𝑟2) + ∅(𝑟1 − 𝑟2) + 𝑋𝐶𝑜𝑠∅]
2
= 𝜋(𝑟1 + 𝑟2) + 2∅(𝑟1 − 𝑟2) + 2𝑋𝐶𝑜𝑠∅ .............................................................................. (1)

From the triangle 𝐺𝐶1𝐺2

(𝑟1 − 𝑟2)
𝑆𝑖𝑛∅ =
𝑋
(𝑟1 − 𝑟2) (𝑟1 − 𝑟2) (𝑆𝑖𝑛𝑐𝑒 ∅𝑖𝑠 𝑠𝑚𝑎𝑙𝑙).............................................................. (2)
∅ = sin−1 =
𝑋 𝑋
1
𝐶𝑜𝑠∅ = [1 − 𝑆𝑖𝑛2∅]2
1
= [1 − 𝑆𝑖𝑛2∅] (𝐵𝑦 𝐵𝑖𝑛𝑜𝑚𝑖𝑎𝑙 𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑜𝑟𝑒𝑚 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑛𝑒𝑔𝑙𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑛𝑔 ℎ𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑒𝑟 𝑝𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟𝑠)
2
2
1 𝑟( − 𝑟 )
1 2
= [1 − { } ] … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … . . (3)
2 𝑋

Substituting (2) and (3) in (1)

2
(𝑟 − 𝑟 ) 1 (𝑟 − 𝑟 )
1 2 1 2
𝐿 = 𝜋(𝑟1 + 𝑟2) + 2 (𝑟1 − 𝑟2) + 2𝑋 [1 − { } ]
𝑋 2 𝑋

(𝑟1 − 𝑟2)2 (𝑟1 − 𝑟2)2

= 𝜋(𝑟1 + 𝑟2) + 2 + 2𝑋 −
𝑋 𝑋
(𝑟1 − 𝑟2)2
∴ 𝐿 = 𝜋(𝑟1 + 𝑟2) + + 2𝑋
𝑋

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2. Crossed systems

Let the two pulleys P and Q be connected by crosses belt as shown in fig. From the centre 𝐶2
of the smaller pulley draw a line 𝐶2𝐺 parallel to CD
Let 𝑟1= radius of the larger pulley P
𝑟2= radius of the smaller pulley Q
X= Distance between the centres of the two pulleys
From the geometry of the belt drive shown in fig, the length of belt is given by
𝐿 = 𝐴𝑟𝑐 𝐿𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ 𝐴𝐵𝐶 + 𝐿𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ 𝐶𝐷 + 𝐴𝑟𝑐 𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ 𝐷𝐸𝐹 + 𝐿𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ 𝐹𝐴
= 2[𝐴𝑟𝑐 𝐿𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ 𝐵𝐶 + 𝐿𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ 𝐶𝐷 + 𝐴𝑟𝑐 𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ 𝐷𝐸]
𝜋 𝜋
= 2 [{ + ∅} 𝑟1 + 𝐿𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ 𝐶𝐷 + { + ∅} 𝑟2]
2 2
𝜋 𝜋
= 2 [{ + ∅} 𝑟 + 𝐿𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ 𝐺𝐶 + { + ∅} 𝑟 ] (𝑆𝑖𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝐶𝐷 = 𝐺𝐶 )
2 1 2 2 2 2
𝜋 𝜋 𝐺𝐶2
= 2 [{ + ∅} 𝑟 + 𝑋𝐶𝑜𝑠∅ + { + ∅} 𝑟 ] (𝑆𝑖𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝐶𝑜𝑠∅ = )
2 1 2 2 𝑋

𝜋
= 2 [ (𝑟1 + 𝑟2) + ∅(𝑟1 + 𝑟2) + 𝑋𝐶𝑜𝑠∅]
2
= 𝜋(𝑟1 + 𝑟2) + 2∅(𝑟1 + 𝑟2) + 2𝑋𝐶𝑜𝑠∅ .............................................................................. (1)
From the triangle 𝐺𝐶1𝐺2
(𝑟1 + 𝑟2)
𝑆𝑖𝑛∅ =
𝑋
(𝑟1 + 𝑟2) (𝑟1 + 𝑟2)
∅ = sin−1 = (𝑆𝑖𝑛𝑐𝑒 ∅ 𝑖𝑠 𝑠𝑚𝑎𝑙𝑙) .............................................................. (2)
𝑋 𝑋
1
𝐶𝑜𝑠∅ = [1 − 𝑆𝑖𝑛2∅]2

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1
= [1 − 𝑆𝑖𝑛2∅] (𝐵𝑦 𝐵𝑖𝑛𝑜𝑚𝑖𝑎𝑙 𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑜𝑟𝑒𝑚 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑛𝑒𝑔𝑙𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑛𝑔 ℎ𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑒𝑟 𝑝𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟𝑠)
2
2
1 𝑟( + 𝑟 )
1 2
= [1 − { } ] … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … . . (3)
2 𝑋

Substituting (2) and (3) in (1)

2
(𝑟 − 𝑟 ) 1 (𝑟 + 𝑟 )
1 2 1 2
𝐿 = 𝜋(𝑟1 + 𝑟2) + 2 (𝑟1 − 𝑟2) + 2𝑋 [1 − { } ]
𝑋 2 𝑋

(𝑟1 + 𝑟2)2 (𝑟1 + 𝑟2)2

= 𝜋(𝑟1 + 𝑟2) + 2 + 2𝑋 −
𝑋 𝑋
(𝑟1 + 𝑟2)2
∴ 𝐿 = 𝜋(𝑟1 + 𝑟2) + + 2𝑋
𝑋

Velocity ratio of belt drive

The velocity ratio of a belt drive is defined as the ratio of the speed of the driving pulley to
the speed of the driven pulley

Let 𝑑1 and 𝑑2 be the diameters of the driving and driven pulleys respectively and Let 𝑁1 and
𝑁2 be their speeds in revolution per minutes
𝑁1 𝑑2
𝑉𝑒𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑅𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜 = =
𝑁2 𝑑1

𝑅𝑃𝑀 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑑𝑟𝑖𝑣𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑝𝑢𝑙𝑙𝑒𝑦 𝐷𝑖𝑎𝑚𝑡𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑑𝑟𝑖𝑣𝑒𝑛 𝑝𝑢𝑙𝑙𝑒𝑦

𝑉𝑒𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑅𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜 = =
𝑅𝑃𝑀 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑑𝑟𝑖𝑣𝑒𝑛 𝑝𝑢𝑙𝑙𝑒𝑦 𝐷𝑖𝑎𝑚𝑡𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑑𝑟𝑖𝑣𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑝𝑢𝑙𝑙𝑒𝑦

Effect of thickness of belt on the velocity ratio

When the thickness of the belt(t) is considerable

𝑁1 𝑑2 + 𝑡
𝑉𝑒𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑅𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜 = =
𝑁2 𝑑1 + 𝑡

Tensions in Belt Drives

Consider the belt drive shown in fig. When the belt drive is not in motion, there will be some
initial tension in the belt as it is wrapped tightly over the pulleys. As soon as the driving pulley

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rotates, say in the clockwise direction, the driven pulley also rotates in the same direction. If
the driven pulley has to rotate in the clockwise direction, obviously the lower straight portion
AB of the belt should have a higher tension than that of the upper straight portion CD of the
belt. Since the lower straight portion AB of the belt has higher tension, it is called tight side
and the upper straight portion CD of the belt is called slack side. Suppose the direction of
rotation is reversed i.e, anticlockwise, the upper side of the belt will become tight side and
lower side of the belt will become slack side. For a given set of driving and driven pulleys, the
tight and slack sides of the belt depends on the direction of rotation

