MEMORY

Memory involve s complex brain function to store information.

Memory consists of 2 types :
1. Procedural memory (memory skills) - Doing something without concious after once

experienced the things.

-involve : Basal ganglia (voluntary muscle movement)
Cerebellum-cerebrocerebellum (motor learning)
2. Declarative memory (memory facts) – Doing something with consciously.

-consciously recalled memory facts especially

during talking.
Semantic memories : Memory of discrete fact
e.g : birthdate,name of country,etc
Episodic memories : Personal experiences has go through
e.g : Birthday celebration with loved ones,etc
Most important Organs involved in memory :
1. Hippocampus – Create memories which convert short term memory to long term

Memory.
2. Medial Temporal Lobes – Memory retrieve or recall existing memory.
3. Amygdala – Adding emotional to memory.

Clinical Note of Amnesia :

Amnesia : Disorder characterized by significant loss of memories and experiences
(Retrograde amnesia) or inability to create new memory (Anterograde amnesia) according to
part affected.
1. Causes of Amnesia : Trauma,Hypoxia,Herpes Simplex Encephalitis

that affects important part for memory.

Pathophysiology :
- Damage of Hippocampus causing individuals unable to create new memory which is short
term memory to long term memory.This will lead to Anterograde amnesia.
- Damage of Medial Temporal Lobes causing individuals unable to retrieve or recall the
existing memory.This will lead to Retrograde amnesia.

Diagnosis :
1. Cognitive test : Test related to thinking and long term memory involvement.
2. Physical exam : Checking Reflexes,Sensory and balance.
3. MRI & CT scan : to check brain damage or changes of the brain.

Treatment : No medicines yet to treat amnesia,but treatment to prevent further damages.

1. If alzheimer’s disease causing amnesia – Cholinesterase inhibitor prescribed.
2. If Wernicke-Korsakoff causing amnesia -Replacing Thiamin and give proper diet.

