Methods of Philosophizing

- SCIENTIFIC/ OBJECTIVE DOMAIN – Truths are

tested against empirical evidence.
- SOCIAL DOMAIN – Truths are tested against their
PROCESS OF ACQUIRING KNOWLEDGE acceptability to a particular group in a particular
time in history.
1. REALITY- To know is to know something. “This
- PERSONAL DOMAIN – Truths are tested against
something” is what philosophers call reality,
the consistency and authenticity of the person
existence, being. Existence is everything there is
who claims it.
(another name for it is the universe). It includes
everything we perceive (animals, plants human How do we know if something is true?
beings, inanimate objects) and everything inside
our heads (our thoughts and emotions) which 1. A belief is true if it can be justified or proven
represents our inner world. Existence is really all through the use of one’s senses.
there is to know. If nothing exists knowledge is 2. A belief or statement is true if it is based on facts.
impossible. 3. Getting a consensus or having people agree on a
2. PERCEPTION- Our first and only contact with common belief.
reality is through our senses. Knowledge begins 4. Truth requires to prove on action
with perceptual knowledge. 5. Subject to test to determine the truth.
3. CONCEPT- An abstract or generic idea
TRUTH VS OPINION
generalized from particular instances. (Merriam-
Webster Dictionary) Truth is knowledge validated based on the facts of reality are
4. PROPOSITION- Statements about the world or independent of your thoughts, feelings, or preferences.
reality; Propositions may or may not carry the Opinion is a statement of judgement of a person about
truth. Facts – proposition or statements observe something in the world. Opinions are bases for making
to be real and truthful. Claim – propositions that arguments and convincing people that a certain claim is a
requires further examination; can be contested fact.
5. ARGUMENT- series of statements that provide
reasons to convince the reader/listener that a TRUTH OPINION
claim/ opinion is truthful. Group of statements - Validated - Personal Judgement
that serve to support conclusion knowledge - Basis of argument
- Facts of reality - Needs further
DOMAINS OF TRUTH - Objective justification
1. OBJECTIVE DOMAIN- related to scientific truths; Conclusion – judgement based on certain facts; could still
pertains to the natural world that maintains a be contested or questioned.
relative independence from the perspective and
attitude of human beings that perceive them. Ex. Beliefs – statements that express convictions that are not
Typhoon season, Water’s boiling point (100 easily and clearly explained by facts.
degree Celsius) Explanations – statements that assume the claim to be
2. SOCIAL DOMAIN- truth is related to a general true and provide reasons why statement is true
agreement or consensus on what is right to what
is wrong. Based on norms (standard of An opinion has the following characteristics:
acceptable behavior in society) Ex. Maintaining
silence inside the chapel; cheering loudly in a 1. Cannot be confirmed
basketball game; being silent in the library. 2. Open to interpretation
Remember! Consensus has certain limitations. It 3. Based on emotions
is helpful but not always reliable. 4. Inherently biased
3. PERSONAL DOMAIN- Truth is related to
While truth is:
“SINCERETY”; consistent to inner thoughts and
intentions needs to establish “trust” 1. Can be confirmed with other sources
2. Independent of one’s interpretation, preferences and
TRUTH AND JUSTIFICATION
biases
TRUTH (according to Richard Rorty) – has passed the 3. Based on the facts of reality
“procedures of justification”.

JUSTIFICATION is the process of proving the truth or validity

of a statement. This process is made up of ways of critically THEORIES OF TRUTH
testing a claim against certain criteria. Correspondence Theory

