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A Bibliographic Guide to Resources in Scientific
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Author(s): Jeffrey R. Yost
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Language: english
A BIBLIOGRAPHIC GUIDE TO
RESOURCES IN SCIENTIFIC COMPUTING,
1945-1975
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A BIBLIOGRAPHIC GUIDE TO
RESOURCES IN SCIENTIFIC COMPUTING,
1945-1975
Jeffrey R. Yost
Bibliographies and Indexes in Library and Information Science, Number 15
GREENWOOD PRESS
Westport, Connecticut • London
Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data
Yost, Jeffrey R.
A bibliographic guide to resources in scientific computing, 1945-1975 / Jeffrey R. Yost,
p. cm.—(Bibliographies and indexes in library and information science, ISSN
0742-6879 ; no. 15)
Includes indexes.
ISBN 0-313-31681-3 (alk. paper)
1. Science—Data processing—Bibliography. I. Title. II. Series.
Z7405.D37Y67 2002
[Q183.9]
016.502'85—dc21 2002069622
British Library Cataloguing in Publication Data is available.
Copyright © 2002 by Jeffrey R. Yost
All rights reserved. No portion of this book may be
reproduced, by any process or technique, without the
express written consent of the publisher.
Library of Congress Catalog Card Number: 2002069622
ISBN: 0-313-31681-3
ISSN: 0742-6879
First published in 2002
Greenwood Press, 88 Post Road West, Westport, CT 06881
An imprint of Greenwood Publishing Group, Inc.
www.greenwood.com
Printed in the United States of America
The paper used in this book complies with the

Permanent Paper Standard issued by the National
Information Standards Organization (Z39.48-1984).
10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1
Contents
A cknowledgem ents vi i
Introduction: The History and Documentation of 1

Scientific Computing, 1945-1975
1. Physical Sciences 11
Bibliographies, Dictionaries, and Other Reference Sources, 11
Books/Reports, 12
Articles, 26
Serials, 54
Manuscript Collections, 54
Oral Histories, 65
2. Cognitive Science 71
Books/Reports, 72
Articles, 98
Serials, 140
Oral Histories, 146
3. Biological Sciences 151

Books/Reports, 151
Articles, 156
4. Medical Sciences 171

Books/Reports, 172
Articles, 184
Serials, 239
Author Index 243
Subject Index 253

This page intentionally left blank
Acknowledgements
The research for this volume was conducted at the Charles Babbage Institute
(CBI), University of Minnesota, as a component of a National Science
Foundation-sponsored CBI research project to study the history of "The
Computer as a Scientific Instrument." (NSF SBR 961981) My co-principal
investigators, Robert Seidel, Stephen Johnson, and Joel Hagan, all assisted by
suggesting some useful sources.
My greatest thanks go to my colleagues at the Charles Babbage Institute,
where I serve as the associate director. The Institute's director, Arthur L.
Norberg, CBI archivist Elisabeth Kaplan, and post-doctoral fellow Philip Frana
all provided helpful advice and encouragement as I worked on this project. Dr.
Frana, who is conducting research on the history of medical computing, was
particularly helpful as I made selections for this section of the book.
I am also very grateful to James W. Cortada. He provided much early advice
on the project and suggested I take it to Greenwood Press. Dr. Cortada serves as
a model for historians working on such reference book projects in addition to
engaging in traditional historical scholarship. He has compiled numerous highly
useful annotated bibliographies on the history of computing (published by
Greenwood Press), in addition to many insightful books on the history and
management of information technology.
I would also like to offer special thanks to Greenwood Press, and
particularly, Senior Editor Cynthia Harris, who has been very helpful on this
bibliographic book project.
My research in serving as the principal investigator on another major CBI
NSF-sponsored project, "Building a Future for Software History," helped
informed my selection decisions and annotations in some areas of this book,
particularly in the section on cognitive science. Dr. Norberg, Ms. Kaplan, Dr.
Frana (project manager), and Dr. Seidel are colleagues on this project. I would
also like to thank our excellent research assistants: Betty van Meer, Juliet Burba,
and Karin Matchett.
I spoke and corresponded with many historians and archivists as part of this
project. These individuals assisted with identifying many sources. Although
too numerous to mention here, I am deeply indebted to these people. They, and
particularly the colleagues above, helped improve this book. I, alone, am
responsible for any errors or deficiencies. Finally, I would like to thank my
family and friends for their encouragement and patience as I completed this
publication.
Introduction: The History and Documentation
of Scientific Computing, 1945-1975
The following introduction is divided into two parts. The first provides a brief
overview of the changing practices and perspectives regarding scientific
computing during the first three decades after the advent of the electronic digital
computer. The second presents a summary of the methodologies used in
selecting, structuring, and annotating the sources in this bibliography.
Electronic digital computers have had a profound and accelerating impact
on the sciences in the second half of the twentieth century. The setting for such
developments ranges from national laboratories and industrial research centers to
academic institutions and personal workstations. While some scholarship has
addressed elements of scientific computing, few studies have focused on the
important methods, contexts, and impacts of electronic digital computers as
scientific tools, or the role of the sciences in helping to shape the development of
computing technology. This situation persists despite the fact that computers
are arguably the most important and broadly applicable scientific instrument of
the past half-century.
Many primary and secondary sources exist in the area of scientific
computing, but locating citations and quickly determining their usefulness for a
particular research project or question can be challenging. This volume is a
selective annotated bibliography on fundamental primary and secondary sources
documenting the first three decades of computer applications in the physical,
2 Introduction
through painstakingly slow work and the development of a strong background on
the subject matter and its resources.
The monumental volume of published and unpublished resources after 1975,
and the greater intellectual control, accessibility of citations, and in some cases
availability of abstracts or finding aids in digital form, led me to focus on the
first three decades of post-World War II scientific computing. This critical
period set the stage for and has structured many contemporary applications of
computing hardware, software, and networking. The bibliography is designed
not only to save historians, scientists, engineers, industrialists, students, and
others considerable time in research, but in many cases to bring important
sources of information to light that otherwise would not have been identified,
and provide the grist for future historical analyses.
Brief Overview of the Early History of Scientific Computing
The electronic digital computer was born largely out of perceived national
defense needs in particular areas of the physical sciences, engineering,
mathematics, and what later came to fall under the emerging field of cognitive
science. Electromechanical calculating machines using punched card input-
output devices had been used throughout much of first half of the twentieth
century for some mathematical and information processing tasks in the sciences,
and more commonly, in business. Beginning in the 1930s, analog computation-
al devices such as Vannevar Bush's differential analyzer came into play for
certain scientific applications. These technologies, however, only led to modest
opportunities and efficiency in monitoring, calculating, and analyzing
experimental data and conducting theoretical work.
On the other hand, digital computers designed and built at universities and
firms such as Engineering Research Associates (ERA), International Business
Machines (IBM), the Eckert-Mauchly Computer Company, and others, grew out
of and soon revolutionized possibilities in many different areas of scientific
research within the three decades following World War II. At times, analog
equipment, often in conjunction with digital computers, was used in measuring
and processing information in the post-World War II period.
Early computer development projects such as the ENIAC (1943-1945) at the
University of Pennsylvania's Moore School of Electrical Engineering and a
subsequent project at Princeton University's Institute for Advanced Study
received much of their support from government contracts. The almost
immediate entrenchment of the United States in the Cold War following the end
of World War II resulted in acceleration of funding from the Office of Naval
Research (ONR), the United States Air Force, Atomic Energy Commission
(AEC), the Information Processing Techniques Office (IPTO) of the Defense
Department's Advanced Research Projects Agency (ARPA, later DARPA), and
other government entities to sponsor the development of hardware,
Introduction 3
programming/software (particularly artificial intelligence research), and
networking (ARPANET).
Computers and the Physical Sciences
While many different wartime electronics projects advanced computing

technology and the training of electronics specialists, the need to calculate
ballistics trajectories was the prime impetus for the Defense Department's
contribution to funding the development of the ENIAC. Quickly calculating the
physics of hundreds of trajectories simply was not feasible prior to the advent of
digital computing. Shortly after World War II, digital computer applications in
the physical sciences accelerated and helped facilitate the development of the
hydrogen bomb, real-time simulations, and numerous other projects in high-
energy physics, engineering, and chemistry at top universities and national
laboratories.
More historical scholarship touches upon computer applications in the
physical sciences (physics, chemistry and geology) than other scientific areas or
fields. Most of these works, however, only tangentially address computing in the
physical sciences while focusing on other topics, such as the history of science
policy and the federal funding of science and technology, the history of
computing, the history of national laboratories, and biographies of scientists.
Participant histories on computer applications are rare in the physical sciences
compared to published works in cognitive science/artificial intelligence,
medicine, and biology. This, perhaps, is the result of the relative absence of
conflict and struggle in bringing computers into the physical sciences.
Computers and Cognitive Science
Research in a new field that was a precursor to cognitive science was also an
early factor in the Department of Defense's funding of computer design and
development during the latter part of World War II and into the Cold War.
Shortly after the war a small group of scientists began to solidify their interest in
control and communication systems of humans and machines. One of these
researchers, Norbert Wiener of MIT coined the term "cybernetics" for this new
science. A series of writings by Norbert Wiener, Claude Shannon, Warren S.
McCulloch, Walter Pitts and others, who met for a number of professional
meetings called the Macy Conferences, defined this new field. These individuals
were particularly interested in theorizing and engineering systems integrating
humans and computers.
By the mid-1950s, as the Macy conferences were coming to a close, Herbert
Simon and Allen Newell, began work on modeling human decision-making with
computers. Interested in similar research, John McCarthy put together a
conference at Dartmouth in the summer of 1956 to explore a new field he termed
"artificial intelligence." Cybernetics had a significant impact on most artificial
4 Introduction
intelligence pioneers, but it shifted emphasis away from biological systems and
toward symbolic systems. The field of artificial intelligence took off in the next
two decades, with many of the early participants serving as spokespersons for the
field, writing and discussing its history and future possibilities. AI researchers
routinely inflated the projections for what could be achieved by artificial
intelligence, opening themselves up to strong criticism from individuals outside
the field, despite the fact that relative progress was being made in some areas of
AI such as expert systems. This was done not only to promote their work in
general, but also to utilize rhetoric to ensure the continued federal funding of
projects.
In addition to the retrospective writings of AI scientists, a number of
resources exist documenting work in the field. Countless articles and conference
proceedings provide information on a number of systems, while manuscript
collections, reports, oral histories, and other documentation offer additional
information and a broader perspective on many developments.
Computers and Biology
If it were not for taxonomy, it would be relatively easy to place nearly all
the articles, books, and other resources addressing biological applications within
the categories of either medicine or artificial intelligence. The science of
taxonomy relied on extensive mapping of various traits. In the 1960s, as
numerical taxonomy was becoming increasingly dominant in the field, a small
number of biologists began to use computers to store and process the vast
quantities of information gathered in taxonomic research. Computers met at
most mild resistance and have had a continuing and profound impact on
taxonomy ever since.
Outside of taxonomy some basic research that had no direct and immediate
biomedical applications was also occurring during the 1960s and 1970s.
Genetics was emerging as an increasingly important field of science and
computers were significant to the advancement of this area of biology.
Sources in the history of computer applications in biology, or
bioinformatics are relatively rare. Unlike medicine, there were no widespread
and lasting controversies over the use of computers in scientific research and
practice. Journals published some articles on biology and computing in the
1960s and 1970s, but the number of works in this area is small compared to
medicine and artificial intelligence, and significant manuscript collections are
nearly non-existent. Nevertheless, some documentation is available to begin to
advance the grossly understudied area of biological computing.
Computers and Medicine
As with biology, computer applications in medicine lagged behind those in

the physical sciences and cognitive science. A small group of computer
Introduction 5
specialists and physicians in the late 1950s began to study, experiment, and
promote using computers to advance both clinical decision-making and
computerized hospital information systems. These two applications for
computers in medicine came to be jointly termed medical informatics in the
1970s.
Computer applications were controversial in the medical profession as they
began to come into widespread use by hospitals, clinics, and research
laboratories during the 1960s. Computing in physics and chemistry in the early
years was primarily concerned with carrying out the brute mechanics of complex
mathematical equations. In medicine, computerized diagnostic systems were
closely allied with artificial intelligence, as they utilized a knowledge database
coupled with a program to draw inferences by comparing patterns of symptoms
in a database with medical information in a patient's record. In most cases,
resistance was overcome as computers came to be viewed as useful tools to aid
physicians and researchers, rather than machines that would diminish their role
or reduce the quality of health care. By the 1970s, outsourcing relationships
with computer centers, usually at universities, were replaced with onsite
mainframe and mini-computers at large medical facilities. Time-sharing
networks came into frequent use within hospitals and research centers, and large-
scale distance network projects, such as SUMEX-AIM, came to link computers
on an intrastate and interstate basis.
The developments, context, and controversies of medical informatics are
well documented in select medical journals, computer science journals, computer
trade journals, and other publications. Manuscript materials also exist, but are
rare, as many medical institutions do not maintain archives available to
historians and other researchers.
Different Paths to Ubiquity
By 1975, the computer was deeply entrenched in the physical, biological,

