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T H E RENAISSANCE OF ASIA
THE RENAISSANCE
OF ASIA
1939
U N I V E R S I T Y OF C A L I F O R N I A P R E S S
B E R K E L E Y AND LOS ANGELES
I94I
U N I V E R S I T Y OF C A L I F O R N I A PRESS
BERKELEY, CALIFORNIA
C A M B R I D G E U N I V E R S I T Y PRESS
LONDON,ENGLAND
C O P Y R I G H T , 1 9 4 1 » BY T H E
B E G E N T S OF T H E U N I V E R S I T Y OF C A L I F O R N I A
T
HE LECTURES in the pages which follow were delivered
on the Los Angeles campus of the University in the
spring of 1939. Planned by the Committee on Interna-
tional Relations with a view to bringing to student attention,
well ahead of the development of acute crisis, the basic prob-
lems of the whole Asiatic continent, they have more than
justified the Committee's hopes and expectations. T h e Com-
mittee regrets that, through circumstances beyond its control,
it proved impossible to include in the 1939 series, as an initia-
tion into the mysteries of Levantine politics, an inaugural
lecture on Egypt, Iraq, and Iran. This lacuna is the more
regrettable because the treatment of Arab and Iranian na-
tionalism would have contributed much toward the under-
standing of a region which, no less than Chungking, K u n -
ming, or Singapore, is at the forefront of strategy and politics
in the Near East. A s this volume is the definitive record of
lectures actually delivered, rather than a compilation ad hoc,
the book is issued in the full consciousness that its scope is
unfortunately curtailed. Notwithstanding this difficulty, the
lectures are now offered to a wider public, in the political
climate of 1941, essentially in the form in which they were
delivered. T o compensate for various delays in publication,
the individual authors were given ample opportunity, in the
spring of this year, to revise their manuscripts. F e w indeed
were the changes! This fact attests, not the obstinacy of pro-
fessors in clinging to petrified viewpoints, but the clarity of
their perception and perspective, which intervening events
[>3
vi Preface
have only served to confirm. Because the manuscripts them-
selves evidence the high accuracy of the original analyses of
the problems treated, the Committee on International Rela-
tions takes peculiar pride in presenting the finished offering
to the public at this time.
At the moment of writing, events have not as yet brought
India into the actual arena of hostilities. Nevertheless, India
remains a tremendous factor in the deciding of the way along
which the future of civilization will travel. The careful sur-
vey of India's internal problems, of her complex social and
institutional structure, given by Professor Klingberg brings
into clear relief the role which India is predestined to play
in the evolution of Asia. T o disclose the basic pattern of In-
dian nationalism and show its vitality and congruity with the
behavior of comparable movements elsewhere in Asia; to
depict the impending convergence of the forces of aggressive
imperialism in southeastern Asia and the Middle East; to
forecast so candidly the eventual emergence of latent trends
in Indian polity; to reveal, well in advance of war, the formula
of crisis behavior on the part of India—this is surely no mean
accomplishment in such small compass; it attests to perspi-
cacity of a very high order.
Indo-China has been less fortunate than India: her terri-
tory has suffered a dual invasion, and she has undergone a
partition ill concealed by the smokescreen of Japanese media-
tion. In the Treaty of Tokio and its three annexed protocols
of May 9, 1941, are found the terms of the "settlement" that
has validated the claims of Thailand and given material satis-
faction to Japan. H o w weak the territorial structure, how
Preface vii
frail and precarious the hold of France on Indo-China proved
to be, occasion no surprise to the reader of Professor Knight's
discussion. Here are depicted with clear and uncanny fore-
sight the unsubstantial character of French colonial control
and the ineluctable consequences of an impossible policy of
autarchy-at-long-range. Professor Knight seems to have real-
ized in advance, as did few of his countrymen, how sorry
would be the role which Indo-China would inevitably play
in the impending tragedy. Behind the imposing façade of
publicized French activity he has found in reality little of
constructive achievement. In the halcyon days from 1934 to
1939 it was not easy to be frankly skeptical and doubting, but
events have confirmed to an astonishing degree, and so made
particularly timely, Professor Knight's diagnosis and prog-
nosis of Indo-China's ills.