Each domain of truth has a corresponding, justification or - The basic idea of the correspondence theory is
has a different criteria for truth: that what we believe or say is true if it
 corresponds to the way things are based on the TYPES OF REASONING
facts DEDUCTIVE REASONING - In this type of reasoning,
- It argues that an idea that correspond with reality conclusion comes first, followed by main points, and the last
is true while an idea, which does not correspond will be the supporting data, facts, examples, and evidence.
to reality is false. General idea comes first before the specific or idea.
- The CORRESPONDENCE THEORY OF TRUTH
would have sense perception or experience as its INDUCTIVE REASONING - In this type of reasoning,
source of knowledge. supporting data, facts, examples, and evidence comes first
- Assumes that a belief is true when we are able to followed by the main points and conclusion will be the last
confirm it with reality. In other words, by simply part. This is vice versa of the deductive reasoning because
checking if the statement or belief agrees with the idea comes first before the general idea
way things really are, we can know the truth
TYPES OF ARGUMENTS
FALLACY and BIAS
FACT VS BELIEF
- A fact is some set of circumstances in the world Fallacy
while a belief is an opinion about what those facts - group of statement that appear to be arguments
are. but fail to support the conclusion.
- A fact cannot be either true or false because it 1. Argumentum ad Hominem (Attacking the
simply the way the world is. Person)- This fallacy literally means hitting the
- A belief, however, is capable of being true or person below the belt instead of focusing on the
false because it may or may not accurately issue at hand. Attacking the person presenting
describe the world the argument instead of the argument itself.
2. Argumentum ad Baculum (Appeal to Force)-
Coherence Theory
Baculum is a Latin word which means scepter or
- Deals with the consistency of the truth of stick. A scepter is a symbol of authority. This is
statements being claimed within the system that committed when a person uses a threat or force
is being used or employed. to advance an argument.
- For example: used of a formula for a certain 3. Argumentum ad Misercordiam (Appeal to Pity)-
mathematical problem. Misercordiam came from latin word Misericordia
- Coherence – the quality of being logical and which means pity or compassion. A person uses
consistent. emotion such as pity to convince someone
- both evaluates statements based on their 4. Argumentum ad Populum (Appeal to
agreement with reality. The difference lies in the People/Bandwagon Fallacy)- The idea is
method where the former involves a larger presented acceptable because a lot of people
system while the latter relies on single evidence accept it
of fact 5. Argumentum ad Tradition/Antiquitatem (Appeal to
Tradition)- The idea is acceptable because it has
Pragmatic Theory been true for a long time. “This is the way it has
always been done”
- The pragmatic Theory of truth states that a belief/
6. Argumentum ad Ignorantiam (Appeal to
statement is true if it has a useful (pragmatic)
Ignorance)- Committed when a person could not
PRACTICAL application in the world. If it does
give a counter argument or if he/she could not
not, then it is not true.
present any evidences or witnesses to prove or
- If I do this, what is in it for me?” Once you
disprove the statement of another, his/her
examine your choices or alternatives, you would
assertions are correct, and the opponent is
take into consideration the good and practical
wrong.
consequences before making a decision.
7. Petitio Principii (Begging the Question)-
-
Assuming the thing or idea to be proven is true.
Also known as “circular argument”
Fallacies and Bias 8. Hasty Generalization- This fallacy is committed
when one reaches a generalization based on
insufficient evidence.
LOGIC
9. Cause and Effect (Post Hoc, Ergo, Propter Hoc)-
- Branch of philosophy that focuses on the analysis Assuming a “cause and effect” relationship
of arguments; studies and elaborates on good between unrelated events.
argumentation; and study of correct thinking and 10. Fallacy of Composition- Assuming that what is
reasoning true of a part is true for the whole. Individual to
all
 11. Fallacy of Division- Assuming that what is true for body kicks in which slams us with the idea that the soul is
the whole is true for its parts. All to individual being limited (like the prisoners in the cave) by the body, or,
12. Fallacy of Equivocation- Using the same term in a imprisoned inside a body.
different situation with different meaning. Calling
two different things by the same name. Therefore, man’s body is always limited – full of
13. Fallacy of Accident- Occurs when one attempts to imperfections and flaws.
apply a general rule to an irrelevant situation. PLATO’S CONCEPT OF HUMAN BEING
14. Argumentum ad Verecundiam (Argument from
- The body may limit us from doing things, but
Authority)- Committed when a person uses a
definitely the soul has the capability to rule over
name of a popular celebrity or name of an expert
us.
to put more weight in the assertion being made.