Ratio of tensions in flat Belt drive

The driving pulley drives driven pulley only if one side of the belt has higher tension than the
other side i.e, higher tension is in the tight side of the belt and lower tension is in the slack side
of the belt. In the foregoing discussion consider T1 as the higher tension i.e, tension in the tight
side and T2 as the lowewr tension i.e, tension in the slack side

Fig shows a driven pulley rotating in the clockwise direction. Consider a small element AB of
the belt. Let 𝛿𝜃 be the angle subtended by the element of AB. Let T be the tension on the slack
side of the belt.Let the tension in the tight side of the belt element AB be greater than the slack
side by 𝛿T. Therefore the tension in the tight side of the belt element is T+ 𝛿T.Let 𝜇 be the
coefficient of friction between the belt surface and pulley rim. If R is the normal reaction
exerted by the pulley on the element of the belt. Then the force of friction 𝜇R acts
perpendicular to the normal reaction R in the direction opposite to the direction of motion as
shown in fig

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Initial Tension in the belt

Initially the belt is wrapped over the two pulleys tightly. Since the belt is made of elastic
material, owing to its tight wrapping there always exists a uniform tension throughout the belt
even when the drive is not functioning i.e, when there is no power transmission. This uniform
tension that exists initially when the drive is not in motion is called initial tension, designated
as To. As soon the driving pulley starts rotating, the tension in the belt increase from To to T1
on the tight side and on the slack side it decreases from To to T2. As there is no stretching of
the belt when the drive is on, the increase in tension on the tight side must always be equal to
decrease in tension on the slack side, otherwise belt will stretch

∴ 𝑇1 − 𝑇𝑂 = 𝑇𝑂 − 𝑇2

𝑇1 + 𝑇2 = 2𝑇𝑂

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𝑇1 + 𝑇2
𝑇𝑂 =
2

Power Transmitted by a belt drive

The driven pulley rotates because of the difference in tensions in the tight and slack side of the
belt. Therefore, the force causing the rotation is the difference between the two tensions. If v
is the velocity of the belt in m/min and T1 and T2 are the tensions on the tight and slack sides
of the belt expressed in Newton, then

(𝑇1 − 𝑇2)𝑣
𝑊𝑜𝑟𝑘 𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑛𝑠𝑚𝑖𝑡𝑡𝑒𝑑 𝑝𝑒𝑟 𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑑 = 𝑊
60

(𝑇1 − 𝑇2)𝑣
∴ 𝑃𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑛𝑠𝑚𝑖𝑡𝑡𝑒𝑑 = 𝑘𝑊
60 × 1000

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JOINING PROCESSES
INTRODUCTION

Certain products cannot be manufactured as a single piece. The desired shape and size of
such products can be obtained by joining two parts of same or different materials.
There are basically 2 ways in which the various materials can be joined. They are:-
1. Temporary joining processes

This is the kind of joining process in which the joint between the 2 materials is
Temporary; which means that the joint can be removed as and when required. The best
examples include screws, bolts and nuts etc.
2. Permanent joining processes

These are the joints which are permanent in nature. Once joined, these joints can be
removed only by breaking the joint portion which leads to the physical distortion of the
parent materials. E.g.:- Soldering, Brazing and Welding.

SOLDERING

Soldering is a group of joining process used for joining similar or dissimilar metals by
means of a filler metal whose melting temperature is below 450°C. The filler metal usually
called solder is an alloy of tin and lead in various proportions.

Principle of soldering

The principle by which the filler metal is drawn throughout the joint to create this
bond is capillary action. During soldering, the molten solder is introduced at the joint. A
pulling force draws the molten filler between the surfaces of the parent (base) metals. This is
known as capillary action. After the metal cools, the resulting joint although not as strong as
the base metal (work piece metal), still has adequate strength, electrical conductivity, and
water-tightness for many uses.

Pre soldering requirements:

Before the actual soldering is carried out, the following 2 aspects should be taken care of:
1. Surface Cleaning of the work pieces
2. Usage of FLUX
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Surface Cleaning of the work pieces:

Surface preparation includes thoroughly cleaning the workpiece surfaces to remove
contaminants like oil, rust, scale, paint, and other impurities either mechanically (wire
brushing, abrasion techniques etc.) or chemically (soaking, cleaning, or acid etching). Once
the contaminants are removed, the next step is to select a suitable flux.

Usage of FLUX:

A flux is a substance, either in a liquid or semi-liquid state performing a number of functions.

 The flux primarily helps the base metals from oxidizing while they are being heated to
the soldering temperature.

 The flux covers the surface to be soldered, shielding it from oxygen and thereby
preventing oxidation during heating.

 The flux also acts as a wetting agent in the soldering process, reducing the surface
tension of the molten solder and causing it to better wet out the parts to be joined.

 It also cleans the surface, dissolving the metal oxides.

 Different types of flux include rosin-alcohol, zinc chloride, aniline phosphate etc.

 The flux may be applied on to the metal surface by brushing, dipping, spraying, or by
other methods.

Applications:

 One of the most common applications of soldering is assembling electronic components

to printed circuit boards (PCB's). [Note: A PCB is a thin board made of fiberglass or a
similar material. Electrical wires are "printed” onto the board, connecting the central
processor to other components on the board. Some examples of PCBs include
motherboards, RAM chips, and network interface cards.]
 Another common application is making connections between copper pipes in plumbing
systems.
 Joints in sheet metal objects such as food cans, metal containers, and rain gutters are
made by soldering. The process can also be used as a semi-permanent patch for a leak in a
container, or cooking vessel.

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SOLDER
A solder is an alloy, which melts at low temperatures. There are two types of solder, soft
solder and hard solder.

(i) Soft solder

 These are alloys of tin and lead. Example Lead = 37 % and Tin = 63 %.

 They have low melting points ranging from 150°C - 190°C.

 A very small amount of antimony, usually less than 0.5% is sometimes added to
improve the mechanical properties of the solder. But, its addition should be
controlled, otherwise which might impair soldering characteristics.
 Soft solders are used in those applications, where the joint is not subjected to heavy
loads and high temperatures.

(ii) Hard solder

 Silver alloyed with lead Example lead = 97.5 % & silver = 2.5 %) or silver alloyed
with copper and zinc Example Silver = 50 %, copper = 34 %, & zinc = 16 %) are
called hard solder.
 Melting point of hard solder ranges from 300 - 600°C

 Used to make strong joints that can resist high temperatures.

Types of soldering

Various soldering methods include:

a) Soldering iron method

b) Torch method
c) Induction method
d) Wave method
e) Resistance method
f) Ultrasonic method etc.

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(a) Soldering iron method:

 It is the most common and widely used method of soldering. The tool used in this method is a
soldering iron with a copper coated tip, which may be heated electrically, or by oil/gas flame.
The tip of the soldering iron stores and conducts heat from the heat source to the components
being joined. Figure shows the soldering process.
 The surface of the work pieces is cleaned thoroughly to remove the contaminants. Flux is
applied at the joint. Zinc chloride, hydrochloric acid and alcohol-rosin are some of the fluxes
used in soldering. The soldering iron is heated to a suitable temperature and a little solder is
melted at the tip of the soldering iron.
 The tip of the soldering iron, called the bit, is brought at the joint and the molten solder is
deposited. The molten solder flows into the joint by the capillary force. The solder cools
down and solidifies forming a joint. The joint is cleaned to remove flux residues in order to
prevent corrosion.
 Soldering irons come with various ratings from 15 Watts to over 100 Watts. The advantage of
using high Wattage iron is that, heat can flow quickly into the joint, so that it can be rapidly
made. Low wattage irons are used to make joints for small electronic components, only as
they might get damaged due to excess heat.