At a time when the visible, terrifying, mechanized war ma-
chines seem to be the prime movers in civilization, when, to
use Mussolini's favorite phrase, "it is blood that moves the
wheels of history," it is extremely valuable to have the inner
workings, the invisible mechanics and hidden dynamics of
power, exposed to the public view. This Dr. Kawai has done
with high fidelity and extreme precision in his analysis of
the working forces involved in the ever-shifting struggle for
power behind the throne in Japanese politics. American
readers, whether they be student or lay, will find the dyna-
misms in Japanese political life that ended the golden glow of
the "Shidehara decade" (which, incidentally, coincided with
our own "gilded decade") convincingly portrayed and real-
istically treated. It is clear that the "new order" which has
viii Preface
now been vouchsafed a decade in which to intrench itself in
Greater East Asia will not easily let go, and that considerably
more than the one-time magic abracadabra of phrases, as
found, let us say, in the Washington treaties of 1921-22, will
be required to dislodge it. But Dr. Kawai has done more than
reveal deep anchorages and inward strains; he has furnished
a number of clues to the internal play of Japanese politics and
done much to explain why continuing crises are perennially
settled by "impossible" compromises which produce in turn
an Ugaki, a Nomura, a Konoye as the dominant spirits in
the shifting, short-lived coalitions which successively govern
Japan.
Treating an altogether different aspect of the Far Eastern
problem from the standpoint of one not only intimately con-
versant with the aspirations of Chinese nationalism, but
deeply grounded in the history of Japanese territorial expan-
sion, Professor Mah, in his treatment of Sino-Japanese rela-
tions, follows worthily in the tradition and the fine line of
high scholarship of the late Professor Yoshi S. Kuno. Sedu-
lously buttressing his interpretations of events from the
highest impartial sources, Dr. Mah presents his views with
conviction and with a wealth of irrefutable authority. These
are not the musings of effervescent and romantic Chinese na-
tionalism; here, of a verity, is the quintessence of objective
scholarship and balanced interpretation.
N o treatment of the vast new life that has been surging
through Asia in the years since the First World War would
be complete without an overview of that tremendous stretch
of territory—Asiatic Russia—for which war and revolution
Preface ix
opened up unexpected and far-reaching social change. Thus
the survey of Soviet Russia and Asia by Professor Kerner
fittingly links the developments in the Levant with those in
the Middle and Far East. With sharp strokes he depicts the
continuity of a long historical process and the violent breaks
with the traditional pattern. He sets in juxtaposition the "re-
ligious political imperialism" of the Tsars and the "mystical
social imperialism" of the Bolsheviks, only to find that they
are analogous significant dynamisms of two assertedly anti-
thetical regimes which paradoxically operate in a strangely
parallel fashion! Soviet policy was indeed at the crossroads
on the very day when Professor Kerner delivered his lecture.
While he hoped for an evolution of Soviet foreign policy
which would strengthen the system of collective security then
so sadly in need of reenforcement, he was not oblivious of the
other alternative, involving "some measure of accommodation
with both Japan and Germany"—witness the Soviet-German
pact of August 23, 1939, and that between the U.S.S.R. and
Japan on April 6, 1941—to which the equivocal policies of
the "nonaggressors," as Stalin so contemptuously called them,
conduced. Indeed, one has but to substitute the word "Axis"
for "Anti-Comintern" in the text, as has already been done
in the strange play of politics, to see that the idea of "an agree-
ment to distribute territories and sources of raw materials on
a world-wide scale . . . by a close coordination of aggressive,
movej in various parts of the world" was implicit in the world
situation of May, 1939; that it has become a concrete reality
the stirring events in Iraq and Syria, indicative of Soviet par-
ticipation in the redistribution of that quarter of the world,
are already witness today.
X Preface
In dealing with " T h e Future of China" Professor Steiner
brings into vivid relief his impressions of the vigor and ca-
pacity for resistance of the Chinese as he actually observed
these qualities in their midst. Fearlessly he paints a picture
of renascent China "standing up in her shaken depths" and
exhibiting magnificent qualities of endurance which, with
the passing months, continue to call forth American admira-
tion. In making, in 1939, so strong a statement as that "unless
she forges strong ties with powerful allies, she [Japan] has
no chance for ultimate victory in whole or in part," Dr.