- Apparently, Plato’s concept of the body and soul
BIAS directs us to his ideal man – the man that is
- refers to tendencies or influences which affect the rational and governed by his own intellect and
views of the people when looking at an opinion will.
you must be aware of bias so that you can - This is evidently seen in his work The Republic
objectively and critically examined points of view. wherein Plato compared the human person into a
1. Correspondence bias or attribution effect- state.
Tendency to judge a person’s personality by his STATE INDIVIDUAL FUNCTION VIRTUE
or her actions, without regard for external factors Ruler Head Rational Wisdom
or influences Soldiers Chest Spirited Courage
2. Confirmation bias- Tendency to look for and Workers Stomach Appetite Temperance
readily accept information to fit with one’s own - For Plato, the state is composed of a ruler,
beliefs or views and to reject ideas or views that soldiers, and workers. Each position in a
go against it. particular state corresponds to man’s body parts
3. Framing- Focusing on a certain aspect of a – the head, chest, and stomach consequently.
problem while ignoring other aspects. Each part corresponds with a particular function
4. Hindsight- The tendency to see past events as – being rational, spirited, and the appetitive
predictable, or to ascribe a pattern to historical function. Each function of the body corresponds
events. with soul’s virtue – wisdom, courage, and
5. Conflict of Interest- A person or group is temperance.
connected to or has a vested interest in the issue - Plato wants us to realize that a human person’s
being discussed. body must not be ruled over the desire of the
6. Cultural bias- Analyzing an event or issue based chest and the stomach. He wants us to have a
on one’s cultural standards. firm conviction that the head or the ruler is
supreme overall.
Plato’s Concept of Human - Therefore, the human person must be ruled by
his head. For him, there must be an ideal
relationship between these parts of the body, and
Being only reasoning can make this possible.
- Our limitations can be transcended when
rationality takes over. There are a lot of human
PLATO’ S ALLEGORY OF CAVE
possibilities only if a person uses his head and
The story reveals that there are two worlds Plato wants us to not their hearts.
remember: the world of ideas and the world of senses.
Inside the cave portrays the world of senses which tells us SYMBOLISM
that the world we live in are just mere copies of what is in - Cave- Ignorance Misunderstanding
the real world. Outside the cave conveys the world of ideas – - Shadows- Perception
the place where all copies from the cave originates. - Sun- Philosophical truth and knowledge
- Reaction of Prisoners- Hesitation to seek truth
According to Plato, a human body is not just a mere body,
and knowledge
but a composition of a body and soul – where the tangible
- Escaped prisoner- philosophers, people who
body lives in the world of senses while the soul comes from
seek knowledge outside the cave (comfort zone)
the world of ideas. So, what’s the point of Plato?
- Journey of the escaped prisoner- journey on
Plato’s body and soul is separable in a sense that when the finding truth of wisdom
body dies the soul comes back to the world of ideas, while 1. Accept our flaws
the body remains in the world of senses where it decays. The Knowing imperfections, we are tending to perfect
soul is perfect as it existed from the world of ideas where the it There is always a room for improvement,
soul can know all things. But then again, the reality of the because after all, we are all perfect beings, and
 we just need to transcend our lives back to its COGNITIVE AND PHYSICAL SELF
originally state 1. The Physical Self (something can be seen in
2. There are three possible things a person is his/her physical appearance) which deals with the
inclined to essential features of the human way of life or THE
- Bodily desire WHO OF A PERSON which includes his/her body
- Emotional stability type, strength and appearance.
- Rational think 2. The Cognitive Self (something within and cannot
be physically seen) is the essential components
And you must acknowledge the one who controls the of a human persons that deals with THE WHAT
two other possibilities OF A PERSON which includes human persons’
3. Never let yourself be boxed in your own belief, desire, dreams, and intentions
limitations WHAT IS EMBODIED SPIRIT?
Let your limitations be your way towards perfection - Embodied – materialized, personify, epitomize,
GO OUT OF THE CAVE! “kumakatawan”
- Embodied Spirit – inseparable union of the body
The soul is perfect, yet it is imprisoned to a body that and soul
limits the real perfection. The body limits man to know
everything. That’s why, acquiring knowledge is just a EMBODIED SPIRIT
mere REMEMBERING of all the things in reality – we
- is an animating core living within each of us. It is
remember knowledge, we acquire wisdom!
known to be the driving force behind what we
really think, do and say.
The Human Person as an - Inseparable which also means the body and soul
work together at all times. Hence, we can safely

