Unit - 2

Solar
Energy
Syllabus
• Solar Cells, Materials
• Solar Cells Power Plants
• Solar thermal energy
• Solar energy collectors
• Applications, Storage
• Solar Thermal Power Plants

2
Intro
• Solar Energy or Sun’s energy is received in the form of
radiation, that can be converted directly or indirectly into
other forms of energy such as Heat or Electricity.
• Since the Sun will radiate its energy for at least a few billion
years at almost constant rate, it is a major source of energy.
• Major limitations to extensive application of Solar energy
are:
1. It arrives at the Earth’s surface in intermittent and
variable manner.
2. Requirement of very large area to collect the Sun’s
radiation.
3
Some Basics
• Solar Constant: “The rate at which solar energy arrives at
the top of earth’s atmosphere is called as Solar Constant Isc.”
• This is the amount of energy received in unit time at a unit
area, perpendicular to the sun’s direction at the mean
distance of the earth from the sun.
• Since the sun’s distance and activities varies throughout the
year, the solar radiation also varies, so the solar constant is
chosen as average value from which the actual values vary
upto 3% in either direction.

4
Some Basics
• The standard value of Solar constant according to NASA in
different units are:
• 1353 Watts per sq. m. or
• 116.5 Langleys (Calories per sq. cm.) per hour or
• 429.2 Btu per sq. feet per hour

5
Solar Cells
• A Solar cell, or Photovoltaic cell, is an electrical device
that converts the energy of light directly into electricity by
the photovoltaic effect, which is a physical and chemical
phenomenon.
• When exposed to light, the electrical properties (e.g.
resistance, current or voltage) of the PV cells are varied.
• A single junction Silicon solar cell can produce a maximum
open circuit voltage of approx 0.5 – 0.6 volts.
• To have higher ratings of voltage, current or power, many PV
cells can be combined to form modules called as Solar Panels.
6
Solar Cells

7
Solar Cell Materials
• Solar cells are made up of Semiconductors, which generates
free electrons when photons (light) are received. The free
charges can then be collected at the contacts.
• One commonly used solar cell is Silicon Solar Cell, in which
the crystal of Si is doped with impurity to form a semi-
conductor.
• The Si solar cells have efficiency of 12 – 15 %.
• Although Si is available in abundance in form of Sand (SiO2),
it is very difficult and expensive to extract Si from it. That’s
why Solar panels are expensive
8
Solar Cell Power Plant
• A Solar Cell Power Plant is based on the conversion of
sunlight into electricity, either directly using photovoltaics
(PV), or indirectly using concentrated solar power (CSP).
• Concentrated solar power systems use lenses, mirrors, and
tracking systems to focus a large area of sunlight into a
small beam.

9
Solar Cell Power Plant
• Some large photovoltaic power plants in the world are:
1. 2000 MW (52.5 km2), Shakti Sthala, Pavagada, Karnataka, India
2. 1000 MW (23 km2), Kurnool Ultra Mega Solar Park in Andhra
Pradesh
3. 850 MW (25 km2), Longyangxia Dam Solar Park, China
4. 648 MW (52.5 km2), Kamuthi, Tamil Nadu, India.
5. 580 MW, Noor Complex is the world’s largest concentrated solar
power (CSP) plant, located in the Sahara Desert.

10
Solar Energy Collectors
• A Solar Collector is a device for collecting solar radiation
and transferring the energy (heat) to a fluid (absorber)
passing in contact with it.
• Types:
1. Non-Concentrating or Flat plate type
2. Concentrating or Focusing type

11
Solar Energy Collectors
• In non-concentrating type collectors, the absorber area is
same as the collector area. While in concentrating type the
collector area is much bigger than the absorber area.
• By means of concentrating type collector much higher
temperature can be obtained, which can be used to generate
medium pressure steam.
• In concentrating type collector different types of mirrors and
lenses are used to concentrate the sun’s radiation.
• The concentrating type collectors have better efficiency.

