Course name - Electric Circuit theory

Course Code – PC-EE-301

Unit – 8
Study material

Filter circuit
Filters are networks that process signals in a frequency-dependent manner. The basic concept of a
filter can be explained by examining the frequency dependent nature of the impedance of
capacitors and inductors. Consider a voltage divider where the shunt leg is a reactive impedance.
As the frequency is changed, the value of the reactive impedance changes, and the voltage divider
ratio changes. This mechanism yields the frequency dependent change in the input/output transfer
function that is defined as the frequency response.
Filters have many practical applications. A simple, single-pole, low-pass filter (the integrator) is
often used to stabilize amplifiers by rolling off the gain at higher frequencies where excessive
phase shift may cause oscillations.
A simple, single-pole, high-pass filter can be used to block dc offset in high gain amplifiers or
single supply circuits. Filters can be used to separate signals, passing those of interest, and
attenuating the unwanted frequencies.
An example of this is a radio receiver, where the signal you wish to process is passed through,
typically with gain, while attenuating the rest of the signals. In data conversion, filters are also
used to eliminate the effects of aliases in A/D systems. They are used in reconstruction of the
signal at the output of a D/A as well, eliminating the higher frequency components, such as the
sampling frequency and its harmonics, thus smoothing the waveform.
There are a large number of texts dedicated to filter theory. No attempt will be made to go heavily
into much of the underlying math: Laplace transforms, complex conjugate poles and the like,
although they will be mentioned.
While they are appropriate for describing the effects of filters and examining stability, in most
cases examination of the function in the frequency domain is more illuminating.
An ideal filter will have an amplitude response that is unity (or at a fixed gain) for the frequencies
of interest (called the pass band) and zero everywhere else (called the stop band). The frequency
at which the response changes from passband to stopband is referred to as the cutoff frequency.
Figure 8.1(A) shows an idealized low-pass filter. In this filter the low frequencies are in the pass
band and the higher frequencies are in the stop band.

The functional complement to the low-pass filter is the high-pass filter. Here, the low
frequencies are in the stop-band, and the high frequencies are in the pass band.
Figure 8.1(B) shows the idealized high-pass filter.
If a high-pass filter and a low-pass filter are cascaded, a band pass filter is created. The band
pass filter passes a band of frequencies between a lower cutoff frequency, f l, and an upper cutoff
frequency, f h. Frequencies below f l and above f h are in the stop band. An idealized band pass
filter is shown in Figure (C).
A complement to the band pass filter is the band-reject, or notch filter. Here, the pass bands
include frequencies below f l and above f h. The band from f l to f h is in the stop band. Figure
(D) shows a notch response.
The idealized filters defined above, unfortunately, cannot be easily built. The transition from
pass band to stop band will not be instantaneous, but instead there will be a transition region.
Stop band attenuation will not be infinite.
The five parameters of a practical filter are defined in following figure. The cutoff frequency (Fc)
is the frequency at which the filter response leaves the error band (or the −3 dB point for a
Butterworth response filter). The stop band frequency (Fs) is the frequency at which the
minimum attenuation in the stopband is reached. The pass band ripple (Amax) is the variation
(error band) in the pass band response. The minimum pass band attenuation (Amin) defines the
minimum signal attenuation within the stop band. The steepness of the filter is defined as the
order (M) of the filter. M is also the number of poles in the transfer function. A pole is a root of
the denominator of the transfer function. Conversely, a zero is a root of the numerator of the
transfer function.
Each pole gives a –6 dB/octave or –20 dB/decade response. Each zero gives a +6 dB/octave, or
+20 dB/decade response.
Note that not all filters will have all these features. For instance, all-pole configurations (i.e. no
zeros in the transfer function) will not have ripple in the stop band. Butterworth and Bessel filters
are examples of all-pole filters with no ripple in the pass band.
Typically, one or more of the above parameters will be variable. For instance, if you were to
design an antialiasing filter for an ADC, you will know the cutoff frequency (the maximum
frequency that you want to pass), the stop band frequency, (which will generally be the Nyquist
frequency (= ½ the sample rate)) and the minimum attenuation
required (which will be set by the resolution or dynamic range of the system). You can then go to
a chart or computer program to determine the other parameters, such as filter order, F0, and Q,
which determines the peaking of the section, for the various sections and/or component values.
It should also be pointed out that the filter will affect the phase of a signal, as well as the
amplitude. For example, a single-pole section will have a 90° phase shift at the crossover
frequency.
Frequency response of Low Pass Filter

A low pass filter is a circuit whose amplitude (magnitude) function decreases as w increases, that
is, the circuit passes low frequencies (relatively large amplitudes at theoutput) and rejects high
frequencies (relatively small amplitudes at the output) asshown in following figure.



In fig. 1, c is defined as the (3 dB) frequency, that is the frequency at which the amplitude is
(1/2)1/2 = 0.707 times the maximum amplitude. It is traditional to consider the 3 dB frequency as
the cutoff frequency. That is, a low pass filter is said to pass frequencies lower than c and reject
those that are higher than c. In other words, the pass(ing) band is < c.

Frequency response of High Pass Filter

A high pass filter is a circuit whose amplitude response increases with as shown in fig. 2.
This filter passes frequencies that are higher than the cutoff frequency wc and rejects those that
are lower than wc. That is, the pass band is w> wc.

Frequency response of Band Pass Filter

A band pass filter is a circuit which passes the band of frequencies centered around 0
as shown in fig. 3.
Frequency response of All Pass Filter

The all pass filter is one whose amplitude is constant, thus, it passes all frequencies equally well
as shown in fig. 4. It is usually put in a cascade when it is desired to keep the amplitude part of
the frequency response unaltered but shift the phase as desired.