Embodied Spirit
say that “embodied spirit” that the body is not
separate from the soul, just as the soul is not
separate from the body.
IMPORTANT TERMINOLOGIES SPIRIT- This is intangible element enables us to
- MAN – the general term commonly used to refer exercise thought, possess awareness, interiority, and
to the entire human race. the capacity to reach out to the outside world and other
- Human – refers to a man as a species- Homo persons.
sapiens or modern human beings
- Human being – is also to distinguish man from EMBODIMENT- the representation or expression of
other animals. something in a tangible or visible form, enables us to
- Person – refers to human being granted do and experience all the things that make us human
recognition of certain rights, protection, persons.
responsibilities and dignity above all. The totality
HUMAN PERSON AS AN EMBODIED SPIRIT
of an individual, possessing awareness, self-
determination and the capacity to think. 1. Self-awareness
- Personhood – the state of being a person - refers to person having a clear perception of
- Human Nature – a general term refers to the oneself, including his or her thoughts, emotions,
deepest and natural behavior of a person that identity and actions. It is the ability of one’s
distinguish human from animals. A collective trait consciousness to look inward thus discovering
that formed and considered the very essence of the presence of a self. The human person is
humanity. Nobody can be considered as man defined by a deeper awareness that is driven by
without human nature rationality or human thought. A person is aware
of both his or her surroundings and himself or
WHAT IS A HUMAN PERSON? herself
Human person is someone with an exact origin of his/her - This awareness gives rise to the notion of the
classification. From the biblical perspective, we came from “self” which the philosophers describe as the
Adam and Eve. For science, we came from an ape under the person who is actively aware that he or she is
class: Mammalia. perceiving and experiencing reality. We
experience interiority, that is the quality of being
A human person is typically with a body which is tangible focused on one’s inner life and identity
and has a three components composed of SOUL, MIND and 2. EXTERNALITY
SPIRIT. Also, he or she is entitled and granted rights and - It is the capability of a person to reach out and
privileges by the state which he or she legally belong. interact with others and the world. The realization
that we are not alone and that there are indeed
 other people around us enables us to reach out - Opening yourself to new experiences and ideas is
and establish meaningful relationships with another aspect of transcendence.
others. Philosophers consider man as a social - Our capacity for transcendence gives us the
being and that a person never exist in isolation. opportunity to work toward becoming better
3. SELF-DETERMINATION versions of ourselves.
- It refers to the capability of persons to make - “It is through our limitations that possibilities
choices and decisions based on their own become real” The body limits us. Unlike birds
preferences, monitor and regulate their actions, that can fly, we have no wings to make us fly. But
and be goal-oriented and self-directed. We are with creative minds, we invented jets and planes
persons because we act and we are aware of our to make us fly even father than any bird.
actions. Free will is the capacity to choose a
course of action from various alternatives. RECAP
- Consequence is the result or effect of an action ➢ Embodied spirit is the driving force of what we think, do,
or condition. Philosophers believe that a person and say.
acts freely and with due regard for the
consequences of his or her actions. ➢ In an embodied spirit, the body is not separated from the
- Morality is the “goodness or badness” of an act soul, just as the soul is not separated from the body.
4. DIGNITY
➢ As an embodied spirit, the human person demonstrates
- It is the innate right to be valued and respected.
self-awareness, externality, self determination, and dignity
Philosophers consider all humans as having an
inherent worth or value. Each person is worth the ➢ As human beings we have the unique power to change
same as another person in the sense that every our selves and things for the better
person is priceless, unique, unrepeatable and
irreplaceable. ➢ Transcendence is a state of existence or experience
- Human dignity is rooted in the nature of the above and beyond the normal or physical level within
human. It means that a person has dignity simply ourselves.
because of the fact that he is human. Dignity is
not defined by outside factors like intelligence, ➢ Our capacity for transcendence gives us the opportunity
beauty, skills etc. A person retains his dignity in to work toward becoming better versions of ourselves.
spite of his or her actions or behavior.
- Dignity also drives us to seek what is good.
Doing good deeds upholds and promotes dignity
of the human person. This recognition of dignity
is also the basis for the recognition of human
rights

LIMITATIONS OF THE HUMAN PERSON

The ability to surpass limits is called Transcendence, and it is
also one important trait that distinguishes the human person
from other beings in existence.

TRANSCENDENCE

- As a human person, we have natural tendencies

or inclinations. Some of these are felt bodily
functions like hunger, fatigue, etc. Transcendence
means overcoming oneself or being in control
even if the body reminds us of certain
tendencies. Although these tendencies are felt,
the person can govern them and ensure that they
are exercised within the bounds of reason
- Each individual carries within himself the
possibility of transcending his limits by exerting
enough effort and perseverance.
- Philosophy gives us useful tools to explore our
limits and possibilities. The essence of
transcendence is to acknowledge our limitations,
identify possibilities for development and change
ourselves for the better.