Fig:- Soldering iron

(b) Torch soldering:

 Torch soldering utilizes the heat of a flame issued from an oxy-fuel gas torch. The torch
mixes a fuel gas like acetylene with oxygen in suitable proportions, and burn the mixture at
its tip.
 The flame generated at the torch tip is directed at the work pieces with a flux applied on their
surfaces. When the work pieces are heated to a suitable temperature, the solder is fed into the

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joint region to melt and flow into the gap between the two work pieces. The solder cools
down and solidifies forming a joint.

(c) Wave soldering:

 Wave soldering is a very popular approach for soldering through-hole components on printed
circuit boards.
 This method uses a tank filled with a molten solder. The solder is pumped, and its flow forms
a wave of a predetermined height. The printed circuit boards pass over the wave touching it
with their lower sides.

ADVANTAGES & DISADVANTAGES OF SOLDERING:

Advantages
 Low power requirements.
 Low temperature process. Hence, no thermal distortions and residual stresses in the
joint parts.
 Dissimilar parts can be easily joined.
 Thin parts can be joined easily.
Disadvantages
 Flux residues should be removed after soldering, otherwise which causes corrosion.
 Thick parts cannot be efficiently joined.
 Since soldering temperatures are low, a soldered joint cannot be used in high
temperature applications.
 Strength of joint is low. Hence cannot be used for load-bearing members.

Brazing
 Brazing is a method of joining similar or dissimilar metals by means of a filler metal
whose melting temperature is above 450°C, but below the melting point of the base
metal (work piece).
 The filler metal called spelteris a non-ferrous metal or alloy. Copper and copper
alloys, silver and silver alloys, and aluminum alloys are the most commonly used
filler metals for brazing.

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 The flow of molten filler material into the gap between the two work pieces is driven
by the capillary force. The filler material cools down and solidifies forming a strong
metallurgical joint.

Flux used in brazing:

 Flux used in brazing performs its usual function as in soldering, i.e., it melts during the
preheating stage and spreads over the joint area, wetting it and protecting the surface from
oxidation. It also cleans the surface, dissolving the metal oxides.
 The flux used in brazing is available in powder, liquid, and paste form. One method of
applying the flux in powdered form is to dip the heated end of the filler rod into the
container of the powdered flux, and allowing the flux to stick to the filler rod.
 Another method is to heat the base metal slightly and sprinkle the powdered flux over the
joint, allowing the flux to partly melt and stick to the base metal. Sometimes, it is
desirable to mix powdered flux with clean water (distilled water) to form a paste.
 Flux in either the paste or liquid form can be applied with a brush to the joint. Better
results occur when the filler metal is also given a coat. The most common type of flux
used is borax, or a mixture of borax with other chemicals. Some of the commercial fluxes
contain small amounts of phosphorous and halogen salts of iodine, bromine, fluorine,
chlorine, or astatine. When a prepared flux is not available, a mixture of 12 parts of borax
and 1 part boric acid may be used.
Types of brazing
Brazing is similar to soldering, except, the difference is in the melting point of the
filler alloy. Brazing methods are classified based on the mode of application of heat.
They are:
a) Torch brazing
b) Furnace brazing
c) Dip brazing
d) Resistance brazing
e) Induction brazing
f) Vacuum brazing etc.

(a) Torch brazing:

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 Torch brazing is the most commonly used brazing process wherein the two metals are joined
by the heat obtained from a gas flame, and by using a non-ferrous filler metal having a
melting temperature of above 450°C, but below the melting temperature of the base metal.
Figure shows the torch brazing process.
 In operation, the surfaces to be joined are cleaned thoroughly in order to remove dirt, grease
and other oxides. After cleaning, flux is applied at the joint. Borax, Boric acid, Fluorides, or
chlorides are the commonly used flux materials. The base metals are broadly heated by an
oxy-acetylene welding torch as shown in figure. The filler metal is then placed at the joint
and is heated with a carburizing flame. The filler metal melts and flows through the joint by
capillary action. The work piece is allowed to cool for sometime, and the joint is then
cleaned to remove flux residues in order to prevent corrosion.

Fig:- Torch brazing

(b) Furnace brazing:
 Furnace brazing is a process in which bonding is produced by using die furnace heat and a
non-ferrous filler metal having a melting temperature of above 450°C, but below the melting
temperature of the base metal. The filler metal is distributed in the joint by capillary
attraction.
 Furnace brazing is suited for fabricating complete brazements, and does not require a highly
skilled operator. Pre-fluxed or pre-cleaned parts with filler metal pre-placed at the joints are
heated in furnaces. Brazing can be done in an air furnace with a flux, though a protective
atmosphere usually is needed. The type of atmosphere required depends on the materials
being brazed and the filler metals being used. Base metals with readily reducible oxides cad
be brazed in an atmosphere of combusted natural gas or cracked ammonia. Dry hydrogen, a
powerful reducing agent can be used for brazing most stainless steels and many nickel, cobalt
and iron-base alloys.

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(c) Dip brazing:

 Dip brazing is used on aluminum assemblies, since the temperature of the molten flux bath
can be controlled. The molten bath serves as both heating medium and fluxing agent.
 Uniform heating to brazing temperature is achieved rapidly. Parts are cleaned, assembled and
held together in fixtures during brazing. Parts are normally preheated before immersion, and
residues are removed after brazing in order to prevent corrosion.

(d) Resistance brazing:

 Resistance brazing is suited for special joints where heat must be restricted to a localized area
without overheating surrounding parts.
 The heat required for brazing is produced due to the electrical resistance offered by the joint
members to the flow of current through them.

(e) Induction brazing:

 Induction brazing utilizes alternating electromagnetic field of high frequency for heating the
work pieces together with the flux, and the filler metal placed in the joint region.
 The technique is used only in those applications, where the entire assembly would be
adversely affected by heat. Since the work piece is heated selectively by the coil, induction
brazing reduces unwanted part distortion or annealing. Induction heating brings the joint
rapidly to brazing temperatures.

Advantages:

 Much heat is not involved in the process. Hence, low thermal distortions and residual
stresses in the joints.
 Easily automated process.
 Dissimilar parts can be joined.

Disadvantages
 Flux residues must be removed after brazing, otherwise which may cause corrosion.
 Large and thick sections cannot be brazed efficiently.
 Relatively expensive filler materials.
Differentiate between brazing and soldering

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Brazing Soldering
Filler metal used in brazing is Filler metal is called solder
called spelter
Melting point of filer metal is Melting point of filer metal is
above 4500c below 4500c
Stronger joints can be obtained Its comparatively low
Brazed joints resist corrosion It do not resist corrosion to the
same extent as that of brazes
Brazing is slightly costlier cheaper

WELDING

It is a process of joining 2 pieces of metal by heating them to a temperature high

enough to cause melting, with or without the application of pressure and with or without the
use of filler metal.

Classification of welding processes:

1) Plastic welding

In plastic welding, the metal parts to be joined are heated to the plastic state, or
slightly above, and then fused together by applying external pressure. No filler metal is used
in this process. Example: Forge welding, Friction welding, resistance welding, etc. Plastic
welding is also called pressure welding process.

2) Fusion welding

In fusion welding, the parts to be joined are heated above their melting temperatures
and then allowed to solidify by cooling. A filler metal may or may not be used during the
welding process. Example Arc welding, gas welding, Laser welding, etc.

Applications:

 Welding finds application in ship building, automobiles, aircraft, power plants, building and
bridge constructions, storage tanks, pressure vessels, refrigerators, machine tools, and almost
in all sectors, where parts are fabricated as per the needs.

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 Apart from fabrication work, welding is also used in repair and maintenance work; for
example: joining broken parts and rebuilding worn out components.

