SYEDA AQSA ZAHED

02-117201-035

Bs English 5

Morphology and Syntax 2

Assignment 3

Answer 1:

In linguistics, syntax refers to the set of rules that determines the arrangement of words in a sentence.
Along with diction, it is one of the key ways writers convey meaning in a text. It can be defined as the
arrangement of words in sentences, clauses, and phrases and the study of the formation of sentences
and the relationship of their component parts. Syntax is the order of arrangement of words and phrases
to form proper sentences. It may be understood as the way in which linguistic elements (words
and lexical item) are put together to form constituents (such as phrases or clauses) in view of
the grammar of a language. In simple words, syntax is the order or arrangement of words and
phrases to form proper sentences. Moreover, the most basic syntax follows a subject + verb +
object formula.

Instance:

A student shouted loudly

A student loudly shouted

Loudly, a student shouted

The rule of syntax combine words into phrases and phrases into sentences. They specify the
correct word order for a language. English is a subject-verb-object (SVO) language. For example;

The President nominated a new Supreme Court justice.

Answer 2:

LANGUAGE ACQUISITION AND INNATENESS

Noam Chomsky gave the theory of language acquisition, derived from the innate processes and
the theory is proved by the children living in same linguistic community. He proposed his theory
on language acquisition in 1977 as “all children share the same internal constraints which
characterize narrowly the grammar they are going to construct”. The universal grammar is the
basis upon which all human languages build. If a Martian linguist were to visit Earth, he would
deduce that there was only one language, with a number of local variants. He would be able to
study the language and determine the rules based on the patterns he hears and the patterns of
other languages. Children do not simply copy the language that they hear around them. They
deduce rules from it, which they can then use to produce sentences that they have never heard
before. They do not learn a repertoire of phrases and sayings, as the behaviorists believe, but a
grammar that generates an infinite number of new sentences. Have you ever been around a
toddler as they are acquiring new language? They suddenly change from “I play.” to “I’m
playing.” without any formal instruction. Children are born, then, with the Universal Grammar
wired into their brains. This grammar offers a certain limited number of possibilities - for
example, the word order of a typical sentence. Some languages have a basic Subject Verb
Object (or SVO) structure”

LINGUISTIC THEORIES

“Linguistic theory is concerned primarily with an ideal speaker-listener, in a completely

homogeneous speech-community, who knows its language perfectly and is unaffected by such
grammatically irrelevant conditions as memory limitations, distractions, shifts of attention and
interest, and errors in applying his knowledge of the language in actual performance”. Chomsky
calls this “descriptive adequacy” of the linguistic theory that “describes its object, namely the
linguistic intuition, the tactic competence of the native speaker. In this sense, grammar is
justified on external grounds, on grounds of correspondence to linguistic fact”.

On the other hand, in order for a linguistic theory to be justified on “internal grounds” and to
achieve “explanatory adequacy”, it has to show how a child’s brain, when exposed to primary
linguistic data, uses special innate abilities or strategies (described as a set of principles called
“Universal Grammar”) and selects the correct grammar of the language over many other
grammars compatible with the same data.

Answer 3:

PURPOSE OF SYNTACTIC RULES

The rules of syntax are very complex and vary widely by language (and duration and location).
Depending on the language you speak and write, these rules can be very restrictive or very
flexible. Moreover, it is virtually impossible to summarize all English syntax rules in one
paragraph. There are so many rules, and those rules are very detailed and difficult to identify,
so the whole book is dedicated to clarifying them. However, certain syntax rules must be
adhered to for the purposes of the sentence types commonly found in English.

THEIR USE

A combination of subject and verb makes a sentence and expresses a complete thought.

It is also known as an independent clause and when a sentence is without a subject and verb
it is fragment.

Separate sentence generally consists of separate ideas. A sentence containing multiple

independent clauses that are improperly joined is considered a run-on sentence.

English word order follows the subject-verb-object sequence. (Usually unlike some other
languages but the same in French and Spanish.)

A sentence that contains a subject and verb but doesn’t expresses complete thought is called
dependent clause.

USES OF ADJECTIVES:
Adjectives usually come before a noun (except when a verb separates the adjective from the
noun).
She reflected good manners while having food during buffet.
She married a handsome and intelligent man.
When using two or more adjectives together, the usual order is opinion-adjective + fact-adjective +
noun. (There are some additional rules for the order of fact adjectives.)

I saw a nice German table for my dining room.

That was an interesting Shakespearian play which we had seen on big screen two months ago in
Lahore.
The words its and it’s are two different words with different meanings.

The dog has hurt its leg.

He says it's two o'clock.
The words your and you’re two different words with different meanings.

Here is your coffee.

You're looking good.
Use many or few with countable nouns. Use much/a lot or little for uncountable nouns.