12
Conversion of Solar energy into Heat
• The fundamental process of conversion of solar radiation into
usable heat is based on the Green House Effect.
• Most of the Sun’s energy comes to earth in form light of short
waves, and not all of which are visible to human eye.
• When this radiation strikes any material (solid or liquid), the
energy is absorbed by the material and it becomes warm.
• The material again re-radiates the energy as long wave
radiation.
• Glass has a very useful property that, it can easily pass short
waves but cannot pass long waves.
13
Conversion of Solar energy into Heat
• In a green house the sun light (short waves) enters through
the glass and is absorbed by material inside it, which
reradiates it as long waves, which are trapped inside by the
glass. This is called as Green House Effect.

14
Conversion of Solar energy into Heat
• A Black surface has highest absorption rate and also highest
emission coefficient for all wavelengths of light.
• The emission increases with temperature as T4.
• By Wien’s law:
𝜆𝑚𝑎𝑥 𝑇 = 𝐶𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡 = 2989 𝜇𝑚 𝐾𝑒𝑙𝑣𝑖𝑛
• Here T = temperature of black surface
λmax = wavelength at which emission reaches maximum
• The Glass absorbs the infrared emission of black surface and
re-emits it in all directions.

15
Conversion of Solar energy into Heat
• Half part of the infrared is emitted outside the glass and half
is emitted towards black surface, which is again absorbed,
accumulating more heat.
• Equilibrium is reached when energy gain by absorption of
visible light is balanced by loss of energy by infrared
emission.
• With rising temperature the wavelength of infrared emission
becomes shorter, e.g. 6µm at 200ºc, 4µm at 500ºc etc.
• Hence the Green house effect is efficient only below 500ºc.

16
Flat Plate Collectors
• When temperature below 90ºc is sufficient, flat plat collectors
are used.
• They are made up of flat rectangular panels of 1.7 – 2.9 sq.m.
area, are easy to construct and erect. But they become less
effective in absence is sufficient light such as in a cloudy day.
• Types:
1. Liquid Heating Collectors
2. Air or Gas Heating Collectors aka Solar Air Heaters

17
Flat Plate Collectors
• There are five main components of any flat plate collector
1. A transparent cover
2. tubes or channels or fins for liquid or air flow
3. The Absorber Plate
4. Insulation
5. The casing or container

18
Flat Plate Collectors
• Liquid Heating Collector

• Air Heating Collector

19
Flat Plate Collectors
• Advantages of Flat plate collectors:
1. They have advantage of using both direct beam and
diffused solar radiation.
2. They do not require orientation towards sun.
3. Requires less maintenance.
4. Mechanically simpler in build as compared to the
concentrating collectors.

20
Transmissivity of Cover System
• It is denoted by τ and the range is 0 < τ ≤ 1.
• The transmissivity is a function of the wavelength and angle
of incidence of the incoming solar radiation (like reflectivity ρ
& absorptivity α).
• An opaque surface has τ = 0 and a completely transparent
surface has τ = 1.
• The transmissivity in partially transparent (translucent)
surface depends on both reflection and absorption, which
makes its measurement difficult.

21
Transmissivity of Cover System
• This difficulty is overcome by:
• First, the transmissivity τρ is calculated by considering only
reflection.
• Then the transmissivity τα is calculated by considering only
absorption.
• Now the transmissivity τ is given by: τ = τρ τα

22
Transmittance-Absorptance Product
• For solar collector analysis, it is necessary to evaluate the
transmittance-absorptance product (τ.α).
• Some of the radiation passing through the cover and striking
the plate, is reflected back to the cover, some part of which is
again reflected back towards the plate.

• Def. – The transmittance-absorptance (τ.α) product is defined

as the ratio of the radiation absorbed in the absorber plate to
the radiation incident on the cover system.

23
Transmittance-Absorptance Product

• Here ρd refers to the reflection of the cover plate for diffused

radiation.