Advantages and disadvantages of welding:

Advantages
a) The strength of the joint obtained in welding is much stronger than the work piece metal.
b) Metals with different chemical compositions can be welded easily.
c) Welding equipments are portable. Hence, the parts can be fabricated at the relevant
location instead of transporting the entire assembly to its destination.
d) Complex shapes that are difficult to cast or machine can be easily assembled in parts by
welding.
e) Parts can be fabricated at reasonable costs.

Disadvantages
a) The process gives out harmful radiations, fumes and spatter. Hence, care should be taken
during welding.
b) Skilled operator is required to produce a good joint.
c) The high heat involved in the process causes changes in the structure of metal thereby
lowering its properties (strength, ductility, etc.).

Edge preparation in welding:

Before starting the welding process, the edges of the two work pieces to be welded should
be prepared well to obtain a sound weld. This process is called edge preparation and involves
two operations:

a) Preparation of joint, and

b) Cleaning of joint.

(a) Joint preparation:

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 Joint preparation involves cutting or beveling the edges of the two work pieces to
suitable shapes so that the heat would be able to penetrate to the entire depth of the
work piece. Figure shows the different shapes that can be prepared based on the
application.

 Figure (a) shows a square or straight joint suitable for work pieces with thickness less
than 5 mm. Some work pieces are beveled only on one side, as in single-V or single-U
joints, but for very thick plates, beveling is required on both sides as shown in figure
(c), (d) and (e).

(b) Cleaning of joint:

 Work piece surfaces are often chemically contaminated by dirt, grease, oxides etc.
Most metals are very reactive, and in air, they become coated with an oxide layer or
with adsorbed gas.

 This layer prevents intimate contact from being made between the two metal surfaces.
Hence, the edges of the work pieces and the area adjoining them should be cleaned
thoroughly to remove the contaminants.

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 Cleaning is done either chemically by using acetone or carbon tetrachloride solution,

or mechanically by using wire brush, hand files, or grinding process.

 ARC WELDING

o Arc welding process is a fusion method of welding that utilizes the high
intensity of the arc generated by the flow of current to melt the work pieces. A
solid continuous joint is formed upon cooling.

Principle:

 The source of heat for arc welding process is an electric arc generated between two
electrically conducting materials: the work piece and the electrode.
 Either AC (alternating current) or DC (direct current) can be used to supply the
required current for welding. The work piece is connected to one pole of the electric
circuit, while the electrode to the other pole.
 When the tip of the electrode is brought in contact with the work piece material, and
momentarily separated by small distance of 2-4mm, an arc can be generated. The
electrical energy is thus converted to heat energy.
 The high heat of the arc melts the edges of the work pieces. Coalescence takes place,
wherein the molten metal of the one work piece combines with the molten metal of
the other work piece. When the coalesced liquid solidifies, the two work pieces join
together to form a single component.

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Fig:- Principle of arc welding

Operation:
 Figure shows the arc welding process. In this process, the electrode holder holding the
electrode firmly forms one pole of the electric circuit, while the work piece to be
welded forms the other pole. The electrode serves both to carry the arc and also acts
as a filler rod to deposit the molten metal into the joint.
 The electrode used in arc welding process is a metallic wire, which is made of the
same material or nearly the same chemical composition as that of the work piece
material. The metallic wire is coated with a suitable flux material like rutile (titania),
calcium fluoride, cellulose, iron oxide, etc., which gives off gases as it decomposes
thereby preventing oxidation of the molten metal during welding process. .
 In operation, an arc is struck by touching the tip of the electrode on the work piece
(similar to striking a match stick), and instantaneously the electrode is separated by a
small distance of 2-4 mm such that the arc still remains between the electrode and the
work piece.
 The temperature of the arc ranges from 5000 - 6000°C. The high heat at the tip of the
arc melts the work piece metal forming a small molten metal pool.

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 At the same time, the tip of the electrode also melts. The molten metal of the electrode
is transferred into the molten metal of the work piece in the form of globules of
molten metal.
 The deposited metal fills the joint and bonds the joint to form a single piece of metal.
The electrode is moved along the surface to be welded to complete the joint.
 The arc is extinguished by increasing the arc length, i.e., by widening the gap between
the work piece and the electrode.
 The source of heat for arc welding process is an electric arc. To supply the current for
welding, two types of power sources are available, viz., alternating current (AC), &
direct current (DC).

Types of electrodes
Welding electrodes used in arc welding process are classified into two types:
Consumable electrodes:
 Consumable electrodes are those which get consumed during the welding process.
These electrodes help to establish the arc, and also act as a filler metal to deposit
additional material to fill the gap between the work pieces.

Consumable electrodes are further classified as,

 Coated electrodes
 bare (plain) electrodes
 tubular electrodes
(a) Coated Electrodes:
Coated electrodes are the most widely used type of electrodes used in arc welding process. In
coated electrodes, the metallic wire, called core is coated with a flux. Coating is done by
dipping the heated end of the metal rod in the constituents of flux. Various constituents, like
titanium oxide, cellulose, manganese oxide, calcium carbonates, mica, iron oxide etc., are
used as flux materials for coating. The flux coated on the electrode performs the following
functions.
 Stabilizes the arc.
 Prevents oxidation of molten metal.
 Helps in removal of oxides & other undesirable substances present on the surface of
the work piece.

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 Chemically reacts with the oxides and forms a slag. The slag floats and covers the top
portion of the molten metal thereby preventing it from rapid cooling.
 Eliminates weld metal porosity
 Helps to produce minimum spatter adjacent to the weld.
(b) Plain / Bare electrode:
The metallic wire (core wire) is left plain or uncoated with flux. These electrodes do not
prevent oxidation of the weld and hence the joint obtained is weak. Welding processes that
makes use of bare electrodes utilize inert gases for shielding of weld metal during welding.

(c) Tubular electrodes:

Tubular electrodes are hollow materials containing flux constituents inside, and are
used in flux-cored arc welding process. The tubular electrode consists of a wire made of a
low-carbon steel sheath surrounding a core of flux and alloying materials. The compounds
contained in the wire perform essentially the same functions as the coated electrodes.

Non-consumable electrodes:

Non-consumable electrodes are made of carbon, graphite or tungsten and do not consume
during welding. They serve only to strike and maintain the arc during the welding process.

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GAS WELDING
 Gas welding is a fusion welding process in which the work pieces are joined by the
heat of a strong flame generated by the combustion of a fuel gas and oxygen. The fuel
gas may be acetylene, hydrogen, propane, or butane.
 When the fuel gas and oxygen are mixed in suitable proportions in a welding torch
and ignited, the flame resulting at the tip of the torch is sufficient enough to melt the
edges of the work piece metals. A solid continuous joint is formed upon cooling. The
two familiar fuel gases used in gas welding are:
 Mixture of oxygen and acetylene gas - called oxy-acetylene welding process.
 Mixture of oxygen and hydrogen gas - called oxy-hydrogen welding process. Oxy-
acetylene welding is the most versatile and widely used gas welding process due to its
high flame temperature (up to 3500°C) when compared to that of oxy-hydrogen
process (up to 2500°C).

OXY-ACETYLENE WELDING:
 When oxygen and acetylene are mixed in suitable proportions in a welding torch and
ignited, the flame resulting at the tip of the torch has a temperature ranging from
3200°C - 3500°C, which is sufficient enough to melt and fuse the work piece metals.
Filler metal may or may not be used during the process. Figure shows the
arrangement of the oxy-acetylene welding process.

The equipment consists of the following:

 Two large cylinders; one containing oxygen at high pressure, and the other containing
acetylene gas.
 Two pressure regulators fitted on the respective cylinders to regulate or control the
pressure of the gas flowing from the cylinders to the welding torch as per the
requirements.
 Welding torch is used to mix both oxygen and acetylene gas in proper proportions and
burn the mixture at its tip. A match stick or a spark lighter may be used to ignite the
mixture at the torch tip.