medical, and cognitive sciences. The paths, however, had been different in these
broad scientific areas. In the physical sciences computers made an early
entrance immediately following World War II and their role only escalated as
these machines proved worthy for data reduction and other tasks in large-scale
projects in high-energy physics, such as the bubble chamber work at Berkeley in
the late-1950s and 1960s. Scientists in the physical sciences tended to embrace
the computer and the technically trained computer professionals that were in
short supply and great demand. This compensated for the common deficiencies
of knowledge most scientists had in programming and utilizing these machines.
Conversely, in cybernetics and artificial intelligence, and to a certain degree
in cognitive science more generally, computers were more than just a tool; they
were fundamental to the emergence of the science itself. Resistance was
sometimes present (especially in the 1970s), but was typically from the outside.
6 Introduction
Some even feared that future machines would outthink humans, and perhaps one
day even exhibit human-like emotional qualities.
Artificial intelligence had grown up beside and had been a major impetus
for the origin and growth of computer science, and for the most part, had a
comfortable home in this larger field. By the 1970s, while "game playing"
research continued, artificial intelligence increasingly shifted to practical
applications and basic scientific research, as expert systems composed of
databases and inference engines became tools for advancing research in organic
chemistry (DENDRAL), medicine (MYCIN), and other scientific fields. Game
playing research, and particularly work in expert systems, met with disdain from
cognitive scientists who believed artificial intelligence should be focused more
directly on modeling the mind to bring insights into the nature of human
cognition. Fundamental elements of connectionist AI of the past two decades
can be seen in some early work in the field that predated a logic-oriented AI that
gave rise to expert systems and knowledge engineering.
While the entrance of computing into taxonomy was a quiet revolution, and
resistance to AI came from those outside of the research domain, the application
of computers in medicine resulted in consternation from within the ranks. A
significant number of physicians doubted the efficacy of computers as diagnostic
tools, and some feared that their importance, if not their professional livelihood,
was being threatened by machines.
Although the technical, institutional, social, and cultural contexts of
computer applications in different areas of science varied widely, the seeds were
sown for the ubiquity of these digital computers throughout scientific work
during the first three decades after World War II. The legacy of these events
cannot be overestimated.
Methods used for the Identification of Potential Sources
Secondary Sources
I identified secondary sources first by conducting extensive searches on the

major online indexes (RLIN, OCLC, etc.), employing a great variety and
combination of keywords and subjects. Most of the search terms used were
intentionally broad and returned lists of hundreds and even thousands of sources.
My careful evaluation of these typically yielded a handful of useful citations,
including many that would have been missed with more narrow searches. Online
specialty subject and citation indexes (such as INSPEC, PsycINFO, and the
Science Citation Index) provided some potential materials, but none of these
resources covered more than the last few years of the period of coverage in the
following bibliography. Print indexes, such as Index Medicus, also yielded
some secondary citations. All secondary sources that could not be clearly
rejected (selection criteria is discussed in the following section) were carefully
examined. The notes and bibliographies of sources were reviewed for additional
Introduction 7
primary and secondary materials. Discussions with other historians working in
the history of computing and various areas of the history of science and
technology also provided useful citations.
In a small number of areas and periods covered, past bibliographical works
proved useful. This was especially true of secondary sources on artificial
intelligence and medical computing in the mid-1960s. For example, Ruth
Allen's An Annotated Bibliography of Biomedical Computer Applications
(National Library of Medicine, 1969) is a valuable reference tool, but has certain
limitations. This bibliography covers only the years 1964-1967, and the
concentration of the annotations on the technical aspects of computing often are
at the expense of identifying themes related to the scientific and social context of
these developments. In this work, the rich ongoing dialog between the sciences
and emerging information processing technologies is sometimes lost.
Primary Sources
Searching in RLIN, OCLC, and other major indexes was also the point of
departure for the research on primary sources, but the methodology differed
thereafter. Through careful searches of print directories of national, regional, and
subject area archives, web searches, and discussions with archivists and
historians, a number of useful repositories holding resources on early scientific
computing were identified. Whenever possible, the Web sites of these
organizations were searched. Archivists were frequently contacted to gain
additional information and better identify the content of collections.
Other networking techniques were also used to advance the research for this
bibliography. For instance, the project was described, and solicitations for
assistance were made on the most widely used archives Listserv. This resulted in
the identification of a number of useful collections.
Criteria for Inclusion
The selection of secondary historical works for the bibliography was highly
inclusive. All identifiable English language books and articles providing
significant historical analysis of issues and developments in the application of
computers to the sciences between 1945 and 1975 were included. These sources
range from a small number of works focused directly on scientific computing, to
many more that include some information and analysis on the topic in the course
of detailing related areas of the history of science, the history of technology and
the history of information processing. A few works on computing that barely
address scientific applications were included because of the important contextual
information they provide.
On the other hand, inclusion of scientific computing articles from
engineering, scientific, and trade publications (contemporary to developments)
was extremely selective. Thousands of articles related, at least tangentially, to
8 Introduction
scientific computing appeared in such publications every year after the mid-
1960s. Many of these sources overlapped in theme and content. Stringent
selection criteria were applied to a tremendous number of sources, resulting in
the rejection of most of them.
Decisions were made on an article-by-article basis. To merit inclusion
articles had to present original ideas, processes, or perspectives related to
scientific computing. If they reported on a single contemporary development,
this development had to have had a significant impact on the study or practice of
an area of science, offer information serving as the basis for insights into the
processes of the sciences, or indicate how a field of science helped shape an area
of information processing technology. Content analysis, along with assessments
of the impact of works (often assessed by the number of citations in subsequent
scholarship), was used. Only the best overview articles, those that discussed a
number of recent studies, events, and trends and offered new perspectives, were
included.
Many case studies detailing the design, implementation, and ongoing nature
of long-term scientific computing projects offer unique insights into decision-
making processes and relevant social, cultural, political, economic, scientific,
technological and ethical factors. Articles that characterized changes brought
about by computer technology in a particular scientific field over time, or the
ways science and scientists influenced later developments in computing and
software were included more often than those with a limited temporal frame.
Articles in edited volumes were evaluated similarly to those in journals. If
at least two articles of an edited volume were included (in the articles section),
the volume was also cited and annotated (in the books/reports section).
The inclusion of archival sources was also highly selective. The papers of
numerous faculty members in the sciences or computer science are housed in the
archives of colleges and universities throughout the country. Most scientists of
the past three to four decades have made some use of computers for calculation,
modeling, monitoring, communication, graphic representation or other
applications. Likewise, many computer scientists have engaged in programming
or analysis for which scientists were among the end-users. Few collections of
faculty papers, however, provide significant documentation of meaningful
developments in scientific computing. This is, in part, the result of the
concentration of leading computing and software research at a small number of
academic institutions and government laboratories engaged in major scientific
and engineering projects (in defense work, artificial intelligence, networking,
etc.). Failure of individuals to keep or donate relevant documents (i.e. those
describing the design and implementation of computing systems into
laboratories) is another factor in the modest quantity of historically significant
archival material on scientific computing. Records that are closed to outside
researchers are not included in the bibliography.
Oral histories are evaluated by the same criteria as the papers of individuals,
institutional records, and other archival material. Meaningful discussion of
Introduction 9
issues and events in scientific computing, as opposed to a passing reference, are
required for inclusion in the bibliography.
Categorization
Categorization of the cited and annotated sources into one of the four
scientific fields that make up the sections of this book was often quite difficult.
Above I contrasted the way scientists in these different areas came to perceive
computers and their uses, how their ideas evolved over time, their techniques for
utilizing the machines, and the outcomes of the research. These highlight
distinctions in order to make what I believe are some meaningful generalizations.
The work of many scientists, however, bridged gaps between fields in these four
categories. Even when a scientist's work fit well in one area, it was sometimes
part of a larger interdisciplinary project. As a general rule, I categorized sources
based on the practical application of the research in which computers were
employed. For instance, computer applications in biology that were conducted
largely to extend medical knowledge instead of basic biological research are
included in the medicine section. The problem of identifying citations of
sources that contribute some understanding in one category, but are listed in
another, is easily overcome by using the index. In addition to providing a guide
to many topics and themes, the index contains listings of citation numbers that fit
in one category but contribute to another. In other words, "biology applications
(outside of the biology section)" is an indexed topic giving citation numbers for
sources with some meaningful information on computer applications in biology
that are listed under the physical sciences, cognitive science, or medicine
headings.
Annotations
Annotations were kept relatively short and formulated to give researchers a

quick and easy-to-use tool for evaluating whether a particular source would be
useful for their question or project. The focus was on briefly outlining the scope
of the resource with emphasis on the impact of computing technology on various
areas of science, along with the influence of science on the development of
information processing technologies. Annotations for secondary materials were
written from direct analyses of the sources. Occasionally, I had enough
information to determine that a source was relevant for inclusion, but despite
extensive efforts, was unable to secure a copy to examine and annotate. In these
rare cases, I have included a secondary source without an annotation.
Annotations for primary sources, including manuscript collections and oral
histories, often were written using finding aids or registers, but frequently after
consultation with archivists familiar with the particular resources.
Chapter One
Physical Sciences
Bibliographies, Dictionaries, and Other Reference Sources
1. Alsop, Joyce, et al., Bibliography on the Use of IBM Machines in Science,

Statistics, and Education (New York: IBM, 1956).
This is a significant bibliography listing hundreds of sources on the use of IBM

electromechanical calculating machines and early computers in scientific,
statistical, and educational applications. Some of the sources listed are reports
that either no longer exist, or at very least are not cataloged on any of the major
national systems (RLIN or OCLC).
2. Beach, Ann F., et al., Bibliography on the Use of IBM Machines in Science,
Statistics, and Education (New York: IBM, 1954).
Although many citations in this bibliography are about punched card machines
used in statistics, education, and test scoring, there are a number of citations on
applications of large-scale computing machines to the physical sciences.
Contains Russian, French, and non-English language sources.
3. Bruemmer, Bruce. Resources for the History of Computing: A Guide to U.S.

and Canadian Records. (Minneapolis, MN: Charles Babbage Institute,
University of Minnesota, 1987).
This is a useful source of information on a number of the major archival

collections in the U.S. and Canada on the history of information processing.
Provides brief annotations for most of these collections. Identifies a small
12 Bibliography of Scientific Computing
number of important manuscript resources in scientific computing that were
accessioned prior to the mid-1980s.
4. Burk, C. F. Computer-based Storage and Retrieval of Geoscience

Information: A Bibliography, 1970-1972 (Ottawa, Canada: Department of
Energy, Mines, and Resources, 1973).
The book is a continuation of Burk's earlier bibliography. [See 5] Provides

citations on a few hundred international sources on data storage and processing
applications to the geological sciences published between 1970 and 1972.
5. Burk C. F., and J. Hruska. Computer-based Storage and Retrieval of

Geoscience Information: A Bibliography, 1946-1969 (Ottawa, Canada:
Department of Energy, Mines, and Resources, 1971).
Burk and Hruska provide an important volume of citations for several hundred
international sources on data storage and processing applications to the
geological sciences. Nearly all the citations are for secondary sources published
between 1966 and 1969.
6. Cortada, James W. Second Bibliographic Guide to the History of Computing,

Computers, and the Information Processing Industry (Westport, CT:
Greenwood Press, 1996).
This is an excellent general bibliography to the history of computing. Although

the bibliography contains some sources that address scientific computing the
index and short annotations are generally more focused on technology and
business rather than scientific applications. (See Cortada's bibliography of
applications, 678.)
Books/Reports
7. Alt, Franz L., and Morris Rubinoff, eds. Advances in Computers (New York:
Academic Press, 1964).
A varied group of lengthy articles on computer applications ranging from use of

these machines in election predictions, artificial intelligence, optics, X-ray
crystallography, procedure-oriented languages, and nuclear reactor design. (See
articles by Elizabeth Cuthill, 94; and Gordon Pask, 477.)
8. Aspray, William. John von Neumann and the Origins of Modern Computing
(Cambridge, MA: MIT Press, 1990).
Physical Sciences 13
Aspray provides an important examination of the life and work of a leading
mathematical physicist who became the most significant early figure in the
design of computer architectures. Remains one of the best historical studies to
date on scientific computing in the physical sciences. Chapter three, detailing
the impact of scientific and engineering research on design, development and
programming of early computers, and chapter seven, entitled, "The Computer as
a Scientific Instrument," are particularly valuable. The latter details the
applications of early computers to astrophysics, fluid dynamics, and atomic and
nuclear physics, as well as the limitations of computers as scientific instruments.
9. Bashe, Charles J., et al. IBM's Early Computers (Cambridge, MA: MIT Press,
1986).
This represents an early achievement in the history of computing that details

technical developments of IBM in computing from early electromechanical
calculating devices through the mainframe computers of the early 1960s.
Exploring applications of these machines is not the focus, but there are brief
examinations of scientific computing, particularly in the chapter on Project
Stretch.
10. Bowden, Mary Ellen, et al., eds. Proceedings of the 1998 Conference on the
History and Heritage of Science Information Systems (Medford, NJ: Information
Today, Inc., 1999).
The conference, sponsored by the Chemical Heritage Foundation, American

Society of Information Science, the Eugene Garfield Foundation, and the
National Science Foundation brought together scholars from the history of
science and technology, library science, and information management to explore
issues in the history of science information systems. Several of the more than
twenty papers are particularly important contributions to the history of scientific
computing. These papers address: federal funding of scientific computing
research, dissemination of information in the physical sciences from government
laboratories, and the impact of computing in redefining molecular biology. (See
papers by Thomas P. Hughes, 119; Timothy Lenoir, 900; and Robert W. Seidel,
161.)
11. Ceruzzi, Paul. A History of Modern Computing (Cambridge, MA: MIT

Press, 1998).
Synthetic study of the history of digital computers, software, and the Internet that
gives scant attention to scientific computing, but provides some important
context of the people, institutions, and technology associated with scientific
computing.
12. Cohen, I. Bernard. Revolution in Science (Cambridge, MA: Harvard
University Press, 1985).
This major achievement in the history of science chronicles and analyzes

scientific revolutions and the changing understanding of these events from the
Copernican Revolution through the twentieth century, a century that Cohen
characterizes as an "Age of Revolutions." In addition to providing critical
context to better understand scientific thought and the impact of instrumentation,
the book argues that computers have altered the form of scientific theories by
replacing "logically linked propositions and formal mathematical statements"
with "complex computer models."
13. Commission on College Physics. The Computer in Physics Instruction

(Princeton, NJ: D. van Nostrand, 1965).
The most comprehensive early work examining applications of computers in

undergraduate physics education. Includes the Commission's working group
reports on: curricular-administrative problems, pedagogical techniques, and
systems and equipment. The volume's extensive appendices explore linguistic
mode computer and physics programs and provide an informative case study of
the computer system and physics education applications at University of
California, Santa Barbara.
14. Cortada, James W. The Computer in the United States: From Laboratory to
Market, 1930 to 1960 (Armonk, NY: M. E. Sharpe, 1993).
Before providing an insightful examination of the initial responses and early data
processing applications of digital computers in business, this study analyzes the
impact of scientific discoveries and perceived scientific requirements in the
advent of the digital computer, as well as early scientific applications.
15. Croarken, Mary. Early Scientific Computing in Britain (Oxford and New
York: Clarendon Oxford University Press, 1990).
This work is one of the few historical treatments centered on scientific

computing. The first half of this short study discusses computation at the
National Almanac Office, the founding of the Scientific Computing Service, the
applications of Manchester and Cambridge differential analyzers in the 1930s
and other uses of computational devices in the physical sciences prior to the
advent of digital computing. The second half concentrates on computer work
during the war and applications of digital computing in the physical sciences and
mathematics at the National Physical Laboratory and other institutions in Great
Britain in the decade following the end of World War II.
16. Data Processing Management Association. IBM Introduction to Scientific
Computing (Park Ridge, IL: IBM, 1965).
Course text developed by Frank Beckman, an instructor at the IBM Systems