24
Transmittance-Absorptance Product
• We can write the summation as:
< 𝜏𝛼 > = 𝜏𝛼 + 𝜏𝛼 1 − 𝛼 𝜌𝑑 + 𝜏𝛼 1 − 𝛼 2 𝜌𝑑2 + 𝜏𝛼 1 − 𝛼 3 𝜌𝑑3 + ⋯
= 𝜏𝛼 1 + 1 − 𝛼 𝜌𝑑 + 1 − 𝛼 2 𝜌𝑑2 + 1 − 𝛼 3 𝜌𝑑3 + ⋯
1
= 𝜏𝛼
1 − 1 − 𝛼 𝜌𝑑
𝜏𝛼
=
1 − 1 − 𝛼 𝜌𝑑

• Due to reflection < τα > would be greater than τ.α

• For an incident angle of 60º, the ρd is approx. 0.16, 0.24, 0.29 for
one, two & three glasses respectively.
25
Energy Balance Equation & Collector
Efficiency
• The performance of a solar collector is described by an energy
balance that indicates the distribution of incident solar
radiation into useful energy gain and various losses.
• The thermal losses & their preventive measures are:
1. Conductive Losses: An overall heat transfer coefficient
value of less than 0.69 W/m2 ºK is suggested to minimise
conductive losses.
2. Convective Losses: The air gap between the cover of 1.25 -
2 cm reduces internal convection losses. Vacuum between
absorber and outer cover also reduces losses.
26
Energy Balance Equation & Collector
Efficiency
3. Radiative Losses: to reduce these losses spectral selective
absorber coating is used. Such coating have a high
absorption of about 0.9 and a low emittance of about 0.1.
Therefore these coatings decreases heat losses and
increases collector efficiency.
• Under steady conditions:
𝑈𝑠𝑒𝑓𝑢𝑙 ℎ𝑒𝑎𝑡 𝑆𝑜𝑙𝑎𝑟 𝑒𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦 ℎ𝑒𝑎𝑡 𝑙𝑜𝑠𝑠𝑒𝑠 𝑓𝑟𝑜𝑚 𝑡ℎ𝑒
𝑑𝑒𝑙𝑖𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑒𝑑 𝑏𝑦 𝑡ℎ𝑒 = 𝑎𝑏𝑠𝑜𝑟𝑏𝑒𝑑 𝑖𝑛 𝑡ℎ𝑒 − 𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑓𝑎𝑐𝑒 𝑡𝑜 𝑡ℎ𝑒
𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑎𝑟 𝑐𝑜𝑙𝑙𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟 𝑚𝑒𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑓𝑎𝑐𝑒 𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑟𝑜𝑢𝑛𝑑𝑖𝑛𝑔𝑠

27
Energy Balance Equation & Collector
Efficiency
• This can also be stated as:
𝑄𝑢 = 𝐴𝑐 𝐻𝑅 𝜏. 𝛼 𝑒 – 𝑈𝐿 (𝑡𝑝 − 𝑡𝑎
where
• Qu = useful energy delivered by the collector (watts or
kCal/Hr)
• Ac = Collector Area (m2)
• HR = solar energy received on upper surface of collector
surface
• H = rate of incident beam or diffuse radiation on a unit area
of upper surface
28
Energy Balance Equation & Collector
Efficiency
• R = factor to convert beam or diffuse radiation on upper
surface into that on collector plane
• The Beam and Diffuse Radiation are considered separately.
(τ.α) for beam is determined from the actual angle of
incidence.
(τ.α) for diffused radiation can be taken as beam radiation at
an angle of 60º.
• τ = Transmissivity, i.e. the fraction of solar radiation that
reaches the absorbing surface. (dimensionless)
• α = Absorptivity, i.e. the fraction of solar radiation that is
absorbed. (dimensionless)
29
Energy Balance Equation & Collector
Efficiency
• (τ.α)e = effective transmittance absorptance product of cover
system for beam and diffuse radiation.
• UL = overall heat loss coefficient (W/m2 ºC or kCal/Hr.m2 ºC)
• tp = average temperature of upper surface of absorber plate
(ºC)
• ta = atmospheric temperature (ºC)

• The energy balance equation can be represented graphically

as:
30
Energy Balance Equation & Collector
Efficiency

31
Energy Balance Equation & Collector
Efficiency
• For good performance of a solar collector:
1. the absorption in the plate 𝐻𝑅 𝜏. 𝛼 𝑒 must be higher and
the losses (𝑡𝑝 − 𝑡𝑎 ) must be minimised.
2. High quality transparent glass or plastic cover must be
used which will allow maximum transmission of light
through it.
3. A second transparent cover, with air between the two
covers can be used to further reduce the heat loss.
4. Radiation losses can be reduced by reducing the radiation-
emitting characteristics of the absorber.