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Fig- oxy-acetylene welding

Operation:
 By adjusting the pressure regulators, suitable proportions of oxygen and acetylene
gases enter into the welding torch. The gases get mixed in the torch and are issued
from the torch to burn in the atmosphere.
 The resulting flame at the torch tip has a temperature ranging from 3200-3500°C and
this heat is sufficient enough to melt the work piece metal. Since a slight gap usually
exists between the two work pieces, a filler metal may be used to supply the
additional material to fill the gap. The molten metal of the filler metal combines with
the molten metal of the work piece, and upon solidification form a single piece of
metal.

Advantages & Disadvantages of Oxy-acetylene Gas Welding

Advantages
 Process is simple and inexpensive.
 Eliminates skilled operator.
 Temperature of the flame can be controlled depending on the thickness and type of
the material being welded.

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Disadvantages
 Acetylene gas is slightly costlier.
 Not suitable for thick and high melting point metals.
 Refractory metals like tungsten, molybdenum etc., and reactive metals like zirconium,
titanium, etc., cannot be gas welded.
 Acetylene gas is highly explosive. Hence, precautions should be taken during its
storage and welding.

FLAMES PRODUCED IN OXY-ACETYLENE PROCESS

Three different types of flames can be produced at the torch tip by regulating the ratio of
oxygen to acetylene.
They are:
 Neutral flame - oxygen and acetylene are mixed in equal proportions.
 Oxidizing flame - excess of oxygen
 Reducing flame - excess of acetylene.

1. Neutral flame:
 A neutral flame is produced when approximately equal volumes of oxygen and acetylene are
burnt at the torch tip. All the carbon supplied by acetylene is being consumed and the
combustion is complete. The flame has a nicely defined inner whitish cone surrounded by a
sharp blue flame. The temperature of the neutral flame is around 3260 °C (5900 °F).

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2. Oxidizing flame:
 If, after the neutral flame has been established, the supply of oxygen is further increased, the
result will be an oxidizing flame. In other words, it is a flame in which there is more oxygen
than is required for complete combustion. The oxidizing flame appears similar to the neutral
flame but with a shorter inner white cone, and the outer envelope being narrow and brighter
in color.

3. Reducing flame:
 If the volume of oxygen supplied to the neutral flame is reduced, the resulting flame will be a
carburizing or reducing flame i.e., rich in acetylene. Combustion is incomplete with
unconsumed carbon being present in the flame.

Distinguish among soldering, brazing and welding

Welding Brazing Soldering

High temperature process Medium temperature Low temperature process
process
Filler metal is optional Filler metal is Filler metal is required &
essential & called called solder
spelter
Poor surface finish Good surface finish Poor surface finish
Welding defects affects welding No defects Less defects than welding
Flux used is rutile (titania) Flux used is Borox Flux used is zinc cholride

TUNGSTEN INERT GAS WELDING (TIG)

Tungsten inert gas welding or gas tungsten arc welding (GTAW) is a group of welding
process in which the workpieces are joined by the heat obtained from an electric arc struck
between a non-consumable tungsten electrode and the workpiece in the presence of an inert
gas atmosphere.A filler metal may be added if required, during the welding process.Figure
shows the TIG process.

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1. TIG equipment consists of a welding torch in which a non-consumable tungsten

alloyelectrode is held rigidly in the collet.
2. The diameter of the electrode varies from 0.5 - 6.4 mm.
3. TIG welding makes use of a shielding gas like argon or helium to protect the
welding area from atmospheric gases such as oxygen and nitrogen, otherwise
which may cause fusion defects and porosity in the weld metal.
4. The shielding gas flow from the cylinder, through the passage in the electrode
holder and then impinges on the workpiece.
5. Pressure regulator and flow meters are used to regulate the pressure and flow
of gas from thecylinder.
6. Either AC or DC can be used to supply the required current
7.

Operation

 The workpieces to be joined are cleaned to remove dirt, grease and other oxides
chemicallyor mechanically to obtain a sound weld.

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 The welding current and inert gas supply are turned ON.

 An arc is struck by touching the tip of the tungsten electrode with the
workpiece andinstantaneously the electrode is separated from the workpiece by a
small distance of 1.5 - 3 mm such that the arc still remains between the electrode
and the workpiece.
 The high intensity of the arc melts the workpiece metal forming a small molten
metal pool.
 Filler metal in the form of a rod is added manually to the front end of the weld pool.
 The deposited filler metal fills and bonds the joint to form a single piece of metal
 The shielding gas is allowed to impinge on the solidifying weld pool for a few
seconds evenafter the arc is extinguished (shut off)
 This will avoid atmospheric contamination of the solidifying metal thereby
increasing thestrength of the joint.
Advantages

1. Suitable for thin metals.

2. Clear visibility of the arc provides the operator to have a greater control over the
weld.
3. Strong and high quality joints are obtained.
4. No flux is used. Hence, no slag formation. This results in clean weld joints.

Disadvantages

1. TIG is the most difficult process compared to all the other welding processes. The
welder must maintain short arc length, avoid contact between electrode and the
workpiece and manually feed the filler metal with one hand while manipulating
the torch with the otherhand.
2. Tungsten material when gets transferred into the molten metal contaminates
the same leading to a hard and brittle joint.
3. Skilled operator is required.
4. Process is slower.
5. Not suitable for thick metals.

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METAL INERT GAS (MIG) WELDING

Metal inert gas welding or gas metal arc welding (GMAW) is a group of arc welding
process in which the workpieces are joined by the heat obtained from an electric arc struck
between a bare (uncoated) consumable electrode and the workpiece in the presence of an
inert gas atmosphere.The consumable electrode acts as a filler metal to fill the gap between
the two workpieces. Figure shows the MIG welding process.

Description
 The equipment consists of a welding torch in which a bare consumable
electrode in theform of a wire is held and guided by a guide tube.
 The electrode material used in MIG welding is of the same material or
nearly the samechemical composition as that of the base metal.
 Its diameter varies from 0.7 -2.4 mm.
 The electrode is fed continuously at a constant rate through feed rollers driven
by an electric motor.

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 MIG makes use of shielding gas to prevent atmospheric contamination of the

molten weld pool.
 Mixture of argon and carbon dioxide in a order of 75% to 25% or 80% to 20%
is commonly used.
 The shielding gas flow from the cylinder, through the passage in the electrode
holder and then impinges on the workpiece.
 AC is rarely used with MIG welding; instead DC is employed and the
electrode is positively charged. This results in faster melting of the electrode
which increases weld penetration and welding speed.

Operation
 The workpieces to be joined are cleaned to remove dust, grease and other
oxides chemically or mechanically to obtain a sound weld. The tip of the
electrode is also cleaned with a wire brush.
 The control switch provided in the welding torch is switched ON to initiate the
electric power, shielding gas and the wire (electrode) feed.
 An arc is struck by touching the tip of the electrode with the workpiece and
instantaneously the electrode is separated from the workpiece by a small
distance of 1.5-3 mm such that the arc still remains between the electrode and
the workpiece.
 The high intensity of the arc melts the workpiece metal forming a small molten
pool.
 At the same time, the tip of the electrode also melts and combines with the
molten metal of the workpieces thereby filling the gap between the two
workpieces.
 The deposited metal upon solidification bonds the joint to form a single piece of
metal.
Advantages

 MIG welding is fast and economical.

 The electrode and inert gas are automatically fed, and this makes the operator
easy and toconcentrate on the arc.
 Weld deposition rate is high due to the continuous wire feed
 No flux is used. Hence, no slag formation. This results in clean welds.

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 Thin and thick metals can be welded.