Steiner knowingly incurred a great risk, yet his candid con-
viction with respect to the long-run victory of the Chinese
merely anticipated by a biennium the confident and une-
quivocal pronouncement of Generalissimo Chiang Kai-shek
on May 12, 1941, to the effect that China, even if given only
material and economic aid, can defeat Japan single-handed—
so great has been the reserve of Chinese resistance and so
great the exhaustion of Japan. In Dr. Steiner's pages basic
knowledge and conversant interpretation have combined to
bring unusual perspicacity and precision.
Whether the Renaissance of Asia will end in a redistribu-
tion of power among the strong in that continent and in
Europe, or will lead to a definitive establishment of national
rights among the nascent peoples, rests, in the last analysis,
upon the power of resistance of Britain, China, and their allies
to the outthrust of totalitarian power toward Asia.
MALBONE W . G R A H A M
May 15,1941.
CONTENTS
PAGE
FRANK J . KLINGBERG
PROFESSOR OF HISTORY
IN THE UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA
111
4 The Renaissance of Asia
of the year 1935 give at least some hint of the appalling diffi-
culties of the Indian question. A brief historical statement
will perhaps help to clarify the problems.
In outbursts of nationalistic fervor, such as that of many-
voiced India, it is to be noted that each people, in periods of
self-consciousness, recovers a view of its past, recalls its early
heroes, its legends, and the fabulous achievements of ancient
times. One might say that, while building a future, a nation
in the process of renaissance creates also a glorious past, and
that for each brick laid for the future a brick is added to the
temple of past greatness.
Of India's great age and genuine heritage an eminent
writer, Sir Valentine Chirol, member of the Royal Commis-
sion in the Indian Public Service, has significantly said: "The
Aryan peoples, who may be recognized as the first foreign
conquerors of India, laid the foundations of Indian civiliza-
tion long before Rome or Athens was born and longer still
before the rest of Europe emerged from savagery, and unlike
any of the ancient civilizations of the world, excepting pos-
record his own years of reading. New books about present-day conditions
appear in numbers: for example, C. F. Andrews, True India; C. F. Andrews
and Girija Mookerjee, The Rise of the Congress Movement; Leonard M.
Schiff, The Present Condition of India; N. Gangulee, Health and Nutrition
in India. These books are reviewed in The Listener, March 2 and March 16,
1939-
The Cambridge History of India supplies a comprehensive cooperative ac-
count from ancient times to 1918. Vol. 2 has not yet appeared. Through the
kindness of Captain Angus Fletcher, of the British Library of Information, the
writer had access to some material of special interest. See also Arthur Berrie-
dale Keith, A Constitutional History of India, 1600—igjf (London, Methuen
and Co., 1936); [British] Foreign Office, The Constitutions of All Countries—
The British Empire (London, His Majesty's Stationery Office, 1938).
Klingberg: India 5
sibly the Chinese, it has remained a living civilization."2 He
reminds us that this ancient India, steeped in its own tradi-
ditions, was already 3000 years old before the first English
merchant-adventurer stood upon Indian soil, a forerunner of
what became the superimposition of Western culture upon
the wide area of India. The period of Robert Clive and War-
ren Hastings and of the American Revolution, 150 to 200
years ago, is therefore but a most recent page in the history
of India.
The American Revolution did not destroy the British Em-
pire, but it did make it predominandy Asiatic. Besides, it de-
termined that of the 500 million people in the Empire today,
425 million are black men or brown men, leaving a body of
75 million people of European origin in Great Britain and the
self-governing Dominions. Of the 425 million non-Euro-
peans, 350 millions—nearly one-fifth of the world's popula-
tion—are in India, thousands of miles away from London,
the center of empire authority. The conquest and government
of India, therefore, furnish the most starding illustration of
empire building in modern times.