32
Energy Balance Equation & Collector
Efficiency
5. The thermal radiation emitted by absorber plate may be
reduced by reflecting it downward from the lower glass
cover by employing an infra-red reflection coating (of tin
oxide or indium oxide) on the glass.
6. The collector efficiency also depends on ambient
temperature, which can not be controlled and varies with
time and geographical location.
7. A collector is more efficient with lower plate temperature,
which can be controlled by the fluid circulation beneath it.

33
Energy Balance Equation & Collector
Efficiency
• The energy balance equation on the whole collector can be
written as:
𝑄𝑢 + 𝑄𝑙 + 𝑄𝑠 = 𝐴𝑐 𝐻𝑅 𝜏. 𝛼 𝑏 + 𝐻𝑅 𝜏. 𝛼 𝑑
• Where b is used for Beam and d of diffused radiation
• Qu = Rate of useful heat transfer to the fluid
• Ql = Rate of energy loss from the collector to the
surroundings by re-radiation, convection and by conduction
through supports for the absorber plate etc.
• Qs = rate of energy storage in the collector.

34
Energy Balance Equation & Collector
Efficiency
• Collector Efficiency (ηc): It is the measure of collector
performance and is defined as the ratio of useful gain over
any time period to the incident solar energy over the same
time period. And is given by:
𝑄𝑢 𝑑𝑇
𝜂𝑐 =
𝐻𝑅 𝑑𝑇

35
Concentrating Collector (Focusing type)
• In these collectors the radiation falling on a relatively large
area is focused into an absorber of smaller area by using
reflectors and or refractors (mirrors, lenses).
• It increases the radiation upto 10000 times and the
temperature of the fluid in the receiver can go upto 500 ºc.
• Certain losses are introduced such as losses due to cover
system, reflection & absorption losses, geometrical
imperfections in the optical system etc.
• The combined effect of all losses is indicated through Optical
Efficiency.
36
Concentrating Collector
• Two broad categories are:
1. Line focusing type
2. Point focusing type

• On the basis of geometry of collector the main types are:

1. Parabolic trough collector
2. Mirror strip reflector
3. Fresnel Lens collector
4. Flat plate collector with adjustable mirrors
5. Compound Parabolic Concentrator (C.P.C.)
37
Line Focusing Collector –
1. Parabolic Trough Collector
• Solar radiation coming from a particular direction is
collected over the area of reflecting surface & is concentrated
at the focus of parabola.
• If the reflector is in form of trough with parabolic cross-
section, the solar radiation is focused along a line.

38
Line Focusing Collector –
1. Parabolic Trough Collector
• Aka Cylindrical parabolic collector.
• The collector pipe (absorber) is placed along the focus axis.
• The dimensions are: length of reflector unit is about 3-5 m
and width is about 1.5-2.4 m.
• 10 or more such units are connected in series, end to end, in
a row and several rows are connected in parallel.
• Since it can collect solar radiation of a particular direction
only, it must be rotated towards the Sun as it changes its
position.

39
2. Mirror-Strip Reflector
• In this a number of plane or slightly curved (concave) mirror
strips are mounted on a flat base.
• Similar to parabolic trough collector, here also the radiation
coming from a particular direction is collected and is focused
on a line.

40
3. Fresnel Lens Collector
• It utilises refraction property of light.
• A Fresnel lens is used to focus the radiation. The collector
can be either a point or a line

41
3. Fresnel Lens Collector
• Dimensions: Length = 4.7m, Width = 0.95m.
• To be fully effective the lens must be continuously aligned
with the Sun.