 Process can be automated.
Disadvantages

 Equipment is costlier
 Porosity (gas entrapment in weld pool) is the most common quality
problem in thisprocess. However, extensive edge preparation can eliminate
this defect.
Theory Question Bank

1. Mention different types of gears and explain with a neat sketch (DEC 2023/JAN 2024)
2. Derive an expression for length of an open belt drive(DEC 2023/JAN 2024)
3. Differentiate between welding, soldering and brazing(DEC 2023/JAN 2024)
4. With a neat sketch explain the working of MIG Welding (DEC 2023/JAN 2024)
5. With a neat sketches explain
i. Spur gear
ii. Bevel gear
iii. Rack and pinion gear(JUNE/JULY 2023)
6. With a neat sketch explain working of TIG welding(JUNE/JULY 2023)
7. What is welding?.Explain with neat sketch an operation of oxyacetylene
welding(JUNE/JULY 2023)

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INSIGHT INTO FUTURE MOBILITY TECHNOLOGY

Insight into future mobility technology: Electric and Hybrid Vehicles,
Components of Electric and Hybrid Vehicles, Drives and Transmission. Advantages and
disadvantages of EVs and Hybrid vehicles.

Electric vehicle
An EV is defined as a vehicle that can be powered by an electric motor that draws electricity
from a battery and is capable of being charged from an external source.

Components of Electric Vehicle

Figure: Components of Electric Vehicles

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Battery (all-electric auxiliary): In an electric drive vehicle, the auxiliary battery

provides electricity to power vehicle accessories.

Charge port: The charge port allows the vehicle to connect to an external power
supply in order to charge the traction battery pack.

DC/DC converter: This device converts higher-voltage DC power from the traction
battery pack to the lower-voltage DC power needed to run vehicle accessories and
recharge the auxiliary battery.

Electric traction motor: Using power from the traction battery pack, this motor
drives the vehicle's wheels. Some vehicles use motor generators that perform both the
drive and regeneration functions.

Onboard charger: Takes the incoming AC electricity supplied via the charge port
and converts it to DC power for charging the traction battery. It also communicates
with the charging equipment and monitors battery characteristics such as voltage,
current, temperature, and state of charge while charging the pack.

Power electronics controller: This unit manages the flow of electrical energy
delivered by the traction battery, controlling the speed of the electric traction motor
and the torque it produces.

Thermal system (cooling): This system maintains a proper operating temperature

range of the engine, electric motor, power electronics, and other components.

Traction battery pack: Stores electricity for use by the electric traction motor.

Transmission (electric): The transmission transfers mechanical power from the

electric traction motor to drive the wheels.

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ELECTRIC VEHICLE ADVANTAGES

1. Eco-friendly: Because electric vehicles do not utilize fuel for combustion, there are no
emissions or gas exhaust. Vehicles that run on fossil fuels contribute significantly to
hazardous gas accumulation in the environment, thus driving an electric car can help
contribute to a cleaner environment.

2. Renewable energy source: Electric vehicles run on renewable power, whereas

conventional automobiles function on the combustion of fossil fuels, which reduces the
world’s fossil-fuel stocks.

3. Less noise and smoother motion: Driving an electric car is significantly smoother.
Because they lack fast-moving elements, they are quieter and produce less noise.

4. Cost-effective: Electricity is far less expensive than fuels such as gasoline and diesel,
which are subject to regular price increases. When solar electricity is utilized at home,
battery recharging is cost-effective.

5. Low maintenance: Because electric cars have fewer moving components, wear and
tear is reduced when compared to traditional auto parts. Repairs are also simpler and
less expensive than combustion engines.

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6. Government support: Governments throughout the world have granted tax breaks to
encourage people to drive electric vehicles as part of a green program.

7. Easy to drive

DISADVANTAGES

1. High initial cost: Electric vehicles continue to be quite expensive, and many buyers
believe they are not as inexpensive as traditional automobiles.

2. Charging station limitations: People who need to travel long distances are concerned
about finding adequate charging stations in the middle of their journey, which are not
always accessible.

3. Recharging takes time: Unlike conventional automobiles, which require only a few
minutes to replenish their gas tanks, charging an electric vehicle takes many hours.

4. Limited options: Currently, there aren’t many electric car models to pick from in terms
of appearance, style, or customized variations.

5. Less driving range: The driving range in an electric vehicle (EV) refers to the distance
that the vehicle can travel on a single charge of its battery. When compared to
conventional automobiles, electric vehicles have a shorter driving range.

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Hybrid Vehicle
Hybrid electric vehicles are powered by an internal combustion engine and one or more
electric motors, which uses energy stored in batteries.

Components of Hybrid Vehicle

Fig: Components of Hybrid Vehicles

Fuel filler: A nozzle from a fuel dispenser attaches to the receptacle on the vehicle to fill the
tank.

Fuel tank (gasoline): This tank stores gasoline on board the vehicle until it's needed by the
engine

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Internal combustion engine (spark-ignited): In this configuration, fuel is injected into either
the intake manifold or the combustion chamber, where it is combined with air, and the air/fuel
mixture is ignited by the spark from a spark plug.

Power electronics controller: This unit manages the flow of electrical energy delivered by the
traction battery, controlling the speed of the electric traction motor and the torque it produces.

Thermal system (cooling): This system maintains a proper operating temperature range of the
engine, electric motor, power electronics, and other components

Traction battery pack: Stores electricity for use by the electric traction motor.

Transmission: The transmission transfers mechanical power from the engine and/or electric
traction motor to drive the wheels

How do Hybrid Electric Vehicles (HEV) work?

HEVs use fuel as a primary power source and do not require an external electrical source to
recharge their batteries. A true HEV has both an internal combustion engine (ICE) and an
electric motor. The ICE and electric motor work together to propel the vehicle. This
combination helps increase the efficiency of the engine. The power distribution allows vehicles
to achieve optimum power under most driving conditions.

Types of hybrid vehicle

Series Hybrid
In this combination, the internal combustion engine drives an electric generator, not the wheels.
The generator not only charges the battery but also powers the motor that propels the vehicle.
This setup is also known as a range-extended electric vehicle (REEV) since the ICE powers
the battery and motor but never directly controls the wheels.

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Parallel Hybrid
For this vehicle, both ICE and electric motors propel the wheels. They work cooperatively and
deliver optimum power output.
The batteries in the vehicle charge while the engine works as a generator. These vehicles cannot
drive in pure electric mode.

HYBRID ELECTRIC VEHICLE ADVANTAGES

1. Lower emissions and better mileage

2. Hybrids help to reduce the dependency on fossil fuels
3. Hybrids are much cleaner than normal vehicles
4. Hybrids offer greater mileage than other cars
5. Hybrids are reliable and comfortable
6. Due to the regenerative braking technology, the batteries need not be charged by an
external source
7. Engine is never required to idle
8. Reduced noise
9. Hybrids have better performance

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DISADVANTAGES

1. Hybrids are more expensive than normal vehicles

2. Hybrid vehicles offer larger repair bills
3. Hybrid vehicles have Complicated architecture
4. More weight due to battery packs
5. Spare parts may be hard to find and may be costly
6. Hybrid cars are much more complex in construction and working compared with
normal vehicles
7. Disposal of batteries is a problem

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• Insight into future mobility technology; Electric and Hybrid Vehicles,

Components of Electric and Hybrid Vehicles. Advantages and disadvantages of
Electric Vehicles (EVs) and Hybrid vehicles.
• Introduction to Mechatronics and Robotics: open-loop and closed-loop
mechatronic systems. Joints & links, Robot anatomy, Applications of Robots in
material handling, processing and assembly and inspection.
Introduction to Mechatronics
 The term mechatronics is used for this integration of microprocessor control systems,
electrical systems and mechanical systems.
 A mechatronic system is not just a combination of electrical and mechanical systems
and is more than just a control system; it is a complete integration of all of them.
 In the design of cars, robots, machine tools, washing machines, cameras, and many
other machines, such an integrated and interdisciplinary approach to engineering design
is increasingly being adopted.
CONTROL SYSTEM:
 The function of the Control System is to execute the program of instructions and make
the process to carry out a manufacturing operation.
 There are basically two types of Control systems:
1. Open Loop Control System
2. Closed Loop Control System

1. Open Loop Control System

One type of control system in which the output has no influence or effect on the control action
of the input signal is called an Open-loop system. An “open-loop system” is defined by the fact
that the output signal or condition is neither measured nor “fed back” for comparison with the
input signal or system set point.