Research Institute, and distributed by the Data Processing Manufacturers
Association. Beckman's course was taken by IBM sales and system engineering
staff to ensure that they understood the elements of mathematics that are
significant in the organization or tasks most commonly performed by computing
machines. The course covers such topics as: basic Boolean operations and
computer arithmetic operations; algorithms, iterative procedures, and Monte
Carlo techniques.
17. Eckert, Wallace J. Punched Card Methods in Scientific Computation (New

York: Thomas J. Watson Astronomical Computing Bureau, Columbia
University, 1940). [Reprint: Cambridge, MA and Los Angeles, CA: MIT Press
and Tomash Publishers, 1983.]
Eckert, a Columbia University astronomer, details nearly a decade of his

research on punched-card equipment in physics and astronomical calculations.
This work examines some of the pre-history to Eckert's scientific computing
work in physics at IBM following World War II.
18. Eckert, Wallace J., and Rebecca Jones. Faster, Faster, Simple Description of
a Giant Electronic Computer and the Problems It Solves (New York: IBM,
1955).
Eckert and Jones provide discussion of the type and range of applications of
some early mainframe computers. These include applications in mathematics,
physics, astronomy, and other fields.
19. Engineering Research Associates. High-Speed Computing Devices (New

York: McGraw-Hill, 1950). [Reprinted by Tomash Publishers/MIT Press, 1983].
Excellent source of information on the architecture and scientific and

mathematical applications of early computers by the principals of Engineering
Research Associates, a computer firm that was formed in St. Paul, Minnesota in
1946 by engineers who had worked in computer-related research for the military
during World War II. Includes extensive discussion of punched card systems,
large-scale digital computing systems and analog computing systems. Reprint
includes introduction by Arnold Cohen.
20. Fernbach, Sidney, and A. Taub, eds. Computers and Their Role in the
Physical Sciences (New York: Gordon and Breach Science Publishers, 1970).
A large volume that represents perhaps the most important single study on
computing in the physical sciences undertaken by scientists and computer
specialists. The early chapters deal with computing more broadly, while the
latter two-thirds of the book is focused on applications in the physical sciences.
The scope is very broad with articles on errors in computing in reactor design,
plasma physics, continuum mechanics, statistical mechanics, chemistry, analysis
of bubble chamber film, high-energy physics, geology, and astrophysics. (See
articles by Charles K. Birdsall, 75; Bruce A. Bolt, 79; John M. Dawson, 75;
Francis H. Harlow, 113; Malvin H. Kalos, 125; L. Kowarski, 129; Nicholas
Metropolis, 145; John R. Pasta, 150; and James E. Snyder, 165.)
21. Fisher, Franklin M., et al. IBM and the U.S. Data Processing Industry: An
Economic History (New York: Praeger Scientific, 1983).
Narrative that the authors wrote as part of their testimony in U.S. versus IBM.
As such, it is focused fundamentally on the market for computers in the 1950s,
1960s, and 1970s and competition within the industry. Gives perspective on the
changing market for scientific computers and specifically discusses science and
engineering applications at IBM, Remington Rand, Control Data Corporation,
Burroughs, and RCA.
22. Flamm, Kenneth. Creating the Computer, Government, Industry, and High
Technology (Washington, D. C : Brookings Institution, 1988).
An important study in the history of computing that analyzes the role of

government in computing developments and the computer within the context of
federal science and technology policy. Provides some significant background on
scientific computing with respect to IBM, Engineering Research Associates, and
the U.S. Navy.
23. Fuchs, Walter R. Physics for the Modern Mind (New York: MacMillan and
Company, 1967).
Introductory physics text that concentrates heavily on the intellectual history of

the field. Chapter four, "Do Physicists Speak 'Mathematically,'" contains some
significant discussion on physics, mathematics, and computing.
24. Goldstine, Herman H. The Computer from Pascal to von Neumann

(Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1972).
Strong account of the wartime computer development work at the Moore School
of Electrical Engineering, University of Pennsylvania and postwar research and
development in this area at Princeton University's Institute for Advanced Study
by a principal participant. The focus is documenting technical developments
within their institutional contexts rather than applications, but does contain brief
discussion of the uses of the ENIAC and IAS machines in the physical sciences.
25. Hamming, Richard W. Calculus and the Computer Revolution (Boston, MA:
Houghton Mifflin Company, 1968).
Many computer applications in the physical sciences have roots in calculus.

This work describes past and current computer applications in calculus and
allied fields, and speculates on possibilities for future applications.
26. Hamming, Richard W. Computers and Society (New York: McGraw-Hill,

1972).
This broad introduction to computers includes a useful chapter entitled, "The

Computer as an Experimental Tool," that examines the ways a computer can be
used in the physical and other sciences. It discusses the use of both analog and
digital computers: in preparing experiments, conducting experiments, analyzing
experiments, as models replacing experiments, and as sources for experiments.
The final chapter presents a very concise introduction to major areas or concepts
in artificial intelligence.
27. Harbaugh, John Warvelle, et al. Programs for Computer Simulations in

Geology (Stanford, CA: Department of Geology, Stanford University, 1971).
Technical report listing code of select programs used in the computer simulation
of shallow water marine sedimentation processes project at Stanford University
that was documented in Harbaugh and Bonham-Carter's (1970) Computer
Simulation in Geology. (See 28.)
28. Harbaugh, John Warvelle, and Graeme Bonham-Carter. Computer

Simulation in Geology (New York: Wiley-Interscience, 1970).
Documents Office of Naval Research-funded work from 1965 to 1969 in

computer simulation models of shallow water marine sedimentation processes at
Stanford University. Harbaugh and Bonham-Carter (Stanford professor and his
doctoral student respectively) extend a philosophical argument in favor of
simulation research in geology and provide detailed explanations of a variety of
simulation tools. (See 27.)
29. Harbaugh, John Warvelle, and Daniel F. Merriam. Computer Applications in

Stratigraphic Analysis (New York: Wiley, 1968).
Two of the early leaders in computer applications in Geology give an important

introductory text on the topic. They address and provide examples of computer
applications to many different areas of geological research including mapping
techniques, time-trend analysis, polynomial trend analysis, harmonic trend
analysis, classification systems, and simulation.
30. Hass, John K., et al. Appraising the Records of Modern Science and
Technology: A Guide (Cambridge, MA: MIT, 1985).
Useful in its analysis of the process of collecting and appraising records in

science and technology, including significant discussion of primary source
material in the physical sciences. Contains discussion of discipline history
centers in science and technology, some of which contain records in scientific
computing.
31. Heilbron, John. L., and Robert W. Seidel. Lawrence and His Laboratory: A
History of the Lawrence Berkeley Laboratory Volume 1 (Berkeley, CA: Regents
of the University of California, 1981).
Much of this significant institutional history of Lawrence Berkeley Laboratory

covers the two decades preceding the advent of electronic digital computing. The
work, however, does contain brief discussion of computer applications and, more
importantly, provides strong evidence that much of the inspiration to develop
computing technology for analyzing accelerator-produced data extended from
the work of the Lawrence Berkeley Radiation Laboratory using a modern linear
accelerator, bubble chambers, and electron and proton sychrotrons.
32. Holl, Jack M. Argonne National Laboratory, 1946-96 (Urbana, IL:

University of Illinois Press, 1997).
An impressive institutional history that, in addition to documenting scientific and

technical achievements, provides significant analysis of the social and political
contexts of work and developments of the past half century at Argonne National
Laboratory. The book demonstrates how the story of U.S. national laboratories,
and Argonne in particular, represent a "microcosm of the nation's evolving
science policy." It includes discussion of various computer applications to the
sciences, including use of the AVIDAC (a computer built at Argonne that was
based on Princeton's Institute for Advance Study digital automatic computer) in
the late 1940s to solve complex problems in mathematics, physics and chemistry.
33. International Business Machines. Proceedings of the IBM Scientific

Computation Forum (New York: IBM, 1948).

Computing Symposium on Large-Scale Problems in Physics (White Plains, NY:
Data Processing Division, 1965).
Transcripts of important early conference on scientific computing in the physical
sciences. The conference included sessions on mathematical computing, high-
energy and reactor physics, and aerospace (See papers by Martin D. Kruskal,
131; and C.N.Yang, 180.)

Computing Symposium on Computer Aided Experimentation (Yorktown
Heights, NY: IBM Data Processing Division, 1966).
This symposium was initiated to bring together scientists in a range of

disciplines to report on and discuss ideas and methods in scientific computing.
Papers discuss a conversational-mode computer system for scientists and
engineers, Project Entelechon and the automation of experimental research,
computers in speech research, sensory mechanisms, computers in nuclear
structure, computer construction and display of molecular models, and other
topics.

Computing Symposium on Digital Simulation of Continuous Systems (White
Plains, NY: IBM, 1967).
Source contains the proceedings of a significant conference at IBM detailing

work and opportunities in computer applications to the digital simulation of
continuous systems in scientific research and engineering. Sessions address:
programming and techniques, simulation and use, and new concepts in the field
of computer applications to simulation. (See articles by T. Z. Fahidy, 100; C. L.
Goodzeit, 108; Arthur C. Guyton, 844.)

Computing Symposium on Computers in Chemistry (New York: IBM, 1968).
A collection of chemists and computer specialists joined at this conference to

explore the past achievements, present work, and future possibilities of computer
applications to a range of activities in the field of chemistry. Included sessions
on on-line, off-line, and middle ground applications, and covered topics such as
operating systems and applications programs, remote analysis of spectral data,
and new research techniques for the life sciences. (See papers by Willard C.
Blackney, Jr., 78; K. Bieman, 73; Willard C. Blackney, 78; A. D. McLean, 143;
C. H. Sederholm, 157; and J. D. Swalen, 168.)
38. Kaufmann, William J., and Larry L. Smaar. Supercomputing and the
Transformation of Science (New York: Scientific American Library, 1993).
A highly accessible, elaborately illustrated text providing an overview on
supercomputers and their impact on the sciences. Much of the book relates to
high-energy physics and astronomy, but there is also limited discussion of
developments in computing and genetics. Some of the computers designed and
used primarily for scientific applications, such as the ILLIAC IV and Control
Data 7600, are profiled.
39. Kevles, Daniel J. The Physicists: The History of a Scientific Community in

Modern America (New York: Knopf, 1978).
This source is an important contribution to the history of physics and physicists

in the United States from roughly the 1870s to the 1970s. Although there is only
limited direct discussion of computing, the book provides important context on
the individuals, university departments, and government entities (Los Alamos
National Laboratory, National Bureau of Standards, Atomic Energy
Commission, etc.) involved in research with computer applications to physics.
40. Koch, George S. Computer Programs for Geology (New York: Artronic
Information Systems, Inc., 1972).
Contains a very brief introduction and then lists the source code for
approximately twenty software programs with geological applications. Source
code for the programs is accompanied by a brief description of the applications.
41. Korn, Granino A. Minicomputers for Engineers and Scientists (New York:
McGraw-Hill Book Co., 1973).
Relatively inexpensive minicomputers from Digital Equipment Corporation,

Data General, and others expanded opportunities for scientific research outside
of expensive mainframe computer laboratories. This book serves as a guide for
scientists and engineers to the principal features of minicomputers and a
companion to understanding minicomputer manufacturers' literature. Topics
include: instruction sets, addressing schemes, peripherals, systems software,
macroassemblers, and trends in future minicomputer architectures.
42. Leslie, Stuart. The Cold War and American Science: The Military-
Industrial-Academic Complex at MIT and Stanford (New York: Columbia
University Press, 1993).
This is an important examination of the collaboration between universities, the

military, and corporations to advance science and technology during the 1950s
and 1960s. Discusses important projects and context of scientific computing
during this time frame.
43. Loudon, Victor T. Computer Analysis of Orientation Data in Structural
Geology (Evanston, IL: Northwestern University, 1964).
This is a manual for computer applications to earth and environmental sciences

including: geology, geophysics, geochemistry, geography, and environmental
engineering. Indicates that utilization of computers has advanced further in solid
earth geophysics, atmospheric science, and oceanography than it has in more
traditional geological and geographical fields. Evaluates present research in the
aforementioned fields of geology and environmental science and addresses the
programs and methods that can be useful.
44. Loudon, Victor T., and E. P. Adams. Gossip List of Some Geologists Who
Use a Computer (Reading, UK: Department of Geology, 1969).
Documents individuals, universities, laboratories, and organizations throughout

the world that used computers in the geological sciences during the second half
of the 1960s.
45. Melkanoff, Michel A., et al. A FORTRAN Program for Elastic Scattering
Analyses with the Nuclear Optical Model (Berkeley, CA: University of
California Press, 1962).
Short book that provides an good example of early programming in FORTRAN

for high-energy physics applications during the late 1950s, in this case, particle
scattering using the Nuclear Optical Model. It details the pioneering work of
scientists and engineers at UCLA in this field using a FORTRAN program,
SCAT 4 on the IBM 704, and IBM 709.
46. Mendelsohn, Everett, et al., eds. Science, Technology and the Military
Sociology of the Sciences: A Yearbook, Volume 12 nos. 1 and 2 (Dordrecht:
Kluwer, 1988).
Two part edited volume that broadly addresses the relationship between
scientific and engineering research and the military in the United States and
Europe from the late 19th century to the early 1980s. Discusses the U.S.
military's support for information processing research during World War II and
beyond in high-energy physics and other fields. Different articles address issues
such as the cost of information processing research, computer development as a
mandate of the Armed Forces, the Office of Naval Research and computing, and
applications of computers to research on radar technology. (See articles by I.
Bernard Cohen, 89; and Peter Galison, 107.)
47. Merriam, Daniel F. ed. Computer Applications in the Earth Sciences (New
York: Plenum Press, 1969).
This book is the most important secondary source on the history of early
applications of computers to the geological sciences. Merriam, a geologist and a
pioneer and promoter of computer applications in the geological sciences,
organized this International Symposium to bring other leading scholars,
industrialists, and computer professionals together to discuss the state-of-art of
geological computer applications. Papers address computer applications to a
broad range of geological specializations, including: geochemistry, geophysics,
hydrology, mining geology, paleontology, paleocology, petroleum engineering,
petroleum geology, sendimentology, stratigraphy, and structural geology. (See
papers by Milton B. Dobrin, 95; George S. Koch, 128; W. C. Krumbein, 130; E.
W. Peikert, 151; David M. Raup, 152; and E. H. T. Whitten, 177.)
48. Metropolis, Nicholas, et al., eds. A History of Computing in the Twentieth