42
Receiver Pipe for Line focusing
collectors
• Fig. shows the cross-sectional view of line focusing collector’s
receiver pipe:

43
Receiver Pipe for Line focusing
collectors
• It has the same general characteristics as that of flat plate
collector.
• The solar radiation absorber is the central steel pipe with
treated surface.
• An insulated hollow steel plug is at the centre to prevent
heat loss from the fluid.
• The absorber pipe is enclosed in a glass jacket, in order to
prevent losses by convection and radiation. This space
between glass and absorber plate is evacuated (vacuum) to
reduce convection loss.
44
Receiver Pipe for Line focusing
collectors
• The diameter of glass jacket is about 5 cm and that of steel
absorber is 3 cm. The gap for liquid flow may be as low as
about 2.5 mm.
• In Fresnel lens collector, the solar radiation is focused onto
the collector surface from top, rather than from bottom as in
parabolic reflector type collector.

45
Point Focusing Collector
• A paraboloid dish is used to focus the solar radiation to a
point (a small volume).
• General dimension: diameter of dish = 6.6m

46
Point Focusing Collector
• The dish is fitted with about 200 curved mirror segments
forming a paraboloidal surface.
• The absorber located at the focus is a cavity made-up of
Zirconium-Copper (Zr-Cu) alloy with a black coating.
• The heat carrying fluid flows in & out of absorber cavity
through pipe.
• The dish can be rotated up-down or left-right in order to
align it towards the Sun.
• The paraboloidal dish has very high concentration ratio, so it
is more efficient.
47
Point Focusing Collector
• Concentration Ratio: It determines the effectiveness of the
concentrator and is defined as the ratio of the area of
concentrator aperture to the energy absorbing area of the
receiver.
• Out of all concentrators, the paraboloidal system has highest
concentration ratio, of the order of 10000.

48
Concentrating Collector –
Non-focusing type
• The simplest type of concentrating collector is the mirror-
boosted, flat plate collector.
• It consists of a flat plate facing south with mirrors attached
to its north & south edges.
• The mirrors are to be set at proper angles so that reflected
radiations falls on absorber plate.

49
Compound Parabolic Concentrator
(CPC)
• Aka Winston Collector.
• This is a trough like arrangement of two parabolic mirrors
which are facing each other.

50
Compound Parabolic Concentrator
(CPC)
• The CPC is a non-focusing collector, but solar radiation from
all directions is reflected towards the bottom of the trough,
where the absorber is placed.
• Because of this characteristics, direct beam as well as
diffused radiation falls onto the absorber.
• CPC can be designed for any absorber shapes, e.g.
1. Flat one sided absorber
2. Flat two sided absorbers (fin)
3. Tubular absorber etc.

51
Compound Parabolic Concentrator
(CPC)
• Advantages:
1. There is no need of tracking, as it has high acceptance
angle. Only seasonal adjustments are required.
2. The efficiency for accepting diffuse radiation is much
higher than the conventional concentrators.
3. Its concentration ratio is equal to the max value possible
for a given acceptance angle.

52
Advantages of Concentrating Collectors
over Flat-Plate Collectors
1. Reflecting surfaces required less material, and is
structurally simpler than the flat-plate collectors. Also the
cost per unit area of solar collecting surface is less than
that for flat-plate collector.
2. The absorber area of a concentrating collector is smaller
than that of flat-plate collector for same energy collection.
3. The working fluid can attain higher temperature in
concentrating collectors, because the area from where heat
loss occurs is smaller.

53
Advantages of Concentrating Collectors
over Flat-Plate Collectors
4. The selective area treatment and vacuum insulation to
reduce the heat loss are more economical in concentration
collectors.
5. Concentrating type collectors can be used to generate
electricity when they are not being used for heating.
Therefore their total operating time is also higher.
6. The temperature attainable with concentrating collectors is
higher, the amount of heat which can be stored per unit
volume is also higher and so the heat storage cost is less.

54
Advantages of Concentrating Collectors
over Flat-Plate Collectors
7. Concentrating collectors have higher efficiencies
8. Little or no anti-freeze is required to protect the absorber
in concentration system, whereas entire absorber surface
in flat-plate type requires anti-freeze protection.