How many dollars do you have?

How much money do you have?

There are a few cars outside.
There is little traffic on the roads.

Answer 4:

HOW TO BECOME A PROLIFIC WRITER

There are some rules:

1. A sentence starts with a capital letter and ends with a period/full stop, a question mark or an
exclamation mark.

My name is Aleena.

How are you?

This cake is so yummy!

2. The order of a basic positive sentence is Subject-Verb-Object. (Negative and question sentences
may have a different order.)

Jamil likes Shamil because of her care and sincerity.

They left by their car for shopping at 4 in the evening.
3. Every sentence must have a subject and a verb. An object is optional. Note that an imperative
sentence may have a verb only, but the subject is understood.

Saika teaches Phd level classes on weekends.

Ms.Sheila teaches linguistics to the BS-english students.
Stop please! (i.e. You stop please!)
4. The subject and verb must agree in number that is a singular subject needs a singular verb and a
plural subject needs a plural verb.

Sulaiman works in Riaz, Saudi Arabia.

Those who exercise countenance eat once a day.
Marwan and Sultan belong to forces.
Generally, most people take three meals a day.
5. When two singular subjects are connected by or, use a singular verb. The same is true for either/or
and neither/nor.

Sara and Zarnish is coming for dinner tonight.

Either coffee or tea is fine.
Neither Junan nor Hamadan was available for the party on Saturday.

6. Adjectives usually come before a noun (except when a verb separates the adjective from
the noun).
She reflected good manners while having food during buffet.
She married a handsome and intelligent man.
7. When using two or more adjectives together, the usual order is opinion-adjective + fact-adjective +
noun. (There are some additional rules for the order of fact adjectives.)

I saw a nice German table for my dining room.

That was an interesting Shakespearian play which we had seen on big screen two months ago in
Lahore.
8. Treat collective nouns (e.g. committee, company, board of directors) as singular OR plural.
In BrE a collective noun is usually treated as plural, needing a plural verb and pronoun. In
AmE a collective noun is often treated as singular, needing a singular verb and pronoun.
The committee are having sandwiches for lunch. Then they will go to Multan. (typically BrE)
The BBC have changed their logo. (typically BrE)
My family likes going to the zoo. (typically AmE)
CNN has changed its logo. (typically AmE)
9. The words its and it's are two different words with different meanings.

The dog has hurt its leg.

He says it's two o'clock.
10. The words your and you’re two different words with different meanings.

Here is your coffee.

You're looking good.
11. The words there, their and they're are three different words with different meanings.
There was nobody at the party.
I saw their new car.
Do you think they're happy?
12. The contraction he's can mean he is OR he has. Similarly, she's can mean she is OR she has, and it's
can mean it is OR it has, and Shan’s can mean Shan is OR Shan has. Therefore, better is to write full
form.
He is working
He has finished.
She is here.
She has left.
Shan is married.
Shan has divorced his wife.

13. The contraction he'd can mean he had OR he would. Similarly, they'd can mean they had OR they
would.
He had eaten when I arrived.
He would eat more if possible.
They had already finished.
They would come if they could.

14. Spell a proper noun with an initial capital letter. A proper noun is a "name" of something, for
example Josef, Mary, Russia, China, British Broadcasting Corporation, English.
We have written to Mary.
Is China in Asia?
Do you speak English?

15. Spell proper adjectives with an initial capital letter. Proper adjectives are made from proper
nouns, for example Germany → German, Orwell → Orwellian, Machiavelli → Machiavellian.
London is an English town.
Who is the Canadian prime minister?
Which is your favourite Shakespearian play?

16. Use the indefinite article a/an for countable nouns in general. Use the definite article the for
specific countable nouns and all uncountable nouns.

I saw a bird and a balloon in the sky. The bird was blue and the balloon was yellow.
He always saves some of the money that he earns.

17. Use the indefinite article a with words beginning with a consonant sound. Use the indefinite
article an with words beginning with a vowel sound. a cat, a game of golf, a human endeavour, a
Frenchman, a university (you-ni-ver-si-ty)
An apple, an easy job, an interesting story, an old man, an umbrella, an honorable man (on-o-
ra-ble)
18. Use many or few with countable nouns. Use much/a lot or little for uncountable nouns.

How many dollars do you have?

How much money do you have?
There are a few cars outside.
There is little traffic on the roads.
19. To show possession (who is the owner of something) use an apostrophe + s for singular owners,
and s + apostrophe for plural owners.

The boy's dog. (One boy)

The boys' dog. (Two or more boys)
20. In general, use the active voice (Cats eat fish) in preference to the passive voice (Fish are eaten by
cats).

We use active in preference to passive.

Active is used in preference to passive.

X-------------------------X