Century: A Collection of Papers (New York: Academic Press, 1980).
An excellent source of information on early scientific computing at a number of

the most prominent university research centers, government laboratories, and
computer firms, including Harvard University, Princeton University's Institute
for Advanced Study, MIT, Argonne National Laboratory, Los Alamos National
Laboratory, the National Physical Laboratory, IBM, and ERA, among others.
The papers were originally presented at a conference at Los Alamos National
Laboratory in June 1976. They range from the anecdotal to highly analytical.
Metropolis and Gian-Carlo Rota, one of his co-editors, were scientists at Los
Alamos National Laboratory. (See articles by: Julian Bigelow, 74; Arthur
Burks, 82; Jeffrey C. Chu, 87; Robert Everett, 99; A. S. Householder, 116;
Cuthbert Hurd, 120; Nicholas Metropolis, 146; and Erwin Tomash, 171.)
49. Nash, Stephen G., ed. A History of Scientific Computing (New York: ACM
Press, 1990).
This volume grew out of the conference on the History of Scientific and Numeric
Computation at Princeton University in 1987. While there is something of value
in all of the contributions, only some of them directly address scientific
applications of computers. The book is divided into sections on people,
problems, methods, journals, meetings, and places. Nearly all the articles in the
volume are written by scientific and technical actors in the history they are
writing. (See articles by Garrett Birkoff, 77; Martin H. Gutknecht, 112; Nicholas
Metropolis, 147; John Todd, 170; and David J. Wheeler, 175.)
50. Oettinger, Anthony G., with the collaboration of Sema Marks. Run,
Computer, Run: The Mythology of Educational Innovation (Cambridge, MA:
Harvard University Press, 1969).
Attacks dominant notions of the relationship between technology and society,
specifically focusing upon how such notions distort in the area of computers in
education. He argues that computers are neither a savior in education, nor are
they an evil displacing human educators. Particularly important is his "Prologue
II," a 21-page section entitled, "The Uses of Computers in Science." Here,
Oettinger argues that the computer has been cast in two separate but
complementary roles: actor and instrument. The latter is more established, but
Oettinger believes it is in the former, participating in theory formulation, that
computers will have greater profundity in science. This discussion includes
computers and X-ray crystallography, the role of computers in acting out the
implications of theory in protein structures, and artificial intelligence.
51. Pall, Gabriel A. Introduction to Scientific Computing (New York: Meredith

Corporation, 1971).
Gabriel Pall of IBM provides an undergraduate text to introduce science and

engineering students to concepts and methods of scientific computing. The book
includes instruction on scientific computing functions, mathematical statistics,
numerical analysis, other scientific computing applications, real-time processing
techniques, and a dozen useful case studies.
52. Perone, Sam P., and David O. Jones. Digital Computers in Scientific
Instrumentation (New York: McGraw-Hill, 1973).
This is an important work documenting and instructing on applications of digital

computers in chemistry. Perone, a chemist at Purdue University, and Jones, an
industrial designer, begin by discussing the dilemma of the technology gap that
many chemists and other scientists face, and the difficulty scientists often have in
communicating with experts in computer science, as well as computer
manufacturers. The text was designed to help overcome this technology gap by
introducing analytical chemistry students to digital computer applications.
Specifically, it discusses: computer hardware, programming languages for
chemical data handling, time-sharing, high-level programming languages for lab
experiments, and surveys on computer applications in chemistry.
53. Pugh, Emerson W. Memories that Shaped an Industry: Decisions Leading to

IBM System/360 (Cambridge, MA: MIT Press, 1984).
A useful overview of the history of computing from the early postwar period into
the 1960s that structures the narrative and analysis around a small number of
engineers. Contains some discussion of early developments at Engineering
Research Associates, the Eckert-Mauchly Computer Company, von Neumann's
Institute for Advanced Study computer, Project Whirlwind, and an important
chapter on Project Stretch and the path to building the IBM System/360.
54. Pugh, Emerson W. Building IBM (Cambridge, MA: MIT Press, 1995).
A very strong technical and managerial history of IBM that remains the best
broad based analysis of the firm's history to date. Discusses the design of early
IBM computers to serve the market for scientific researchers, including Stretch
and other major government-sponsored projects to develop computers for
research in the physical and other sciences.
55. Pugh, Emerson W., Lyle R. Johnson, and John H. Palmer. IBM's 360 and
Early 370 Systems (Cambridge, MA: MIT Press, 1991).
Thoroughly researched technical history of the IBM 360 and early 370 systems.
Although the focus is not on applications, the analysis addresses the decision-
making process to produce a general-purpose computer that could meet the
needs of a range of scientific and business users. The chapter "High-End
Computers" contains the most direct discussion of scientific computing,
including the use of Stretch and other IBM computers in the 1960s at Los
Alamos Scientific Laboratory.
56. Redmond, Kent C, and Thomas M. Smith. Project Whirlwind (Bedford,

MA: Digital Press, 1980).
This provides an early study on the history of computing focusing on the

development of Whirlwind at MIT. Documents funding issues and other
institutional contexts of the machine's development and provides some
discussion of the uses of Whirlwind in physics, mathematics, and engineering.
57. Sammet, Jean E. Programming Languages: History and Fundamentals

(Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall, 1969).
Provides basic institutional history on many of the major programming

languages of the late 1950s and 1960s, including some, like FORTRAN, that
were primarily used in scientific computing.
58. Smith, Frederick G. Geological Data Processing Using Fortran IV (New

York: Harper & Row, 1966).
Canadian geochemist Frederick Smith's early and important textbook on use of

FORTRAN IV in data processing for geology. The depth of analysis lends
understanding to the use of FORTRAN IV throughout the sciences. Topics
cover the use of computers in: symbolic logic, Boolean algebra, arithmetic,
vectors and matrices, calculus of discrete and continuous functions, probability,
statistics, and flow diagrams.
59. Stern, Nancy. From EN1AC to UNIVAC: An Appraisal of the Eckert-
Mauchly Computers (Bedford, MA: Digital Press, 1981).
A path breaking study in the early history of computing, representing one of the
first in-depth historical examinations of American electronic digital computers.
It highlights the research and development work of J. Presper Eckert and John
Mauchly on the ENIAC, EDVAC, BINAC, and UNIVAC computers, and the
broader institutional contexts of the design of these machines. An appendix
includes John von Neumann's highly influential A First Report on the EDVAC, a
paper that established the architecture of future electronic digital computers.
Stern's focus is on computer developments and related contexts rather than
applications; however, there is brief discussion of the uses of these early four
computers.
60. Svoboda, Antonin. Computing Mechanisms and Linkages (New York:

McGraw Hill Book Co., 1948).
An excellent source of information on evolving computing technology at

government sponsored laboratories during and immediately following World
War II. The book provides an account of a number of early applications of
computational equipment in physics, mathematics, and engineering at the MIT
Radiation Laboratory, and a number of additional military, university, and
industrial laboratories in the United States, England, Canada, and other
countries. Includes extensive discussion of applications of bar-linkage
computers, bar-linkage multipliers, harmonic transformers, and bar-linkage
function generators.
61. Wilkes, Maurice V. Memoirs of a Computer Pioneer (Cambridge, MA: MIT

Press, 1985).
Autobiography by the Director of Computer Laboratory at the University of

Cambridge that describes the development, programming and applications of the
EDSAC and EDSAC 2.
62. Wilkes, Maurice V., David J. Wheeler, and S. Gill. The Preparation of
Programs for an Electronic Digital Computer (Cambridge, MA: Addison-
Wesley Press, 1951). [Reprint: Cambridge, MA and Los Angeles, CA: MIT
Press and Tomash Publishers, 1982.]
The first textbook on programming, describing programming for the EDSAC.

This book became an important source for individuals involved with early
scientific computing.
63. Worthy, James C. William C. Norris: Portrait of a Maverick (Cambridge,
MA: Ballinger, 1987).
Biography of one of the founders of Engineering Research Associates, and later,

the Control Data Corporation. Both firms focused on the scientific computing
field, and the book provides important perspectives and context of marketing and
serving the scientific computing market.
Articles
64. Ahearne, John F. "Introductory Physics Experiments Using a Digital

Computer." American Journal of Physics 34 (1966): 309-333.
This article cites the increasing interest in using computers in physics education
in the United States and details the program at the United States Air Force
Academy. Describes the computing facility of the F. J. Seiler Research Labor-
atory, which contains a Burroughs B-5500 system with two processors, 24,000
words of core memory, 64,000 words of drum memory, 4 magnetic tape units, a
card reader, card-punch, line printer, and a Calcomp plotter system.
65. Amouyal, Albert. "The Beginnings of Computing Activities at the Atomic

Energy Authority, 1952-1957." Annals of the History of Computing 12:4 (1990):
219-225.
This article details computer applications to nuclear research at Commissariat a

l'Energie Atomique (CEA-the French Atomic Energy Authority) from the
preparatory (1952-1957) and take-off (1957-1959) to growth (1959-1972)
periods. Discussion includes the changing hardware at the commission, the
training of scientists in programming techniques, and some of the projects
undertaken.
66. Aspray, William. "The Mathematical Reception of the Modern Computer:

John von Neumann and the Institute for Advanced Study Computer." MAA
Studies in Mathematics 26. In Esther R. Phillips, ed. The Mathematical
Association of America (1987) 166-194.
This leading study of the early history of computers in mathematics presents the
reception of Princeton University's Institute for Advanced Study computer as a
case study. Much of the mathematics discussed is related to applications in the
physical sciences.
67. Aspray, William. "Was Early Entry a Competitive Advantage?" IEEE

Annals of the History of Computing 22:3 (July-September 2000): 42-87.
Major contribution to the understanding of scientific computing activities at five
pioneering U.S. universities in computer development: MIT, Princeton, Harvard,
Columbia and Pennsylvania. Aspray breaks new ground in presenting
developments at these schools in the 1960s and 1970s to determine whether they
benefited from first-mover advantages. He relates how certain competitive
disadvantages and other factors outweighed any advantages, keeping these
schools from building upon, and even maintaining, their early leads. While it
addresses computing in many areas of science (including cognitive science and
medicine), given the time frame, discussion is focused on the physical sciences.
68. Aspray, William, and Donald Beaver. "Marketing the Monster: Advertising
Computer Technology." Annals of the History of Computing 8:2 (April 1986):
127-143.
Based on extensive analysis of advertisements, this study presents how

perceptions of the meaning of computers changed between 1950 and 1980.
69. Aspray, William, and Bernard O. Williams. "Arming American Scientists:

NSF and the Provision of Scientific Computing Facilities for Universities, 1950-
1973." IEEE Annals of the History of Computing 16:4 (1994): 60-74.
This is an important article providing information on the institutional history of

the National Science Foundation and its role in supporting the development of
computer laboratories at U.S. colleges and universities between 1950 and 1973.
The NSF established these computer facilities with the goal of furthering
scientific research and education. By the 1970s the NSF had refocused its
attention and funding toward the newly emerging field of theoretical computer
science. Indicates that IBM, rather than institutes of higher education or the
government, was the single strongest force at introducing computers to college
and university campuses in the middle 1950s. Charts show the breakdown of
NSF funding in the following categories: research, education, information
systems, and facilities.
70. Backus, John. "The History of FORTRAN I, II, III." Annals of the History of
Computing 1:1 (July 1979): 21-37.
Backus, the leader of the IBM team that developed FORTRAN, provides a
history of the development of this language that became the most common
programming language used in the sciences. Although the focus is the
development project, applications in the physical sciences are briefly discussed.
71. Bashe, Charles J. "The SSEC in Historical Perspective." Annals of the

History of Computing 4:4 (October 1982): 296-312.
Provides a brief history of some applications of punched card technology in
mathematics, astronomy, and nautical calculations, and relates early applications
of the Selective Sequence Electronic Calculator (SSEC).
72. Beninger, James R. "Information Society and Global Science." In Charles E.

M. Dunlop, and Rob Kling, eds. Computerization and Controversy: Value
Conflicts and Social Choices (Boston, MA: Academic Press, 1991): 383-397.
Beninger examines "information society" and "global science" as they relate to

the theme of "control." He includes a section on scientific computing,
discussing the role of the MARK I, ENIAC, and later computers.
73. Bieman, K. "The Utilization of the Computer in High Resolution Mass

Spectrometry." In International Business Machines. Proceedings: IBM Scientific
Computing Symposium on Computers in Chemistry (New York: IBM, 1968):
177-196.
Illustrates the present functioning and future potential of computer applications

to high-resolution mass spectra at MIT.
74. Bigelow, Julian. "Computer Development at the Institute for Advanced

Study." In Nicholas Metropolis, et al., eds. A History of Computing in the
Twentieth Century (New York: Academic Press, 1980): 291-310.
Edited version of paper given at International Research Conference on the

History of Computing, Los Alamos Scientific Laboratory, June 10-15, 1976.
Participant details Institute for Advanced Study (IAS) computer development
work from the mid 1940s to the early 1950s. Indicates that the IAS group was
not influenced by concomitant work at MIT, the Moore School, etc.
75. Birdsall, Charles K., and John M. Dawson. "Plasma Physics." In S.