Perhaps the nature of the British conquest of India, in the
18th and 19th centuries, can be understood only in the light
of a number of concurrent revolutions in Great Britain, which
so intensified British strength that all European rivals were
8
India (New York, Charles Scribner's Sons, 1932), p. 1. This authoritative
work is the most illuminating book available, even though it was finished in
1925. Another penetrating work is that of Hans Kohn, A History of Nation-
alism in the East (New York, Harcourt, Brace and Company, 1929). See also
Sir Francis Younghusband, Dawn in India, British Purpose and Indian Aspira-
tion (London, John Murray, 1930).
6 The Renaissance of Asia
pushed aside. The industrial revolution, the agricultural revo-
lution, the revolutionary increases in population, added to
supremacy in commerce, created a British state many times
more powerful than that of a few short decades before at the
opening of the 18th century. Recently an American engineer
stated that an American, aided by machinery, was equal to
thirty or forty Chinamen in his economic strength—and the
first modern industrial state, namely Great Britain, is the
prime illustration of European mastery of the forces of na-
ture by means of scientific investigation, multiple invention,
genius for organization, capacity for military and naval fight-
ing, and a love of adventure and of colonization which in
sum total created the mood of "manifest destiny," later elo-
quently stated by Kipling, poet of imperialism.
As set forth by Lillian Knowles, "The British Empire has
been mainly founded by traders organized in companies
Thus the most important parts and the larger continental
areas of the British tropics are a result of company trading,
and the British Tropics are in origin a trader's Empire."" This
fact of joint stock company origin naturally meant that only a
relatively small number of citizens were interested in any one
company, and accounts for Professor Seeley's statement: " W e
seem, as it were, to have conquered and peopled half the
world in a fit of absence of mind." 4 Individual initiative in
foreign trade, in emigration, and even in faraway administra-
" The Economic Development of the British Overseas Empire (London,
George Routledge and Sons, 1924), pp. 261-262.
1
Quoted from Sir John R. Seeley, The Expansion of England, by Lord
Lytton in The Listener, p. 379, February 16, 1939. The statement appears in
Seeley (London, The Macmillan Company, 1883), p. 8.
Klingberg: India 7
tion have been outstanding characteristics of British empire
building.
Under these conditions, only a relatively few Englishmen,
the stockholders and Parliamentary committees, knew the
full history of a new trading enterprise in a distant part of
the world. British humanitarian effort, therefore, has had for
its purpose the exposing of the concealed iniquities of the
trader, whether he was a slave trader on the Atlantic or an
unscrupulous businessman in India.
In the decades after Waterloo, a world map which showed
the British Empire in red would be totally misleading to the
modern eye because the Empire in its economic overlordship
still included the United States, Latin America, and a good
part of the continent of Europe. And besides, it extended
through the Mediterranean and held in economic vassalage
in greater or less degree the Turkish Empire, Persia, India,
Australasia, and China. In short, trade had far outrun the
flag, and among the junior partners were the fabulously rich
Dutch East Indies, which Great Britain had perhaps inad-
vertently returned to Holland after Napoleon's defeat. The
British conqueror of Java, Sir Stamford Raffles, founded the
city of Singapore at this time.
Eminent also among the junior partners was the Sultan of
Turkey, who as caliph of the Mohammedan world had tre-
mendous influence in northern Africa, Arabia, Persia, and
among the tens of millions of Mohammedans in India and
in the Dutch East Indies. Obviously, under these circum-
stances the bad man was the Russian, who was variously char-
acterized in the contemporary phrases of propaganda a's "the
8 The Renaissance of Asia
bear who walks like a man," "scratch a Russian and you get
a Tartar." In fact, occasionally, Great Britain, amply aided
by allies, fought or nearly fought, in wars such as the Cri-
mean, the Russo-Turkish, the Russo-Japanese, against this
Russian, who was regarded as a primary threat against the
whole Eurasian-British empire. If the 18 th century was the
age in which France was regarded as the primary enemy of
British dominion, in much of the 19th Russia either took first
place or was added to France as a virile enemy power.
Always strikingly enlightening to an American is a visit
to Westminster Abbey, where just place is given to those
statesmen, admirals, and generals who in the 18th and 19th
centuries held French and Russian power in check. Perhaps
the greatest of them all was Stratford de Redcliffe, ambassa-
dor to St. Petersburg and later to Constantinople, and always
an Empire outpost or chief watchdog of Russian moves. In
the years before the Great War, as is well known, Russia be-
came a member of the Triple Entente and fought against the
Central Powers.