It is a one-way system that has no feedback to alter the machine's operation. An example
of this type of system is a timer-based toaster. Bread is put into the toaster, a timer is

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set, and a lever is pushed down acting as a switch to start the process.

ON/OFF of an electric lamp: electric lamps are used for lighting the lamp. ON/OFF control
is carried out with the help of a switch and the switch is generally operated by an operator
depending on the amount of light that exist in that area.

If the switch is ON, the lamp is glow. If the person operating the switch does not put OFF of
then switch, the lamp remain ON until he switched OFF. So it is called open loop control
system.

Control the temperature of the room with room heater: the amount of heat generated by a
room heater depends on the amount of input power controlled by a regulator.

If the power is switch ON, the power supplied to the heater continues and temperature of the
room goes on increasing immaterial of whether heat is required in the room or not. Here person
is to go and OFF the power supply switch and there by cooling the temperature of the room is
decreasing.

Advantages

1. Less expensive.

2. Relatively simple.

3. Good reliability.

4. Easy maintenance.

5. Inherently stable.

Disadvantages

1. Inaccurate since there is no correction of error.

2. Relatively slow in response to change in demand.
3. The control depends on the human judgment.
4. Often leads to waste.
5. Any change in system component not to be taken care automatically.

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2. Closed loop control system

• Closed loop control system is the one in which input is depend on the output. i.e.,
variation in the output influences the input by some means of controlling on the input
is called a closed loop system.

Elements of closed loop control system:

1. Comparison element.
2. Control unit.
3. Correction unit.
4. Process unit.
5. Feedback unit.

Comparison element: this unit compares the reference value with feedback value and produces
an error signal.

Error = reference value – feedback value

Control unit: Control unit analyses the error signal and decides what action is to be taken.

Correction unit: the modified signal from the control unit will be received by the correction
unit which produces a change in the process to correct or change the controlled condition.

Process unit: Process unit is the unit which is being controlled.

Feedback Unit: Takes input from Process unit and sends the signal back for comparison to
attain high degree of control.

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Example1. Hand reaching an object

 This is an example of closed loop control system.

 A person wants to reach for an object.
 Position of the object is given as reference, feedback signals and the eyes compares
the actual position of the hands with reference to the position of the object.
 Error signal is given to the brain.
 Brain manipulates this error and gives signals to the hands.
 This process continues till the hand reaches the object.

Example 2. Speed control of an automobile

• The driver observes the speedometer, and based on the speed shown by the speedometer
he decides whether the fuel supply should be increased or decreased or gear change is
to be made.
• Here speed shown a speedometer is a feedback. A feedback signal from the eye
compares the desire speed in the memory of the driver.

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• Error signals are given to brain. Brain manipulates the error signals and gives it to hand
and leg and increase the fuel supply if the speed is less than the desired speed, otherwise
decrease the fuel supply.
• Changing of gear and increase or decrease of fuel supply, depends on whether it an
upward or downward gradient respectively.

Example 3. Water level control of overhead tanks

• The overhead tank has a fixed float (sensor) fixed at the desired height inside the tanks.
• The level of the water is sensed by the float. The float has an electrical contactor, which
is positioned between fixed connectors.
• The inflow regulation valve is electrically operated. The electrical circuit of the system
is closed when the float touches the fixed connectors and open when it is not making
contact with it.
• When the level of water in the tank falls, the float moves down and makes contact with
fixed contactor and circuit is closed and pump is switched ON.
• When the level of water rises the float moves up and breaks the circuit and pump is
switches OFF. Thereby the required level of water is maintained in overhead tank.

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Advantages of closed loop control system:

1. More accurate.
2. Any change in system component can be taken care automatically.
3. Use of feedback system response is relatively insensitive to external disturbances and
internal variations in system parameters.
Disadvantages of closed loop control system:
1. Expensive and complicated to construction.

Open Loop Control System Closed-Loop Control System

In this system, the controlled action is free In this system, the output mainly depends on
from the output the controlled act of the system.

This control system is also called a Non This type of control system is also called a
feedback control system feedback control system

The components of this system include a The components of this kind of system
controlled process and controller. include an amplifier, controlled process,
controller and feedback
The construction of this system is simple The construction of this system is complex
The consistency is non-reliable The consistency is reliable
The accuracy of this system mainly depends These are accurate due to feedback
on the calibration

The stability of these systems are stable The stability of these systems are less stable
The optimization in this system is not possible The optimization in this system is possible
The response is fast The response is slow
The calibration of this system is difficult The calibration of this system is easy
The disturbance of this system will be The disturbance of this system will not be
affected affected

These systems are non-linear These systems are linear

The best examples of this control system are Examples of this kind of control system are
automatic washing machine, traffic light, TV AC, control systems for temperature, pressure
remote, immersion rod, etc. and speed, toaster, and refrigerator.

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Introduction to robotics

Robotics is the branch of engineering which deals with the design, construction, operation and
application of robots and now the computer also has become a part of the system.

Robot :-An industrial robot is a general – purpose, programmable machine processing certain
anthropomorphic characteristics

The most obvious anthropomorphic characteristic of an industrial robot is its mechanical arm,
which is used to perform various industrial tasks

TYPES OF ROBOT JOINTS

There are various types of joints are used in the construction of a robot.
These joints are called robot joints.

There are majorly five types of robot joints:

1. Linear joint (type L joint)
2. Orthogonal joint (type O joint)
3. Rotational joint (type R joint)
4. Twisting joint (type T joint)
5. Revolving joint (type V joint)

Linear Joints

In the linear joints, the relative motion featured by the adjacent links is meant to be parallel.
This means that the input and output links are sliding in a linear motion. This kind of movement
results in a translational motion. This kind of linear motion can be achieved in several ways
including the use of the telescoping mechanism and piston. This type of joint is also referred
to as the L- joint.

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Orthogonal Joints

The orthogonal joints are also popularly referred to as the type O-joints. They feature a relative
movement taken by the input link and output link. This kind of motion involved in the
Orthogonal joints is a translational sliding motion. However unlike the linear joints
arrangement, with the Orthogonal joint, the output link is perpendicular to the input link.

Rotational Joints

When it comes to the rotational joints, you’ll find the use of rotational relative motions that
come in handy for robot manipulators working multiple workspaces. These movements are
carried out with the axis of rotation perpendicular to the axes of the input and output links.
These rotational joints are also referred to as Type R joints.

Twisting Joints

This type of joint features rotary motion that also results in some degree of rotation when in
use. The movement in these joints is relative to the axis of rotation that is perpendicular o the
axes of the input and output links. The twisting joints are also referred to as type T joints.

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Revolving Joints

In the revolving joints, things are a bit different compared to the others. These joints also feature
a rotational movement that comes in handy in different applications. The movement of these
joints features motion between the two links. The axis of the input link is designed to be parallel
to the axis of rotation of the joint. On the other hand, the axis of the output link is designed to
be perpendicular to the axis of rotation of the joint. This type of joint is also referred to as the
Type V joint.

Classification based on robot configuration

1) Polar or Spherical configuration.
This configuration consists of a sliding arm (L joint) actuated relative to the body, which can
rotate about both a vertical (T joint) and a horizontal axis (R joint).