Fernbach, and A. Taub, eds. Computers and Their Role in the Physical Sciences
(New York: Gordon and Breach Science Publishers, 1970): 247-310.
This study consists of three parts: an introduction to plasma physics,

contributions of simulation to plasma theory utilizing one-dimensional models,
and results of selected experimentation utilizing two-dimensional models. The
article indicates the various computer applications involved in this modeling.
76. Birkenstock, James W. "Planning." Annals of the History of Computing 5:2

(April 1983): 112-114.
Condensation of oral history held at the Charles Babbage Institute where Erwin
Tomash and Roger Steuwer interview Birkenstock. Discusses the early ideas
about the market and scientific applications of computers at the time of the
planning of the IBM 701.
77. Birkoff, Garrett. "Fluid Dynamics, Reactor Computations, and Surface

Representation." In Stephen G. Nash. A History of Scientific Computing (New
York: ACM Press, 1990): 63-87.
Discusses the application of digital computers to calculate problems in the fields

of fluid dynamics, reactor computations, and surface representation. Relates the
"liberation" of computing technology from wartime needs at the end of 1945,
and the shift to enlist these machines in various areas of scientific research.
78. Blackney, Willard C , Jr. "The Remote Analysis of Spectral Data." In

International Business Machines. Proceedings: IBM Scientific Computing
Symposium on Computers in Chemistry (New York: IBM, 1968): 121-138.
Reports on the remote spectral data analysis system (first using the IBM 1300
and later the 1800) in place at the Dow Chemical Company.
79. Bolt, Bruce A. "The Use of Computers in Studies of the Earth." In S.

Fernbach and A. Taub., eds. Computers and Their Role in the Physical Sciences
(New York: Gordon and Breach Science Publishers, 1970): 543-570.
Bolt chronicles the important benefits computers have brought to the science of
geology. The primary gains, as he outlines in four examples, are in freeing
geologists from time-consuming calculations. He does, however, note that
computers have at times pushed individuals to collect enormous amounts of data,
without a focus on significant issues or without being grounded in the
fundamentals of geophysics.
80. Bright, Herbert S. "Early FORTRAN User Experience." Annals of the

History of Computing 6:1 (January 1984): 28-30.
Short account of nuclear physics computing applications utilizing programs in

FORTRAN at Westinghouse-Bettis Laboratory.
81. Bunker, Don L. "Computer Experiments in Chemistry." Scientific American

211 (July 1964): 100-108.
Bunker describes the installation of IBM's Stretch at Los Alamos National

Laboratory, and the impact that this electronic digital computer has had on
studying chemical reactions. Stretch enabled researchers at the lab to examine
many hypothetical chemical reactions that would not have been possible to study
previously. In addition to detailing several of the experiments on the motion of
atoms and molecules during particular chemical reactions, the article also
provides a brief overview of computer applications in chemistry that have
brought the properties of molecules and dynamic processes within the domain of
mathematical investigation by chemists, and researchers in physics.
82. Burks, Arthur W. "From ENIAC to the Stored-Program Computer: Two

Revolutions in Computers." In Nicholas Metropolis, et al., eds. A History of
Computing in the Twentieth Century (New York: Academic Press, 1980): 311-
344.
Burks provides an edited version of paper he gave at the International Research

Conference on the History of Computing, Los Alamos Scientific Laboratory,
June 10-15, 1976. He indicates the influences on the development of the ENIAC
and its impact on subsequent computers. Includes discussion of early scientific
and engineering applications of the ENIAC in ballistic trajectories and other
areas.
83. Burks, Arthur W., and Alice R. Burks. "The ENIAC: First General-Purpose
Electronic Computer." Annals of the History of Computing 3:4 (October 1981):
310-399.
This article provides a lengthy treatment of the ENIAC by Arthur Burks, one of
the principal individuals working with J. Presper Eckert and John Mauchly on
the development of the machine. The ENIAC was used for a variety of purposes
during the half decade following World War II, including a number of
calculations in the physical sciences.
84. Cameron, Joseph M., and Joseph Hilsenrath. "Use of General-Purpose

Coding Systems for Statistical Calculations." In International Business
Machines. Proceedings of IBM Scientific Computing on Statistics (White
Plains, NY: IBM Data Processing Division, 1965): 281-301.
Cameron and Hilsenrath, of the National Bureau of Standards, begin with a

discussion of the diminishing cost of computer time with the rapidly advancing
speed of these machines. The greatest shortage is no longer computer time, but
qualified programmers, especially individuals that can program for research
being conducted in physics, chemistry, and engineering. The authors then
briefly discuss a number of programs useful to statistical analysis in the physical
sciences and engineering, including: AARDVARK, DAM, and OMNITAB.
85. Campbell-Kelly, Martin. "Programming the EDSAC: Early Programming

Activity at the University of Cambridge." Annals of the History of Computing
2:1 (October-December 1998): 7-36.
This article is fundamentally concerned with detailing the development of the

programming system for the EDSAC in the late 1940s, but also briefly discusses
applications in the sciences. Mentions that the EDSAC performed calculations
in geophysics, wave mechanics, and electron optics during its first full year of
operation (1950).
86. Carr, John W., and Alan J. Perlis. "Small-Scale Computers as Scientific
Calculators." Control Engineering 3 (March 1956): 99-104.
The applications of large-scale mainframe computers during the first decade

following World War II were fundamental to some areas of scientific computing,
and largely seemed to define these machines, at least in part, as scientific
instruments. By the mid-1950s, however, many small-scale computers were also
on the market and being applied to scientific research. This article details many
of these small-scale machines. Burroughs Corporation's E-101, IBM's 650,
Electrodata's Datatron, and other small-scale computers are discussed and
evaluated on the basis of their storage and displays, speed, error prevention and
failure detection, automatic coding procedures, and input-output.
87. Chu, Jeffrey Chuan. "Computer Development at Argonne National

Laboratory." In Nicholas Metropolis, et al., eds. A History of Computing in the
Twentieth Century (New York: Academic Press, 1980): 345-346.

Briefly discusses the Argonne's version of the Institute's (for Advanced Study)
Digital Automatic Computer (AVIDAC), Oak Ridge Automatic Computer
(ORACLE), and the people involved.
88. Clark, Wesley A. "The LINC Was Early and Small." In Proceedings ofACM
Conference on History of Medical Informatics (Bethesda, MD: Association for
Computing Machinery, 1987): 51-73.
The development of the LINC, a computer designed by scientists at MIT's

Biophysics Laboratory interested in the quantification of neuro-electric activity
and engineers from the school's Lincoln Laboratory, is discussed at length.
Clark indicates how the computer paved the way for mini-computers from DEC.
More than a thousand LINC or variants were installed during the 1960s for a
variety of scientific research programs. While the focus of the paper is on the
development of the LINC, some applications are briefly discussed.
89. Cohen, I. Bernard. "The Computer: A Case Study of the Support by

Government, Especially the Military, of a New Science and Technology." In
Everett Mendelsohn, et al., eds. Science, Technology and the Military Sociology
of the Sciences: A Yearbook, V. 12:1 (Dordrecht: Kluwer, 1988): 119-154.
This is an important study of government support of computing research in the
United States and Europe prior to, during, and immediately following World
War II. Includes meaningful discussion and analysis of computer development
projects and applications of computing technology to research in the physical
sciences and engineering. At least briefly discusses the following topics and
machines: the military radar work, MOSAIC, the Atanasoff-Berry Computer
(ABC), ENIAC, Harvard Mark I, the computers of Konrad Zuse, EDVAC,
EDSAC, UNIVAC, LEO, Stretch, NAREC, and the IAS computer.
90. Comrie, L. C. "The Application of Commercial Calculating Machines to

Scientific Computing." Mathematical Tables and Other Aids to Computation
2:16(1946): 149-159.
Rather than focusing on the emergence of large-scale computing projects that

developed during and immediately following World War II, Comrie takes the
perspective that existing, inexpensive, commercially available calculating
machines can often assist scientists with many of their computational needs.
Believes that physicists and engineers too quickly ask what new device can be
created to solve a particular equation. Concludes by stating that he is convinced
the day of the desk machine is not over, or even threatened by the large-scale
computers that were developed during the war, and the usefulness of the
commercial calculating machine to the sciences is far from over.
91. Croarken, Mary. "The Beginnings of the Manchester Computer

Phenomenon: People and Influences." IEEE Annals of the History of Computing
15:3 (1993): 9-16.
Examines the "prehistory" of computers along with early scientific computation

at Manchester University following the end of World War II. Max Herman,
Alexander Newman and F. C. Williams are profiled. Briefly discusses
Manchester University's tradition of forming collaborations between science and
industry with implications for how this applied to computing developments and
applications at the school.
92. Curtis, John H. "The National Applied Mathematics Laboratories of the

National Bureau of Standards: A Progress Report Covering the First Five Years
of Its Existence." Annals of the History of Computing 11:2 (1989): 69-98.
Report dated April 1, 1953 provides overview of the first five years of the
National Applied Mathematics Laboratories (NAML) since their initiation in
July 1947. The Statistics Engineering Laboratory, part of the NAML, had the
short-term objective of improving research efficiency for scientists and engineers
and the long-term goal of contributing to mathematical knowledge in a way that
would be the basis for future discoveries in various scientific fields.
93. Curtis, K. K, et al. "John R. Pasta, 1918-1981: An Unusual Path Toward
Computer Science." Annals of the History of Computing 5:3 (July 1983): 224-
238.
This contains remembrances written by colleagues of Pasta. Pasta was a

physicist who contributed greatly to computing research applied to scientific
research in national laboratories, especially in his roles as the organizer of the
Mathematics and Computer Branch of the Atomic Energy Commission and as
the NSF's Division Director of Mathematical and Computer Science.
94. Cuthill, Elizabeth. "Digital Computers in Nuclear Reactor Design." In Franz

L. Alt, and Morris Rubinoff, eds. Advances in Computers (New York: Academic
Press, 1964): 289-349.
Cuthill addresses computer applications to the development and classification of

nuclear reactor codes, neutron transport equations, and the solution of the
"neutron transport problem."
95. Dobrin, Milton B. "Computer Processing of Seismic Reflections in

Petroleum Exploration." In Daniel F. Merriam, ed. Computer Applications in
the Earth Sciences (New York: Plenum Press, 1969): 41-60.
Dobrin, of United Geophysical Corporation, begins by outlining why seismic

reflection data of digital recordings creates significant demands on computer
storage capacity and speed of operation. He addresses how challenges can be
met and argues that the digital computer has revolutionized seismic processing.
96. "Dr. J. Robert Oppenheimer Praises Scientific Uses of the 701." IBM Record
36:2 (April 1953), reprinted in Annals of the History of Computing 5:2 (April
1983): 157- 158.
Reports on talk that Oppenheimer gave to leading scientists, educators, and

individuals from business and government on the IBM 701. Oppenheimer
remarked that the high-speed computer can be a surrogate for experiment and
render new connections and scientific research possible. He spoke on scientific
applications in four areas: weather and weather forecasting, astrophysics, atomic
research, and statistical problems of genetics and population studies.
97. Eckert, J. Presper, Jr. "The ENIAC." In Nicholas Metropolis, et al., eds. A
History of Computing in the Twentieth Century (New York: Academic Press,
1980): 525-540.

Co-leader in developing the ENIAC discusses the paths taken, influential factors,
and applications. Development of other machines is briefly discussed, including:
BINAC, EDVAC, UNIVAC, and LARC. Includes comments from others
related to priority issues.
98. Elzen, Boelie, and Donald MacKenzie. "The Social Limits of Speed."
Annals of the History of Computing 16 (1994): 46-61.
Provides history of the development and applications of supercomputers within

the sciences and outside of them. Examines the socio-technical network of
manufacturers, users, software venders, and specific software and hardware
architectures and outlines how goals other than the original one of speed, such as
software development, reliability, and user support, have grown to a position of
prominence.
99. Everett, Robert R. "Whirlwind." In Nicholas Metropolis, et al., eds. A

History of Computing in the Twentieth Century (New York: Academic Press,
1980): 365-384.

Provides a strong concise history of this important computer built by the Digital
Computer Laboratory at MIT between 1945 and 1952. Whirlwind was designed
for real time control and it significantly impacted a number of subsequent real
time projects including SAGE.
100. Fahidy, T. Z. "Digital Simulation in Chemical Process Analysis and

Design." In Proceedings, IBM Scientific Computing Symposium Digital
Simulation of Continuous Systems (White Plains, NY: IBM, 1967): 101-114.
Provides a summary and review of the digital simulation systems that have been
applied to chemical process analysis over the past ten years. Discusses MIDAS,
MIMIC, EASL, PACTOLUS, and other programs used on machines such as the
IBM 1130. Concludes that in changing from interpreter to compiler versions,
simulation programs will have greater versatility and help digital simulation
become an increasingly significant computer technique in chemical process
analysis.
101. Fernbach, Sidney. "Scientific Uses of Computers." In Michael Dertouzos,

and Joel Moses, eds. The Computer Age: A Twenty-Year View (Cambridge, MA:
MIT Press, 1979): 146-170.
An all too brief, but important overview of scientific computing's past, present,
and future. This source is especially strong in documenting the number and types
of computers at the Atomic Energy Commission and Energy Research and
Development Administration.
102. Fimple, M. D. "FORTRAN vs COBOL." Datamation 10:8 (August 1964)

39-40.
Fimple compares and contrasts the applications of FORTRAN and COBOL.