Curiously enough, while the primary aim of military and
naval measures was the protection of British interests in In-
dia from European rivals, the idea that India might herself
rise and drive out her European conquerors was only dimly
envisioned by Russians in Siberia, French in Indo-China,
Spaniards in the Philippines, Dutch in the Spice Islands, or
British rulers in India. The onrush of the West with its indus-
trial and commercial skills, its faith in progress, its military
power, its many-sided capacity in the arts and sciences, its
missionary zeal, seemed clearly to foreshadow the early Euro-
Klingberg: India 9
peanization of the whole world, with a future Indian people
who would be Englishmen with dark skins, as described in
1835 in Macaulay's famous Minute on Education. A super-
imposed English language and British culture, with the In-
dian civilizations receding rapidly into the limbo of a dimly
remembered past, was the dream and program of the 19th-
century administrators.
Railroads, canals, telegraphs, roads and bridges, medicine
and sanitation, Christianity with its spirit of mastery over all
human and natural forces, were imported and were to speed
Hindu and Mohammedan quickly into the white man's
golden age of universal progress.
The following thumbnail sketch of India is a striking in-
stance of Macaulay's rare brevity: "The task of the English,
when they assumed control was, according to Macaulay, 'to
reconstruct a decayed society.' Above all it had to try and pro-
tect the peasant and raise his standard of life. The British
took over India in a state of economic nakedness. There were
no metalled roads, docks, harbours, canals, hospitals, schools,
colleges, printing presses, or other requirements of Western
civilized life, and neither the disposition nor the means on
the part of the population to provide them. The canals had
dried up and enormous areas of land were sheer waste. British
rule had to play the part of a universal provider and special
providence, and India is the great example of what a Gov-
ernment can effect in raising the economic standard of a
country."5
The first rude resistance to this European inroad in India
5 Knowles, op. cil., p. 274.
IO The Renaissance of Asia
occurred at the time of the mutiny of 1857, which today is
being reinterpreted as the first blow struck by Hindu and
Mohammedan for Indian nationalism and Indian home rule,
if not complete independence.
A few comments on the success of Westernization may be
illuminating in view of the rapid progress of nationalism.
Most Americans have read Macaulay the historian, but are
unaware of his four-year administrative career in India, where
he decided a bitterly fought educational controversy in favor
of Western education in the English language in his Minute
of February 2, 1835. In the Minute he greatly undervalued
the spiritual power of the ancient civilizations of India, but
nevertheless convinced leading Hindus that they must turn
to the West for a new inspiration. These Indians founded col-
leges of their own, such as the Hindu College in Calcutta, and
some of them became Christians. They carried the tide of
Western education into all the chief centers of India before
1850. The great administrators of the period, Sir Thomas
Munro, Lord William Bentinck, Lord Dalhousie, threw their
weight in favor of the spread of Western culture. British edu-
cational and missionary pioneers either could not foresee that
they were forging a weapon for eventual self-government, or
else they welcomed this possibility. Macaulay, indeed, pre-
dicted, as already stated, that in a few generations there would
be nothing to distinguish an educated Indian from an Eng-
lishman except his dark complexion. If Western language,
Western education, Western law should result in creating a
self-governing nation, Lord Macaulay thought England's mis-
sion in India would be ended.
Klingberg: India il
Macaulay was merely one of the men of his time who de-
voted themselves to land, judicial, and other reforms for the
people of India. Alexander Duff founded the great Medical
School at Calcutta in 1835. About the same time, a well-
known decree stopped the burning of widows. Throughout
the first half of the 19th century, color feeling at least was
singularly absent from the program of British administra-
tors because they were still under the influence of the cult
of the "noble savage," the evangelical fervor of Christian
brotherhood, and the stimulus to justice from the indictment
of Warren Hastings by Edmund Burke. Moreover, the West-
ernization was taking place at the top, and these administra-
tors respected many of the customs of the people and gave a
new sense of security to the humblest folk of the Peninsula.