55
Disadvantages of Concentrating
Collectors over Flat-Plate Collectors
1. Out of the Beam & Diffused solar radiations only beam
component is collected in concentrating collectors because
diffuse component can not be reflected and is eventually
lost.
2. Concentrating collectors requires more costly Sun tracking
systems.
3. Requires more maintenance for reflecting surface against
dirt, weather, oxidation etc.
4. Concentration collectors have non-uniform flux on
absorber.
56
Disadvantages of Concentrating
Collectors over Flat-Plate Collectors
5. They have additional optical losses such as reflection loss,
intercept loss etc. so more terms appear in the energy
balance equation.
6. Higher initial cost.

57
Solar Energy Storage
• The supply of solar energy is not continuous and varies with
time.
• The demand of energy is also not continuous and varies with
time. In-fact the demand times may be very different from
the supply times.
• So there is need of storage of energy, so that it may meet the
demand whenever needed.

58
Solar Energy Storage

59
Solar Energy Storage
The solar energy storage systems can be divided into 5
categories:
1. Thermal
2. Electrical
3. Chemical
4. Mechanical
5. Electromagnetic

60
Solar Energy Storage
Suggested study:
• Why do we need to store solar energy?
• What are the factors in which the optimum capacity of solar
energy storage system depends?

61
1. Thermal Storage
• The energy can be stored by Heating, Melting or Vaporiz-
ation of materials.
• When the process is reversed, the energy becomes available
as Heat.
• Sensible Heat Storage: Storage causing a material to rise in
temperature.
• Latent Heat Storage: Storage by phase change (from solid to
liquid or liquid to vapour). In this no temperature change is
involved.
• It is possible to occur both sensible and latent heat storage to
happen in the same material. 62
1. Thermal Storage
• Applications of thermal energy storage may include TPP,
heating of water, house, office, other process industries etc.
• Materials used for thermal storage are water, salts and
rocks.
• Glauber’s Salt (Na2SO410H2O) is least expensive and readily
available salt.
• For high temperature storage (200-300ºC) MgO and CaO are
used.

63
1. Thermal Storage
• Sensible Heat Storage: It involves use of a material which
does not goes under phase change with change in
temperature.
• The basic equation for an energy storage unit, operating over
a finite temperature difference is:
Qs = (mCp)s (T1 – T2 )
Where: Qs = Energy storage capacity
T1 & T2 = temperature limits
m = weight of material in kg
Cp = Specific heat
64
1. Thermal Storage
• The ability to store thermal energy in a given container of
volume V is given by:
𝑄𝑠
= 𝜌𝐶𝑝 𝛥𝑇
𝑉
• Where ρ is density of storage medium.
• Thus the ability to store thermal energy depends upon the
product ρCp, which is highest for water.
• Other materials used are: Rock, gravel or crushed stones, Concrete,
Iron, Iron Ore, Magnesium Oxide, Aluminium Oxide, Silica Oxide
etc.
65
1. Thermal Storage
• Latent Heat Storage: Materials that undergo a change in
phase in a suitable temperature range is used.
• In this system, heat is stored in the material when it melts
and extracted from material when it freezes.
• Materials used are Water, Glauber’s Salt (Na2SO410H2O),
Fe(NO3)26H2O, etc.

66
2. Electrical Storage
• The Capacitors and Inductors store energy.
• Batteries store the energy and delivers in electrical form.
• Energy stored in Capacitor is given by
1
𝐻𝑐𝑎𝑝 = 𝑉𝜀𝐸 2
2
• Where V = volume of dielectric
E = electric field strength
ε = permittivity of material (constant)

67
2. Electrical Storage
• The electric field strength is limited by breakdown strength
Ebr of the dielectric, and therefore the electrical energy
storable is also limited.
• Mica is generally used dielectric material.
• At present capacitive storage is only economical for times no
longer than 12 hours.
• More research is needed to make the capacitors suitable for
energy storage.