While the former is generally considered more appropriate for scientific and the
latter for business applications, Fimple argues that the choice of programming
language often depends more on the computer hardware being used, as opposed
to the type of problem or research application.
103. Fortun, M., and S. S. Schweber. "Scientists and the Legacy of World War
II: The Case of Operations Research." Social Studies of Science 23 (1993): 595-
642.
Discusses the contributions of physicists to operations research and systems

engineering during and in the years immediately following World War II.
Examines the relationship between operations research and systems engineering,
two areas developing alongside and aided by digital computer applications.
104. Frazer, J. W. "Future Design of Computerized Instruments." International

Business Machines. Proceedings: IBM Scientific Computing Symposium on
Computers in Chemistry (New York: Yorktown Heights, 1968): 265-284.
Analytical chemist at the Lawrence Livermore Radiation Laboratory discusses

the work of the lab to help develop analytical instruments to aid research in
projects requiring a large number of determinations. The laboratory uses a
digital computer in conjunction with different instrumentation to automate
routine analytical procedures, as an analytical tool to increase capabilities, to
develop closed-loop experimentation, and to increase analytical accuracies.
105. Fritz, W. Barkley. "ENIAC—A Problem Solver." Annals of the History of

Computing 16:1 (1994): 25-41.
Programmer provides a participant's perspective of the history of the ENIAC's

applications in mathematics, the physical sciences, and engineering during its
first decade (1946-1956). An appendix contains a list detailing the scope of
problems the ENIAC tackled over these ten years.
106. Galison, Peter. "Bubble Chambers and the Experimental Workplace." In

Peter Achinstein, and Owen Hannaway, eds. Observation, Experiment and
Hypothesis in Modern Physical Science (Cambridge, MA: MIT Press, 1985):
309-373.
In this lengthy article, leading historian of science Peter Galison provides one of
the most significant examinations of computing in the physical sciences. He
outlines how bubble chambers, developed in the late 1950s, fundamentally
changed the structure, equipment, and personnel of research projects in high-
energy physics; projects transformed from the work of small groups to major
enterprises, and from equipment costing in the thousands of dollars to equipment
costing millions of dollars. He details how specialists in hardware and software
became fundamental to large-scale research projects such as bubble chamber
experiments to facilitate data reduction.
107. Galison, Peter. "Physics Between War and Peace." In Everett Mendelsohn,
et al., eds. Science, Technology and the Military, Sociology of the Sciences: A
Yearbook, 12:1 (Dordrecht: Kluwer, 1988): 47-86.
Galison provides an excellent study of the physics community and the military in
the U.S. during World War II. Discusses work being conducted in high-energy
physics at government laboratories and leading academic institutions.
108. Goodzeit, C. L. "Simulation Techniques Applied to the Design of the 80-

Inch Liquid Hydrogen Bubble Chamber Expansion System." In Proceedings,
IBM Scientific Computing Symposium Digital Simulation of Continuous Systems
(White Plains, NY: IBM, 1967): 181-192.
Goodzeit, a scientist at Brookhaven National Laboratory, describes computer

applications to a study on a non-linear dynamic system that was associated with
the design of the laboratory's Liquid Hydrogen Bubble Chamber.
109. Greenstadt, John. "Recollections of the Technical Computing Bureau."

Annals of the History of Computing 5:2 (April 1983) 149-153.
Greenstadt provides personal recollections of his work at IBM's Technical

Computing Bureau shortly after its formation in the early 1950s. He concentrates
primarily on mathematical applications of the 701.
110. Grier, David A. "The Math Tables Project of the Work Projects
Administration: The Reluctant Start of the Computing Era." IEEE Annals of the
History of Computing 20:3 (1998): 33-50.
Provides history of the Mathematical Tables Project, a human computing project

that began under the WPA in 1938. Presents project as a transitional institution
in the history of computing, one that promoted scientific computation and
developing methods that would later be incorporated on electronic digital
computers.
Exploring the Variety of Random
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hiljaa se mailmaki pyörii, sanoi Jere kääntyen pois.
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varmasti.
— No nyt saatte nähdä, että nainen tekee yhtä hyvän työn kuin
mieskin.
Aukaiskaa suunne vaan, käski lääkäri kolmannen kerran.
— Kyl on tohtooril tarkat silmät kun suun läpitte koipeen kattoo,

sanoi Jere ivallisesti.
— Aukaise nyt suusi, Jere, kehoitti Seppo.
— Oonks mää sit vanha koni, kun suuhun kattotaa? kysyi Jere
itsepäisesti.
— Aukaise nyt, kuiskasi Sarri.
Jere aukaisi vihdoinkin ison suunsa ja lääkäri alkoi kaivaa

hampaita terävällä aseella sanoen:
— Kylläpä teillä onkin hyvät hampaat näin vanhaksi mieheksi.
— Kun on vanha pukki, niin on kova sarvi, sanoi Jere.
— Tässä teillä on yksi huono hammas, joka on otettava pois, sanoi

lääkäri.
— Kyll neet hampaat jyrsii sen aikaa, kun vatta ruokans sulattaa.
Kun tee vaan parannatten sen fleinin koivest, niin mää maksan
rahan.
— Minä otan hampaan pois, muihin ruumiin osiin minä en kajoa.
— Me osuttiinkin väärään paikkaan, tämähän on hammaslääkäri,

kuiskasi
Sarri Sepolle.
— Painutaan vek, sanoi Seppo yhtä hiljaa.
— Tommottil nyrkeil ei aikuisen miehen hammas irti lähre, sanoi

Jere.
— Sepä nähdään hyvin pian.
— No koetas vaan, siit ei tu mitää sano hevone, kun hiiri korvaan

pyrki.
Jere aukaisi suunsa ja lääkäri kuoletti ikenen ja veti hetken perästä

taitavasti pois huonon hampaan.
— Tässä on hammas, sanoi lääkäri näyttäen sitä pihtien välissä, —

ja huono olikin, ei sitä kannata surra.
— Minä en ole nähnyt Jereä noin mölhän näköisenä ennen, sanoi

Sarri.
— Siin ol fusku, sanoi Jere, kun toipui hämmästyksestään.
— Eikö tämä ole pakottanut kauankin? kysyi lääkäri nauraen. —

Nyt voitte nukkua yöt rauhassa.
— On siit ollu suur risti ja vaeva. Kiitoksii vaan. Etteks tee nyt
reerais sit koipee? Jere alkoi uskoa, että nyt tulee apu joka asiaan.
— Minä olen hammaslääkäri enkä mitään muuta.
— Tällä pojalla on reikä hampaassa. Sitä me tulimmekin

paikkauttamaan, sanoi Sarri ja työnsi Sepon eteenpäin.
— Eipäs tultukaan, vastusti Seppo, joka ei ollut uskaltanut mennä

hammaslääkäriin, vaikka kaikki kehoittivat.
— Minä päätin sen heti, kun huomasin, missä olimme, sanoi Sarri.
— No istuhan sitten tähän tuoliin, käski lääkäri, eikä Seppo iljennyt

vastustella.
Lääkäri porasi ja paikkasi, Seppo valitti välillä ja Jere lohdutti:
— "Äläs rillitä, ota ennen porokello" ja "aika hiirellä haukotella, kun

on puoleks kissan suussa". "Voi sattuu ommaan nilkkaan, kun kaivaa
kuoppaa toiselle, vaikkon malka omas silmäs."
— Nyt olet valmis ja hampaat kunnossa, sanoi lääkäri.
— Kiitoksia paljon, sanoi Seppo kumartaen. — Mutta missä Sarri

on?
— Se sanoi hyppääväns kotiis rahoi hakeen, sanoi Jere. — Mut kyl

määkin maksan, kun, hintans kuulee.
— Tämä maksaa kaksisataa markkaa yhteensä, sanoi lääkäri.
— Sit sikaa vingutetaan, jok airan raos tavataan. Kyl maar siit
tulee mahrotoin tuntipalkka naisihmisen työks. Mut mää maksan, täs
on raha, tän Seponkin erest, se saa sen sit ehtool maksaa takasin,
sanoi Jere ojentaen setelin lääkärille.
— Kiitoksia ja hyvästi, sanoi Seppo.
Molemmat olivat jo ovella, kun Jere vielä kääntyi takaisin.
— Mää en kerkeis men uurel tohtooril sen fleinin tähren, mää täs
meinain — — —.
— Hyvästi nyt, minä olen tehnyt minkä voin, en minä enempää

tee, sanoi lääkäri, jonka kärsivällisyys alkoi loppua.
Seppo veti Jeren mukaansa kadulle. Siellä he tapasivat Sarrin, joka

oli juossut koko matkan.
Jerelle maksettiin velka ja mentiin istumaan kirkkopuiston penkille.
— Ihme kummal ajaa, sanoi Jere. — Kun ei ruumis tuntennukkaa,

vaikka hammas ikenist suljus. On niist naisist muukskin kun
kuppareiks ja saunapiijoiks.
— Jere taitaa jo leppyä koko naissuvulle? kysyi Seppo.
— Saa orottaa sit lauvantait jok on ennen perjantait. Naisväkee ei

pirä — — — alkoi Jere, mutta Sarri, joka tiesi, että nyt tulee pitkä
juttu, keskeytti:
— Mennään automaattiin juomaan kahvia niin Jere saa nähdä

senkin.
— Mahtaaks vaan men kaffeeta sin hampaan vanhaan plassiin?
— Hampaan reikä on jo täynnä törkyä, lihaa ja muuta, ei kahvi

sitä haittaa, mennään nyt vaan.
Automaatissa oli Jerellä paljon katsomista. Pojat selittivät ja
näyttivät, miten oli ostettava.
— Täytyyköhän meidän nyt lähteä toiseen lääkäriin Jeren jalan

takia? tuumi Seppo.
— Eiköhän Jannen eliksiiri sopisi siihenkin? sanoi Sarri.
— Hah? kysyi Jere.
— Meillä on toveri, joka valmistaa hurjan hyvää lääkettä, sitä saa

ilmaiseksi ja monta eläintä ja ihmistä se on parantanut, selitti Sarri.
— Kun tee sen vaan saatten ennen yhreksää aamusel nin mää
jätän tohtoorin reisun tykkänäs. Sit mää voin käyttää ehtoon toiseen
meininkiin.
— Mikä se sitten on?
— Mää tahron nährä sen valkuisen kenraalin.
— Seppo, kuulitko? Jere tahtoo nähdä Mannerheimin. Mene ja

soita hänelle, että Varpuniemen kaksoset ja tallirenki tulevat häntä
katsomaan, ilkkui Sarri.
— Mää olen teirän kans vehtannu pikkuisist asti ja nyt tee saatten
näyttää minul sen valkuisen — — —.
— Kamalaa! Mitä me nyt tehdään, kun Jere sai tuon päähänsä? Se

ei sitten ikinä luovu siitä, päivitteli Seppo, joka tunsi Jeren.
— Muutoin en mä lähre kotiin, vakuutti Jere itsepäisesti.

— Kun olisi jokin paraati, niin voisi se onnistua, mutta muuten en
minä ainakaan keksi mitään keinoa, sanoi Seppo.
— Etkö tahtoisi nähdä tivolia Messuhallin luona, Jere? Mennään

Töölön museoon tai hautausmaalle, siellä on jerin paljon katseltavaa,
koetti Sarri houkutella.
— Kun mää tahron nährä sen valkuisen — — —
— Mennään "Edisoniin", siellä näytetään ilmasotaa.
— Mää tahron vaan — — —
— Hei, huudahti Sarri, — Kinopalatsissa näytetään juuri nyt isoa

paraatia, ja siellä näkyy Mannerheim. Sitten siellä on "Ilmailijan
morsian" ja lopuksi "Mieltäkiinnittäviä tunturikuvia Norjasta", mutta
sen voi arvata miten mieltäkiinnittäviä ne ovat.
— Jere voi tykätä niistäkin. Kuka kertoi sinulle tästä? kysyi Seppo.
— Viljo oli ollut siellä juuri eilen ja hän kertoi, että ilmailija hyppää
lentokoneesta junan katolle ja se on kamalan jännää.
— Mää tahron — — — alkoi Jere entiseen tapaansa.
— Saat nährä sen valkuisen, tule nyt vaan. Mutta se maksaa

kolmekymmentäviisi markkaa, sanoi Sarri.
— Kyl maar semmottii miehii rahan erest näytetään? sanoi Jere. —

Kyl mää maksan enemmänkin.
— Elokuviin me lähdetään. Onko Jere ollut ennen sellaisissa?
— En o muut kun koptikko kuvis.

— Skioptikonkuvat eivät liiku. Mennään nyt pian, kehoitti Seppo.
Tultiin juuri ohjelman alkaessa Kinopalatsiin. Jere ihmetteli ja

kyseli yhtämittaa, kun kuvat alkoivat liikkua. Jännittävä juoni ja
lentokoneet, jotka lensivät pilvissä ja putosivat mereen, ja ilmailijan
hengenvaaralliset seikkailut tenhosivat hänet kokonaan.
— Katso nyt vaan kuvia. Miksi Jere vilkuilee vähänväliä ovelle

päin? kysyi Seppo.
— Mää pirän vaaria, ettei se pääse näkemät sisään.
— Kuka?
— No se valkuinen ken — — —
— Eteen se tulee eikä ovesta, nauroi Seppo.
— Viisaas mul sit kun se tulee.
— Kyllä minä sanon.
Sitten lentäjä vihittiin, ja paraatikuva alkoi.
— Katso nyt tuota, joka ratsastaa suuren valkoisen hevosen

selässä, se on juuri Mannerheim.
Jere nousi seisomaan ja kumarsi syvään.
— On neet helsinkiläiset kolloja, kun eivätten osaa tervehtii

semmottist miestä. Katost vaan, nöyrästi se tervehtii joka puoleen.
Saa pyöriä kun kissa tervas.
Jere oli innoissaan, unohti koko ympäristön ja puhui ääneen.