*Treatment mentioned above only helps with symptoms and prevent further damages.
LEARNING
Learning and memory are probably the most evolutionarily advantageous developments in
neurophysiology. The acquisition of information, learning, and its storage in memory enable
an organism to repeat successfully and avoid failure by utilizing its past experience.
Definition: Learning is defined as an alteration of behaviour or modification of innate
responses by experience and training. The ability to learn is a fundamental characteristic of
man and most of the animals. The capability of learning lies wholly within the nervous system
and may be considered to reside in a sort of “functional plasticity” of this complex system
where physiochemical modifications can occur as the result of experience
There are three types of learning which are Classical Conditioning, Operant Conditioning,
and Social Learning.
Classical Conditioning Learning
Classical conditioning theory says that behaviors are learned by connecting a neutral stimulus
with a positive one, such as when Pavlov's dogs heard a bell (neutral) and expected food
(positive). The process of learning is concluded as below:
• Neutral stimulus. A stimulus is something that triggers a physical or behavioral
change. A neutral stimulus produces no response. At first, Pavlov's dogs had no
response to the bell.
• Unconditioned stimulus. This is what leads to an automatic response. In Pavlov’s
experiment, it's the food.
• Unconditioned response. A normal process, like salivating when you smell food, is an
unconditioned response.
• Conditioned stimulus. This is when a formerly neutral stimulus, like the bell in
Pavlov's experiment, mimics an unconditioned response, as when the dogs began to
associate the bell with food and salivate.
• Conditioned response. The learned behavior, such as relating the bell to food, is called
a conditioned response.
Operant Conditioning Learning
Operant conditioning, sometimes called instrumental conditioning or Skinnerian conditioning,
is a method of learning that uses rewards and punishment to modify behaviour. Through
operant conditioning, behaviour that is rewarded is likely to be repeated, while behaviour that
is punished is prone to happen less.
For example, when you are rewarded at work with a performance bonus for exceptional work,
you will want to continue performing at a higher level in hopes of receiving another bonus in
the future. Because this behaviour was followed by a positive outcome, the behaviour will
likely be repeated.
Through his experiments, there are three types of responses that followed behaviour:
• Neutral responses. They are responses from the environment that produce no stimulus
other than focusing attention. They neither increase nor decrease the probability of a
behaviour being repeated.
• Reward. They are responses from the environment that increase the likelihood of a
behaviour being repeated. They can either be positive or negative.
• Punishers. These are negative operants that decrease the likelihood of a behaviour.
Punishment weakens behaviour.
Positive reward involves providing a pleasant stimulus to increase the likelihood of a
behavior happening in the future. For example, if your child does chores without being
asked, you can reward them by taking them to a park or giving them a treat. Positive reward
doesn't have to involve tangible items. Instead, we can positively reward by doing anything
simple that will cheer up the subject such as clapping, Cheering, Giving a hug or pat on the
back, Give a thumbs-up, Offering a special activity, such as playing a game or reading a
book together, Praising them and Giving a high five.
In negative reward, something unpleasant happens in response to a stimulus. Over time, the
behavior increases with the expectation that the aversive stimulant will be taken away. If,
for example, a child refuses to eat vegetables at dinner time and a parent responds by taking
the vegetables away, the removal of the vegetables is negative reward.
Punishment is defined as any change to the surrounding environment that reduces the
probability of responses or behavior happening again. Punishment can work either by
directly applying an unpleasant stimulus such as scolding or by removing a potentially
rewarding stimulus, such as deducting someone’s daily allowance to punish undesirable
behavior.
Environmental and Behavioural Factor That Influence Learning Qualities
Learning is a complex process shaped by various environmental and behavioral factors.
Understanding these influences is crucial for educators, learners, and policymakers alike,
as they can significantly impact the effectiveness and outcomes of educational experiences.
This essay explores the key environmental and behavioral factors that contribute to
learning, emphasizing their interconnectedness and implications for effective educational
practices.
Environmental Factors
1. Physical Environment
The physical setting in which learning occurs plays a critical role in shaping educational
outcomes. Factors such as lighting, noise levels, and classroom design can directly affect
students' ability to focus and engage with material. For instance, well-lit classrooms that
utilize natural light can enhance mood and concentration, while excessive noise can be
distracting and detrimental to learning. Additionally, ergonomically designed furniture
promotes comfort, allowing students to maintain attention for extended periods.
2. Social Environment
The social context of learning is equally important. Interactions with peers and instructors
can influence motivation and engagement. Collaborative learning environments, where
students work together, encourage discussion and idea exchange, fostering deeper
understanding. The role of teachers is also vital; supportive and passionate educators can
inspire students, making them feel valued and motivated to participate. Moreover, cultural
factors can affect students’ learning preferences and attitudes toward education,
highlighting the need for inclusive teaching practices that respect diverse backgrounds.
3. Resource Availability
Access to educational resources significantly influences learning outcomes. Schools
equipped with modern technology, libraries, and diverse learning materials provide
students with opportunities to explore and engage with content in various ways. Availability
of resources enhances self-directed learning and supports varied learning styles, catering to
individual needs and preferences.
Behavioral Factors
1. Motivation
Motivation is a fundamental driver of learning. Intrinsic motivation, which arises from
personal interest and enjoyment of the subject matter, often leads to deeper engagement
and long-term retention of information. In contrast, extrinsic motivation, based on external
rewards or pressures, can be effective in the short term but may not foster genuine interest
in the subject. Understanding how to cultivate intrinsic motivation is essential for educators
aiming to create a passionate and engaged learner.
2. Learning Styles
Individuals have unique learning styles—visual, auditory, or kinesthetic—that affect how
they absorb and process information. Recognizing these preferences allows educators to
tailor their teaching methods, using a mix of multimedia, hands-on activities, and
discussions to accommodate diverse learners. This approach can lead to improved
understanding and retention of material.
3. Study Habits
Effective study habits and time management skills are crucial for academic success.
Students who develop consistent routines, such as setting aside regular study times and
breaking tasks into manageable segments, are more likely to retain information and perform
well. Teaching students effective study strategies can empower them to take control of their
learning process.
4. Feedback and Assessment
Constructive feedback is vital for fostering growth and improvement. Timely, specific
feedback helps students understand their strengths and areas for development, reinforcing
successful strategies and guiding them in adjusting their approach. Assessment methods
should also align with learning objectives, ensuring that students receive a clear
understanding of their progress.
5. Self-Regulation
Self-regulation encompasses skills such as goal setting, self-monitoring, and reflection.
Learners who can effectively regulate their behavior and learning processes are better
equipped to navigate challenges and persist in the face of difficulties. Teaching self-
regulation skills can promote independence and resilience in students.
6. Emotional State
Emotional factors, including stress and anxiety, can significantly impact learning. A
positive emotional state can enhance cognitive performance, while negative emotions can
create barriers to understanding and engagement. Creating a supportive learning
environment that addresses emotional well-being is essential for fostering effective
learning experiences.