68
2. Electrical Storage
• While the capacitors store energy at high voltage & low
current, the inductors store energy at low voltage & high
current.
• The energy stored by an Inductor is given by:
1 2
𝐻𝑖𝑛𝑑 = 𝑉𝜇𝐻𝑚
2
Where Hm = magnetic flux density
μ = permeability of the material (constant)

69
2. Electrical Storage
• Battery: A battery is a combination of individual cells. A cell
is the elemental combination of materials & electrolyte
constituting of the basic electrochemical energy storer.
• Battery storage can also be included in the Chemical Storage
category.
• The primary batteries are non rechargeable but the
secondary batteries are rechargeable.
• Examples of secondary batteries are: lead-acid, Nickel-
Cadmium, Nickel-Hydrogen etc.

70
2. Electrical Storage
• A generalised cell consists of two electrodes called Anode and
Cathode, immersed in suitable Electrolyte.
• When an electric load is connected across the electrodes,
charge separation occurs at the interface between the
electrode and electrolyte.
• The electrons flow through the external load and the ions
through the electrolyte, recombining at the other electrode.

71
2. Electrical Storage
• Energy efficiency of a battery is defined as
𝑡1
𝐼 𝐸 𝑑𝑡
0 1 1
𝜂𝑒𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦 = 𝑡2
𝐼 𝐸 𝑑𝑡
0 2 2

Where I1 = Battery discharge current

E1 = Battery discharge terminal voltage
t1 = Battery discharge time
I1 = Battery charging current
E1 = Battery charging terminal voltage
t1 = Battery charging time 72
2. Electrical Storage
• Two special cases of above equation are possible.
• First, when the charging and discharging occurs at constant
voltage, then
𝑡1
𝐸1 0 𝐼1 𝑑𝑡 𝐸1 × Amp. Hr. Output
𝜂𝑒𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦 = 𝑡 =
𝐸2 0 2 𝐼2 𝑑𝑡 𝐸2 × Amp. Hr. Output

• Second, when the charging and discharging occurs at

constant current, then
𝑡1
𝐼1 0 𝐸1 𝑑𝑡
𝜂𝑒𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦 = 𝑡
𝐼2 0 2 𝐸2 𝑑𝑡
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2. Electrical Storage
• Battery Cycle Life: It is the number of times the battery can
be charged and discharged under specified conditions.
• The cycle life of a battery highly depends on the Depth of
Discharge (DOD). The harder the battery works, the sooner
it will fail. It means, higher capacity withdrawal would
result in reduction in life cycle.
• Temperature is another major factor in battery performance.
At higher temperatures there is dramatically more chemical
activity inside a battery than at lower temperatures.
Therefore, the capacity of a battery is lower when the
ambient temperature is too low.
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3. Chemical Storage
a) Storage in form of fuel
b) Thermo-Chemical storage
c) Hydrogen storage

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3. Chemical Storage
• Storage in form of fuel: It is possible to device a storage
battery, in which the reactant is generated by a
photochemical reaction, caused by solar radiation.
• In this, the battery is charged photo-chemically and
discharged electrically.
• Some reactions for this purpose are:
2NOCl + photons  2NO + Cl2
NO2 + photons  2NO + 0.5O2
AgCl + photons  Ag + 0.5Cl2
etc.
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3. Chemical Storage
• It is also possible to electrolyze the water with solar energy
and store the H2 and O2, and later recombine them in a fuel
cell to regain electrical energy.
• Solar energy can also be used for fermentation of algae for
production of Methane (CH4). Methane is a stable fuel in
room temperature and it reacts with O2 when burnt
releasing solar energy in thermal form.
CH4 + 2O2  2H2O + CO2
• Photosynthesis is another method of solar energy conversion.
CO2 + H2O  H2CO + O2
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3. Chemical Storage
• Thermo-Chemical Energy Storage: These are reversible
chemical reactions, and are suitable for medium & high
temperature applications.
• Advantages of these systems includes high energy density
storage for long periods without thermal losses, and is
transportable for long distances.
• This type of storage is represented by a hypothetical relation:
A + B ⇄ AB

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Topics for self study
• Mechanical Storage
• Electromagnetic Storage
• Solar Pond

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End of Unit – 2

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