— Älä niin kovaa puhu, Jere, varoitti Seppo.
— Komee on, kyl voi nährä et se mies oli mukan, kun miehet
veittiäns hivoi, jatkoi Jere huomautuksiaan.
Kun ohjelma loppui hän ehdotti, että katsottaisiin vielä kerran koko
näytös alusta loppuun.
— Meillä on vielä koulutehtäviä tänä iltana, sanoi Seppo. —

Mennään nyt vaan kotiin.
Toiset lähtivät vastahakoisesti pois. Kun tultiin ulos, tahtoi Jere

kääntyä takaisin kiittämään kassaneitiä hauskasta illasta, mutta pojat
estivät.
— Onko Jere käynyt ennen Helsingissä? kysyi Sarri, jonka mielestä

Jere oli omituinen kaupungissa.
— Kyl mää hiljakkoin tääl kävin, se ol saman vuon kun tohtoori

najei, ja mää tulin trenkiks Varpuniemeen.
— Siitähän on kaksikymmentäviisi vuotta, koska isä vietti

hopeahäitään viime kesänä.
— Taitaa niin vaan olla. Kyl tää kaupunki on nyt toises reeras kuin
silloin.
— Vieläkö me näytetään Jerelle muuta täällä? kysyi Seppo.
— Kun ei kävis henken pääl nin mää tahoisin ajaa tuol junal kun
käy ilman lokomottii.
— Ajetaan vaan kerran Kaivopuiston ympäri, ei siinä ole mitään

vaaraa.
Pojat asettivat Jeren istumaan raitiovaunun etuosaan, niin että hän
näki miten kuljettaja toimi. Seppo selitti, kuinka sähkö kulki, ja Sarri
kertoi nähtävyyksistä pitkin matkaa. Jereä huvittivat sataman laivat,
Amanda torilla, kirkot ja kaikki muukin.
Sitten pojat saattoivat Jeren hänen asuntoonsa erään entisen

karjalohjalaisen luo.
— Onko Jerellä nyt ollut hauska päivä? kysyi Sarri.
— Kiitoksii vaan teille, kyl mää oon saanu enemmä kun yhren osal
oikeen tuliskan. Huomen mää lähren takaisin, kun tee vaan aamul
tuotten neet tropit fleinil.
— Me tuomme ne varmasti huomen aamuna koulumatkalla, lupasi

Seppo.
— Hyvästi sit vaan.
— Prätskis, prätskis, sanoivat pojat.
*****
Illalla täytyi poikien valvoa tavallista myöhempään, kun läksyt

olivat lukematta, mutta Ossin avulla he selvisivät kuitenkin verrattain
pian.
— Jere on ihan toisenlainen täällä kuin Varpuniemessä, sanoi Sarri

riisuutuessaan. — Minä luulin jo, että se hammaslääkäri suuttuisi
hänelle.
— Mitä varten sinä pakotit minut paikkauttamaan hampaani

vastoin omaa tahtoani? Se oli mölhästi tehty, sanoi Seppo, jota tämä
asia oli harmittanut koko ajan.
— Kun minun sydämeni kärsii öillä, kun sinä olet tuskassa ja

vaivassa.
Minä en voi sietää, että lähimmäiseni kärsii, sanoi Sarri jäljitellen
Naimi-tädin puhetapaa.
— Hyvä on toisen housuilla tuleen istua, sanoo Jere. — Etkös sinä

sitten kärsinyt, kun tohtori porasi minun hammashermojani?
— En, kun minä juoksin kotiin hakemaan rahoja. Mutta minusta on

turhaa olla vihainen veljelle, joka järjestää niin, että
hampaanpakotus lakkaa.
Seppo oli vaiti ja pojat sammuttivat sähkön kömpien sanattomina

vuoteilleen.
Sarri oli juuri nukkumaisillaan, kun Seppo sanoi:
— Hyvä oli, että hammas paikattiin, eikä se järin koskenutkaan.
— Saat anteeksi, koska anot, vastasi Sarri ja kääntyi toiselle

syrjälleen.
X.
MERKKIPÄIVÄ.
— Olipa onni, että Naimi-tädin syntymäpäivä sattui lupapäiväksi,

muuten minun aivoni halkeisivat, jos täytyisi miettiä läksyjä, käydä
koulua ja "näyttää kiitollisuutta Naimi-tädille", kuten äiti on käskenyt
meitä tekemään, sanoi Sarri.
— Naimi-täti laittoi meille niin kivat syntymäpäivät marraskuussa,

että pojat vieläkin puhuvat niistä, ja me saatiin monta ystävää, kun
tarjottiin niin paljon ja Ossi järjesti leikit ja lahjoja tuli hurjasti, sanoi
Seppo.
— Kyllä minäkin olen kiitollinen, mutta aikaihmisille täytyy näyttää

sitä niin omituisella tavalla. Ne tahtovat esimerkiksi, että perustetaan
rahasto, jolle annetaan heidän nimensä.
— Mitä tarkoitusta varten se olisi?
— Vaikka potkupallojen hankkimista varten sokeille lapsille — ei

kuin köyhille, äidittömille pojille.
— Ei kukaan anna siihen rahaa. Keksi jotain muuta, josta vanhat
pitävät.
— Kun olisi rahaa, niin ostaisi vaikka mitä. Lämpötyynyn tai

palosammutusruiskun tai kukkakorin.
— Kukkia me kyllä voidaan ostaa. Torilla kuuluu olevan halpaa.
— Aamulla täytyy herättää laululla. Minä soitan viulua ja toiset

laulavat.
— Kutka toiset?
— Janne, Risto, Esko ja kaikki ne, jotka olivat täällä meidän

syntymäpäivillämme. Janne laulaa ihan väärin, mutta hänellä on sen
puolesta hyvä ääni, että se kuuluu.
— Silloin täytyy harjoitella.
— Jeh, soitetaan ne kokoon. Risto voi opettaa, mennään heille,

niin
Naimi-täti ei vainua mitään.
Pojat ottivat lakkinsa ja menivät. Janne ja Risto olivat heti valmiit

auttamaan. He saivat puolentunnin kuluessa kokoon neljä toveria
lisää, joille asia selitettiin.
— Mitä me lauletaan? Seppo saa kirjoittaa Naimi-tädille omistetun

laulun, ehdotti Risto.
— En ikinä, vastusteli Seppo.
— Tai oikeammin pari laulua. Toisen voit saada kokoon, kun

muutat sanoja. Niin minä usein teen. Esimerkiksi: Sä kasvoit Naimi
paksuinen, isäsi talossa.
— Otetaan vaan "Porilaisten marssi" ja "Arvon mekin

ansaitsemme", sanoi Seppo.
— Meillä kirjotetaan runoja syntymäpäiviksi ja se on juhlallista,

sanoi Janne.
— Tule, Sarri, niin minä autan sinua. Kyllä me pari laulua saadaan
kokoon, sanoi Risto.
— Sama se, sanoi Sarri seuraten Ristoa toiseen huoneeseen, jossa

alkoi aivoja rasittava työ.
Janne huvitti sillä välin toisia poikia näyttämällä hauskoja

kemiallisia kokeita ja temppuja.
Oli kulunut pitkä aika, kun Sarri ja Risto vihdoinkin ilmestyivät

toisten luo.
— Kamalan kauan te viivyittekin. Lukekaa nyt runot, sanoi Seppo,

ja
Sarri luki:
Kaunis on nähdä kun joukkosi luona, kahvia kaadat,

keittäen, leipoen vaan, puolesta heimosikin. Iloisin mielin
viettään nouse syntymäjuhlaas. Riemuiten tätimme suo,
laulumme kaikua nyt. Eespäin onnehen siis, sä sankari kodin
ja kyökin, onnea toivomme vaan.
Sen voi laulaa "Ateenalaisten laulun" sävelellä.
Kaikki pojat kiittelivät yksimielisesti onnistunutta runoa.

— Minusta sankarinimitys ei sovi Naimi-tädille, sanoi Seppo.
— Ei tässä tarkoiteta sotasankaria. Sinä et ymmärrä runollisesta

kielestä hölynpölyä, sanoi Sarri.
— Kuulkaa nyt toista runoa:
Mun tätin oli naimaton, jo vanha, harmaakin, viel

viisikymmenvuotisna, hän jaksoi halleihin.
Tiens aina kulki torille, iloisin mielin osti vaan, hän kalaa,
lihaa, perunaa, mun tätin armahin.
Arvatkaa mihin säveleen tämä sopii?
— Ihanhan se on kuin "Sotilaspoika". Se on kiva tapa kirjoittaa

runoja. Kuka sinulle sellaista opetti, Risto? kysyi Esko.
— Minä olen itse keksinyt sen. Tässä on vielä yksi runo, jonka
minä yksin kirjoitin, sanoi Risto.
— Se on pöhnä runo, ei se kelpaa, sanoi Sarri.
— Lue vaan, Risto, pyysi Viljo, ja Risto luki:
Oi, Naimi Vesilä,

tätimme pehmeä,
Seppomme, Sarrimme,
Sinulle uhroamme.
Terve, terve, terve sä Vesilä!
Minusta tässä runossa on rakkautta.

— Sitä ei saa laulaa, eikä sen merkitystäkään kukaan ymmärrä.
Nyt aletaan harjoittaa, sanoi Seppo jyrkästi.
Risto ja Sarri johtivat vuoroin, ja laulu sujuikin hyvin, kun laulujen

sävelet olivat vanhoja tuttuja.
— Miksi sinä kutsuit Olavin tänne mukaan, Janne, kun hän ei osaa
laulaa tuon paremmin? Onhan tarpeeksi, kun yksi joukossa vain
mörisee sanat, sanoi Sarri.
— Kuka se mörisee? kysyi Janne uhkaavan näköisenä.
— Kuta suurempi kemisti, siitä kehnompi laulaja, vastasi Sarri

ovelasti.
— Olenko minä pyrkinyt laulamaan sinun, sinun — — — Janne etsi

sopivaa sanaa.
— Älä nyt suutu Janne, minuahan Sarri tarkoitti, koetti Seppo

rauhoittaa Jannea, joka oli räjähtämäisillään.
— Minä menen pois, kerran vielä pyydätte minua polvillanne

laulamaan vanhoille tädeillenne, sanoi Olavi synkästi.
— Nyt ette saa konstailla, Janne ja Olavi laulavat komeasti, vaikka

vähän toisella tavalla kuin muut. Kyllä täällä kaikki tarvitaan. Tulkaa
huomenna meille kello 8:lta ja ottakaa kynttilät mukaan, sanoi
Seppo.
— Mitä me kynttilöillä teemme?
— Sytytetään ne, niin tulee soihtukulkue. Lukekaa sanat ulkoa.

Vahinko vain, ettei niissä ollut kiitollisuudesta sanaakaan, ja sitähän
meidän piti näyttää.
— Selitetään sitten, että kaikki johtuu kiitollisuudesta, ehdotti

Sarri.
Pojat erosivat tyytyväisinä suuriin saavutuksiinsa. Pieni

eripuraisuus oli jo kokonaan unohdettu.
Kun Lempi tuli aamulla seitsemältä herättämään poikia, olivat

nämä jo pukeutuneet ja kiiruhtivat torille.
Sinne saavuttuaan he kulkivat kukkakauppiaan luota toisen luo.

Mutta kukat olivat hyvin kalliita, isollakin rahalla sai vain
vähäpätöisen kimpun.
— Kuulehan, Seppo, kun kerran maksaa rahaa, niin pitäisi saada

jotain kestävää. Ostetaan paperiruusuja, tässä on kauniita. Ne ovat
kiinni seppeleessä, mutta ehkä ne irroittaisivat ne? sanoi Sarri.
— Annetaan seppele, sehän on vielä komeampaa. Kun saataisiin

vielä nauhat niihin, niin kirjoitettaisiin jotakin kiitollisuudesta.
— Kyllä minulla on sinivalkoista nauhaa. Viedäänkö seppele

vanhan vai nuoren ihmisen haudalle? kysyi myyjätär.
— Viisikymmenvuotisen mehevän rouvan syntymäpäiville se on.
— No, jokaisella on oma makunsa. Panenko nauhat mukaan?
Pojat ostivat havuista sidotun seppeleen, jossa oli vaaleanpunaisia

paperiruusuja, ja sinivalkoinen nauha sidottiin syrjään.
Kotona Seppo tekstasi taitavasti nauhoihin omistuskirjoitukset.

Toiseen tuli:
"Onnea viisikymmenvuotiaalle, jalolle naiselle" ja toiseen:
"Kiitollisuudella Seppo ja Sakari. Muistosi elää."
Mutta Sarri arvosteli kirjoitusta:
— Pojat eivät sano ketään jaloksi. Ja siksi ja sen puoleen:

"Muistosi elää" on otettu hautapatsaasta.
— Syntymäpäivinä sanotaan aikaihmisiä jaloksi. Olisi pitänyt panna

vielä laajasydäminen ja avarakatseinen, niinkuin rehtorille sanottiin
sen juhlissa, mutta eihän sitä ilkiä kaikkea panna. Ja "Muistosi elää"
on hyvä tempaus. Sinun runosikin muistuttavat liikaa paljon tuttuja
lauluja, kosti Seppo.
— Kirjoita itse parempia. Minä luulen, että äiti olisi varmasti

tyytyväinen meihin. Naimi-täti on kylläkin jalo nainen, joka ei
sanonut mitään, vaikka pesukannu prätskäsi eilen, kun me vedettiin
sormikoukkua.
— Naiset tahtovat eri tavalla kärsiä. Virtasen setä sanoi että

viisikymmentä naista kärsisi mielellään hänen tähtensä, jos hän vain
huiskuttaisi kädellään.
— Huomenna täytyy sonnustaa ulkokuori juhla-asuun, voidella

hiukset myrhamilla ja briljantiinillä ja oikoa jakaukset linjasuoraksi,
varoitti Sarri.
— Ja olla sivistyneitä, lisäsi Seppo.
*****
Kello kahdeksan seisoi pieni poikaparvi Naimi-tädin oven
ulkopuolella. Seppo ja Sarri kantoivat toisella kädellä seppelettä ja
toisessa oli palava kynttilä. Toiset olivat myöskin varustaneet kynttilät
mukaan, toisilla oli kaksikin.
Risto antoi merkin, ja pojat kajahuttivat laulun. Mutta kauhea

sekaannus syntyi, sillä toiset lauloivat: Mun tätin oli naimaton, ja
toiset: Kaunis on nähdä kun — — —.
— Olkaa heti vaiti, huusi Sarri, — aloittakaa uudelleen: Kaunis on

nähdä…
Nyt alettiin uudelleen ja paremmalla menestyksellä. Laulun aikana

ilmestyi Naimi-täti aamutakissa ovelle ja hymyili liikuttuneena.
Kun molemmat laulut oli laulettu, ojennettiin seppele Naimi-tädille.
Ennenkuin hämmästynyt täti ehti ottaa vastaan lahjan, vaipui hän

kauhuissaan läheiselle tuolille istumaan, sillä kirkas punainen valo
leimahti kattoa kohti. Sitten kuului kova paukahdus ja pieniä kiiltäviä
tähtiä putosi lattiaa kohti. Ruudin haju ja savu täyttivät huoneen.
Janne oli keksinyt pienen yllätyksen tädille.
— Se oli onnistunut raketti, huudahti hän tyytyväisenä.
Naimi-täti alkoi toipua ja kiitti poikia sydämellisesti. Lempi oli jo