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Advantages:
-Long reach capability is realized in the horizontal position
Disadvantages:
-The vertical reach is low
Applications:
- Cleaning of parts, Die casting and forging
2) Cylindrical configuration.
This robot configuration consists of a vertical column, relative to which an arm assembly is
moved up or down. The arm can be moved in and out relative to the axis of the column. Our
figure shows one possible way in which this configuration can be constructed, using a T joint
to rotate the column about its axis. An L joint is used to move the arm assembly vertically along
the column, while an O joint is used to achieve radial movement of the arm.

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Advantages:
1. Rigidity is increased and is quite robust
2. Has the capacity to carry high payloads
Disadvantages:
1. Work volume is less
2. Occupies more floor space

Applications:
1. foundry and forging applications.
2. Conveyor pallet transfers
3. Machine loading and unloading

3) Cartesian coordinate robot.

Other names for this configuration include rectilinear robot and x-y-z robot. As shown in
Figure, it is composed of three sliding joints two of which are orthogonal.

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Advantages:
1. Allows for simpler controls
2. Posses a high degree of mechanical rigidity, accuracy and repeatability.

Disadvantages:
1. Reduced flexibility
2. Limited in their movement to a small and rectangular work space
Applications:
- To perform pick and place tasks.
- material handling
- Loading/unloading and machining operation

4) Jointed – arm robot.

This robot manipulator has the general configuration of a human arm. The jointed arm consists
of a vertical column that swivels about the base using a T joint. At the top of the column is a
shoulder joint (shown as a R joint in the figure), whose output link connects an elbow joint
(another R joint)

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Advantages:
1. The work volume available is large
2. Operation is quick
3. Flexibility is increased
Disadvantages:
1. Operating procedures are difficult.
2. Quite expensive
3. Nos. of components involved are more
Applications:
To perform arc welding, Spot welding and spray painting operations

Advantages of robot
• Robots can work in hazardous environments.
• Robots work continuously without any humanity needs and illness
• Robots have repeatable precision at all times.
• Robots can be much more accurate than humans; they may have milli or micro inch
accuracy.
• Robots and their sensors can have capabilities beyond that of humans.
Disadvantages of robots
• High initial investment
• It can lead to increase in unemployment
• It cannot be moved easily as human beings They have degrees of freedom defined by
axis to move their joint

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Industrial application of robots

The various applications of robots are grouped into three categories as discussed below.
Application of Robots
I. Material / Part Handling applications
a. Transfer materials from one location to another location. Typical applications are as given
below:

i).Pick-and-place application: The most common and simplest application here is the pick-
and-place application where objects are picked from one location and placed to another
location.
ii. Palletizing application: Another application that is slightly complex is the "Palletizing
application" where the robot stacks products or carton boxes onto a pallet at various
positions on the pallet to the required height

iii. Depalletizing application: Here the robot picks parts from an orderly stacked pallet to
another location.
iv. Stacking application: Here, the robots are used to stack parts one upon another. After each
placement, the vertical position is re-calculated and the new stacking height is determined.

v. insertion operation: Here, the robots are used to insert parts into the compartments or
spaces provided in a carton.
II. Machine loading/unloading:
In the machine loading/unloading application, a robot is used to move the work parts to or/and
from the production machine.
Following are the industrial applications of robots used for machine loading/unloading:
1. Die casting: Here the robot is used to safely unload the parts from a die-casting machine
with the safety gates closed.
2. Forging: Forging is one of the toughest environments considering the extreme heat,
pollution and noise. The use of a robot immensely helps to face the environment of forging.
Here the robot loads the red hot billet on to the die of the forging hammer, holds it during
the blows and unloads to a safe place away from the hammer.

3. Plastic injection moulding: Here a robot unloads parts from the injection moulding
machine, cuts the runner and drops runner to scrap area.

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4. Sheet metal press operation (Press working): Here a robot loads a blank into the press,
and then after the press stamping operation is performed the robot unloads the scrap and
throws it into the scrap area. The stamped parts from the blank falls in the container placed
at the back of the machine.

5. Machining operations: Here the robot loads the raw blanks on to the machine tool and
unloads the finished parts.

6. Heat treating: Here the robot loads/unloads parts to/from a furnace

II Processing operations
Robots are used to carry out the processing operations such as spray painting, spot welding, etc
by using a tool at its end-effectors. The tools can be a spray painting gun for spray painting
operation, a spot welding gun for spot welding operation, etc. In processing operations, the
robot manipulates a tool to perform a process on the work part.
a. Spot Welding: The end effectors of the robot here is the spot welding gun that applies the
approximate pressure and current to the sheet parts to be welded. The spot welding robots
have enough number of axes of motion to approach points in the work envelope at any
angle. This was difficult to realize in a manned environment in the absence of robots. Spot
welding is used largely in the automobile industry to weld automobile bodies such as car
panels.
b. Arc Welding: The welding here is continuous unlike spot welding. When arc welding is
manually carried out, the conditions are difficult for the operators since they require
Personal Protective Equipment like welding shield with special glass to avoid UV rays are
under the danger of operating at high temperatures involving high amount of heat and
moreover they must be accurate in following the welding path. These problems are now
overcome with the use of arc welding robots.
C.Spray Coating: Spray coating is a process where parts are coated by a spray gun spraying
the fluid on to the surface of the part. The fluid passes through the nozzle of the spray gun
and is dispersed at high velocity to the surface to be coated. Common examples are powder
coating and spray painting.
III. Assembly and Inspection
a. Assembly:
The combination of two or more parts to form a new object is called as an assembly.

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 Elements of Mechanical Engineering(BEMEM203) Module 5 Notes

The parts that join to form a new entity are securely held together either by fastening or joining
processes. Assembly automation using robots will ensure higher productivity, consistency in
quality and cost savings when compared to manual assembly. Robots have saved the assembly
workers from the tedious, dull and repetitive jobs which were quite labour-intensive
Inspection:
The robot arm manipulates an inspection probe that moves relative to the product to be
inspected. The end-effectors here are the inspection probe. Here care must be taken to present
the part at the inspection workstation at the right position and the right orientation so that the
part is inspected accurately. Robots can inspect whether the part is present on an assembly or
not. Inspection systems for instance look at an engine to find out if it is completely assembled
or not.
The robot picks part at the cell entry point, loads to the inspection machine and after inspection
unloads the part and then places to the cell exit point. Few cases may also involve robot taking
additional responsibility of segregating parts based on inspection result. Robots are used to
detect flaws by comparing the good part with the bad part. This requires the end users to define
what a good part is and what a bad part is.

Theory Question Bank

1. Define Mechatronics. List the differences between Open loop and Closed loop
systems
2. Based on the configuration, explain the four types of robots with sketches
3. Describe closed loop mechatronic system
4. Explain following robotic configuration i. Ploar configuration ii. Cartesian
coordinate
5. With a neat sketch explain closed loop and open loop mechatronic systems(JAN/FEB
2023)
6. Define industrial robot. Explain different configurations of robots with a neat sketch(JAN/FEB
2023)
7. Describe Electric vehicles. Explain the components and working of Model Q.P.
electric vehicles.
8. Describe Hybrid vehicles. Explain the components of Hybrid vehicles. Model Q.P.
9 . List the advantages and limitations of electric vehicles. Model Q.P.
10. Define EV.(Electric vehicle). With block diagram explain different Jan./Feb. 2023
components used in EV. Also write the benefits of EV in current trends.
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 Elements of Mechanical Engineering(BEMEM203) Module 5 Notes

11. Define HEV (Hybrid Electric Vehicles). With block diagram explain Jan./Feb. 2023
different components used in HEV. Also write the limitations of EV in
current trends.

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