keittänyt kahvia, jota tarjottiin pojille.
— Kuuliko Naimi-täti selvästi sanat? kysyi Sarri.
— Kyllä minä kuulin osapuilleen, muitta teidän täytyy kirjoittaa ne

minulle paperille, että voin säilyttää muistona. Kuka on sepittänyt
niin kauniit sanat lauluihin?
— Eikö täti voi arvata? kysyi Risto.
— Sinä varmaan, poikaseni, sanoi Naimi-täti hymyillen.
— Ei yksinään, sanoi Sarri.
— Vai niin, sinäkin olit mukana. Kiitoksia nyt vaan kaikille.
— Meillä on vielä yksi laulu, mutta toiset eivät tahdo että sitä
lauletaan, sanoi Risto.
— Teidän täytyy välttämättä laulaa se laulu, pyysi Naimi-täti.
— Silloin minä menen pois, sanoi Seppo. — Tule sinäkin Sarri.
— Minä en olisi uskonut Ristosta tuollaista, sanoi Sarri. Pojat

lauloivat jo:
Oi Naimi Vesilä tätimme pehmeä, Seppomme, Sarrimme,

sinulle uhroamme. Kiitos, kiitos, kiitos sä Vesilä!
Loppu oli muutettu sopivammaksi.
— Hyvä laulu tämäkin on, ei sitä tarvitse hävetä, rauhoitti Naimi-

täti.
— Me ei olla uhreja eikä Naimi-täti huoli sellaisista uhreista, sanoi

Seppo.
— Risto tarkoitti tietysti, että te uhraatte tunteenne minulle, eikö

niin, Risto? selitti Naimi-täti.
— Tietysti! Sehän on pöllö, joka käsittää asian toisella tavalla,
sanoi Risto.
Saatuaan kukin omenansa vieraat pojat lähtivät pois.
— Pannaan tuo seppele riippumaan seinälle. Eikö voisi sovittaa

niin, että Naimi-tädin kuolleen herran kuva olisi sen sisällä? kysyi
Sarri.
— Ei millään muotoa, torjui Naimi-täti, mutta lisäsi nähtyään Sarrin

nolostuvan: — Ripustetaan, se tänne minun vuoteeni yläpuolelle,
siellä se on hyvin kaunis.
— Sitä voi käyttää vielä toisenkin kerran vaikka hautajaisiin, sanoi

Seppo.
— Se on annettu minulle, ja minä säilytän sen muistona teiltä,

ratkaisi Naimi-täti.
Tällä hetkellä tuli Ossi huoneeseen tuoden kimpun ihania ruusuja.

Hän ojensi ne Naimi-tädille sanoen:
— Luulin olevani ensimmäisenä toivottamassa onnea rakkaalle

Naimi-tädille, mutta näen, että kaksoset ovat olleet ripeämpiä.
— Kiitos, poikaseni, ruususi ovat suloisia.
— Meneekö täti hautajaisiin, koska tuossa riippuu seppele

nauhoineen?
— Seppo ja Sarri ovat antanet sen minulle syntymäpäivälahjaksi.
— Erittäin sopiva kukkalaite, kun siinä on vielä omistusnauhatkin.

Puuttuu vain sanat: lepää rauhassa.
— Nyt sinä pilkkaat, Ossi. Etkö tiedä, että taiteilijoilla on seinillä
seppeleitä? Minä olen nähnyt Kuvalehdessä monta sellaista kuvaa,
sanoi Sarri, jota alkoi harmittaa.
— Tietysti, tämähän sopii mainiosti tilaisuuteen, sanoi Naimi-täti.

— Jäätte kai nyt kaikki kotiin koko aamupäiväksi? Olen kutsunut
tänne ison ompeluseurani ja kaikki sukulaiseni.
— Minä olen luvannut mennä Hannes Pälsin luo lukemaan

historian tenttiä huomiseksi. Muuten olisin tietysti jäänyt, sanoi Ossi,
joka kammoi naiskutsuja enemmän kuin tulirokkoa.
Pojat olivat toivoneet saavansa viettää lupapäivänsä lyömällä

pitkääpalloa toverien kanssa, mutta eivät näin äkkiä keksineet
sopivaa muotoa kieltäytymiselleen.
— Te toiset olette ainakin kotona. Teillähän on lupapäivä, tulkaa

saliin noin kahden ajoissa. Risto voi soittaa vierailleni ja Seppo
lausua runoja, joita olette kirjoittaneet minulle, sanoi Naimi-täti.
Pojat menivät noloina huoneeseensa. Sarri tuhisi harmissaan:
— Kittiä minä koko syntymäpäivästä. Osaa se Naimi-täti olla aika

kiero.
— Vai lausua runoja! Hyi sentään! päivitteli Seppokin. Mennään

nyt ainakin vähäksi aikaa urheilemaan. Minä aion antautua palloilija-
uralle, kun olen likvidoinut koulun, uhkasi Seppo.
— Mutta isä tahtoo sinusta lääkäriä.
— Sitä minä voin pitää sivutoimena. — Painutaan nyt

urheilukentälle, siellä ovat Janne ja Ristokin.
*****
Kesken tavattoman jännittävän pelin sanoi Seppo:
— Hei, Sarri, nyt on lähdettävä neljänkymmenen naisen seuraan

soittamaan ja runoja lausumaan.
— Ooks vialla? kysyi Risto.
— Totta se on, vahvisti Seppo ja kertoi asian laidan.
— Eikö Naimi-täti anna teille kahvia ja kaakkua perästäpäin? kysyi

Janne.
— Antaa niinkin, mutta mistä me saadaan kelvollinen este, jottei

tarvitsisi mennä. Eihän sovi loukata ihmisiä juuri kun he täyttävät
viisikymmentä vuotta.
— Odottakaa vähän aikaa, me järjestämme Riston kanssa.
Janne vetäytyi syrjään keskustelemaan veljiensä kanssa. Seppo

näki, miten hän irroitti lehden pienestä taskuvihosta ja kirjoitti sille
jotain.
— Nyt on este keksitty! Minä vien tämän lapun teille. Siinä on

selitys Naimi-tädille, seuratkaa te Ristoa. Sitten tavataan
laivarannassa ja lähdetään Korkeasaareen, sanoi Janne tultuaan
toisten luo.
— Etkö ole narrannut Naimi-tätiä? kysyi Seppo.
— Jos teette niinkuin Risto käskee, niin kirjeessä seisoo vaan

pelkkä totuus. Se on kirjoitettu teidän nimessänne.
— Onko se kohteliaasti kirjoitettu? kysyi Sarri levottomana.
— Minä olen sivistynyt ihminen ja osaan kirjoittaa naisille, sanoi

Janne juosten tiehensä ja hyppäsi tasajalkaa maassa istuvan tytön
yli.
— Et sinä ainakaan näytä liikaa sivistyneeltä, huusi Sarri Jannen

jälkeen.
Risto vei pojat kivitaloon Yrjönkadulle. Hän soitti erästä neljännen

kerroksen ovikelloa ja kysyi palvelijalta:
— Onko Arvissa kovakin kuume? Saako häntä nähdä?
— Johan se on noussut tilaltaan ja syö tuolla ruokapöydän

ääressä.
Risto pyysi toisia seuraamaan jäljessään ruokahuoneen ovelle

antaen heille merkin kulkea hiljaa ja puhumatta.
— Katsokaa nyt, tuossa Arvi istuu. Nyt mennään yhtä varovasti

pois, palvelija on mennyt tiehensä, kuiskasi hän.
Sitten kaikki hiipivät eteiseen ja pois talosta.
— Mitä tämä merkitsee? kysyi Seppo kadulla.
— Se oli laillinen este.
— Selitä, taikka — — —
— Te olette käyneet katsomassa sairasta toveria ja samalla

pistäydytään Korkeasaareen.
Pojat nauroivat iloisina ja kiiruhtivat rantaan.
— Minä luulen, että Naimi-täti ei paljoakaan välitä meidän

poissaolostamme, rauhoitti Seppo itseään.
Rannalla oli jo Janne odottamassa ja kertoi pojille:
— Kun minä tulin teille, niin Naimi-täti tulikin juuri keittiöön. Minä
annoin kirjeen ja selitin, että te ette voineet tulla kotiin ja että syy
seisoo lapussa. Naimi-täti luuli, että teille oli tapahtunut
onnettomuus, mutta kun minä sanoin, että te olette hyvässä
kunnossa, niin hän antoi nämä meille.
Janne levitti paperipussin suuta näyttäen siellä olevia leivoksia,

vehnästä ja makeisia.
— Lempi antoi kuivaa leipää eläimille, ja nyt meille tulee kiva

huvimatka, sanoi Janne lopuksi.
— Oliko Naimi-täti vihreä kasvoiltaan? kysyi Seppo. Vihreä väri

kuvasi hänen mielestään suuttumusta.
— Ei, vaan punainen, sanoi Janne.
— Hyvä. Nyt laivaan! Kellä on rahaa, tulkoon mukaan!
Laiva vihelsi ja neljä onnellista ystävää meni viettämään vapaata,

aurinkoista aamupäivää talviunesta heräävän luonnon helmaan ja
nauttimaan eläimistä ja toistensa iloisesta seurasta.
Kun kaksoset illalla palasivat kotiin, löysivät he ruokahuoneen

pöydältä kirjeen, jonka Naimi-täti oli unohtanut sinne. Seppo luki sen
ääneen:
Kunnioitettu Naimi-täti Vesilä.
Pyydämme anteeksi, että meillä oli aikomus tulla kotiin,

mutta nyt me menemme katsomaan Arvia, joka on sairas ja
luokkatoveri. Sitäpaitsi me emme osaa esiintyä hienojen
rouvien seurassa, Sarri ottaa liikapaljon leipää ja Sepon
sormet ovat mustat hopeanitraatista. Eikä soitostakaan ole
vahinkoa, kun Sarri ei ole haaveellisella päällä, niin se soittaa
väärin ja Seppo ei lausu runoja äänenpainolla, vaan lukee
nopeaan niinkuin se pänttäisi läksyjä. Eikä se, joka täyttää
viisikymmentä vuotta välitä sellaisesta.
Kiitollisuudella:
Seppo ja Sakari Uski.
J.K. Me käväistään vähän Korkeasaarella, jos Arvi vaan on

terveempi. Janne pitää huolen, että kaikki käy reilusti.
— Hyi, minkälainen kirje! Minkälaiset sormet sillä itsellään on!

Niissä on varmaan näytteitä koko kemiasta.
— Janne ei voi sanoa, soitanko minä "Porilaisten marssia" vai

"Luostarin kelloja", ja sellainen arvostelee soittoa ja muuta!
— Mutta meillä oli hurjan kiva aamupäivä.
— Se oli sentähden, kun ensin olimme aamulla osoittaneet niin

kamalasti kiitollisuuttamme Naimi-tädille.
— Hyvä omatunto, jaa, se on jotakin se!

XI.
VIIMEISET AJAT.
Toukokuu oli loppumaisillaan. Oli myöhäinen kevät, satoi paljon, ja

kylmät tuulet vinkuivat Helsingin kaduilla.
— Varpuniemessä ei ole koskaan tällaista kevättä. Tämä lukuvuosi

ei lopu, ennenkuin se on tappanut meidän henkemme ja tehnyt
ruumiit kalpeiksi haamuiksi, valitti Sarri.
— Et sinä juuri ole kuolevan näköinen ruumiiltasi, ja henkesi on

minusta kylliksi virkeä tähän taloon, sanoi Ossi.
— Minä olen lukenut kaikki kirjat mitä olen voinut saada lainaksi ja
nyt minä olen "kirjallisesti sivistynyt", jota Lehtonen aina käski
ajamaan takaa, sanoi Seppo.
— Luetko ollenkaan sivistäviä kirjoja? Minusta te luette vain

seikkailu- ja salapoliisijuttuja, sanoi Naimi-täti.
— Entäs kemia ja kokeilukirjat? Ne antavat kamalasti ajatuksia.

Olen minä lukenut "Välskärin kertomukset", ja ne ovat niin sivistäviä,

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3. Biological Sciences 151

4. Medical Sciences 171

Author Index 243

Subject Index 253

Brief Overview of the Early History of Scientific Computing

Computers and the Physical Sciences

While many different wartime electronics projects advanced computing

Computers and Cognitive Science

Computers and Biology

Computers and Medicine

As with biology, computer applications in medicine lagged behind those in

Different Paths to Ubiquity

By 1975, the computer was deeply entrenched in the physical, biological,

Methods used for the Identification of Potential Sources

I identified secondary sources first by conducting extensive searches on the

Criteria for Inclusion

Annotations were kept relatively short and formulated to give researchers a

Bibliographies, Dictionaries, and Other Reference Sources

1. Alsop, Joyce, et al., Bibliography on the Use of IBM Machines in Science,

This is a significant bibliography listing hundreds of sources on the use of IBM

3. Bruemmer, Bruce. Resources for the History of Computing: A Guide to U.S.

This is a useful source of information on a number of the major archival

4. Burk, C. F. Computer-based Storage and Retrieval of Geoscience

The book is a continuation of Burk's earlier bibliography. [See 5] Provides

5. Burk C. F., and J. Hruska. Computer-based Storage and Retrieval of

6. Cortada, James W. Second Bibliographic Guide to the History of Computing,

This is an excellent general bibliography to the history of computing. Although

A varied group of lengthy articles on computer applications ranging from use of

This represents an early achievement in the history of computing that details

The conference, sponsored by the Chemical Heritage Foundation, American

11. Ceruzzi, Paul. A History of Modern Computing (Cambridge, MA: MIT

This major achievement in the history of science chronicles and analyzes

13. Commission on College Physics. The Computer in Physics Instruction

The most comprehensive early work examining applications of computers in

This work is one of the few historical treatments centered on scientific

Course text developed by Frank Beckman, an instructor at the IBM Systems

17. Eckert, Wallace J. Punched Card Methods in Scientific Computation (New

Eckert, a Columbia University astronomer, details nearly a decade of his