While it is true that Macaulay had a very inadequate appre-
ciation of Oriental literature, it is also true that other eminent
Britons studied this literature, edited it, translated it into Eng-
lish, produced Sanskrit grammars, and founded chairs of San-
skrit, calling to their aid German and French scholars, among
them the world-renowned Max Müller. By this process they
revealed to India a grandeur in her past which she herself had
only dimly suspected.
"'India's Food Problem," The Listener, Suppl. 4, March 16, 1939. Fifty
millions were added to the population between 1921 and 1931, and a further,
perhaps even greater, increase is in prospect.
Klingberg: India 15
that British power was not invulnerable; the Russo-Japanese
War of 1904-1905, that Oriental peoples could act on terms
of equality with European nations.
Moreover, during the 18th and 19th centuries it was pos-
sible for the Europeans to carry on civil wars in Europe and
to build empires in other countries at the same time; the non-
European world was incapable of resisting, even in a small
degree, the penetrating powers of European invasions. On
Queen Victoria's sixtieth jubilee in 1897, Japan alone seemed
destined to resist the Europeanization of the whole world.
Europeans, although they realized increasingly that the non-
European world was in revolt, and wrote books on the con-
flict of color, the menace of color, and the like, were not able
in 1914, nor later, to present a common European front to
the emerging nationalisms of the East. Japan, for its part, was
given a permanent seat on the Council of the League of
Nations and was repeatedly recognized as one of the great
powers, capable perhaps of repeating in Asia what Europeans
had succeeded in doing in their conquests in Asia and in
Africa. Indeed, shrewd but generous Japanese statesmen la-
mented during the Great War that such slaughter and con-
tinual civil war in Europe would spell the decline of the West
and cause its relapse into barbarism.
With Europe crippled by the Great War, the murmurs of
a new Asiatic order could be heard increasingly from China
and India. In the latter country Gandhi appeared as the man
of destiny, arousing the people in favor of the ancient reli-
gious forces; and, standing forth as an opponent of Western
invasion in all its forms, he fought for home rule. Already
16 The Renaissance of Asia
famous for his defense of the Hindus in South Africa, he had
by that activity stamped himself as the leader of the Hindus
against discrimination in all parts of the world. He had vigor-
ously supported the British in the Boer War, raising an In-
dian Ambulance Field Corps and leading it to the front,
because he was convinced that the establishment of British
supremacy in South Africa would right the wrongs of the
Hindus. To his chagrin he found that South Africa under
the British flag checked Indian immigration and imposed
additional racial disabilities. He developed his South African
policy of passive resistance with hunger strikes and mass
demonstrations, still convinced that the British sense of jus-
tice would not permit a discrimination against the expansion
of India, which for almost 100 years had been sending its
people into the East Indies, the West Indies, the Mauritius,
South Africa, Canada, and the United States, and in so great
a degree that India herself was becoming a mother land with
colonies over the world. The viceroy of India, at Madras, No-
vember 24,1913, expressed "the sympathy of India, deep and
burning, and not only of India, but of all lovers of India like
myself, for their compatriots in South Africa in their resist-
ance to invidious and unjust laws."7
Aided from Whitehall, and by the government of India,
Gandhi was able to gain some concessions for the Indians
in South Africa, a conciliatory gesture effective for the length
of the Great War. Not only had Indian troops fought side
by side with British regiments on European battlefields, but
India had been admitted on equal footing with the Domin-
7
Sir Valentine Chirol, op. cit., p. 202.
Klingberg: India
ions to the Imperial War Councils in London, and to the
Peace Conference in Paris, and had been made an original
member of the League of Nations. India, of course, was still
really represented by Britons rather than by Indians.
India seemed on the road to full Empire membership; it
was promised such a position in the British Commonwealth
of Nations. Gandhi himself in the Great War, as in the Boer
War, threw his weight on the side of British victory, and was
in large part responsible for the tremendous Indian effort. By
way of illustration, in March, 1918, at the time of the great
crisis on the western front, he asked for and got from one
small district a contingent of 12,000 troops.8 He envisioned
India as a full partner in the Empire and believed allied vic-
tory would give her that position. He admired Englishmen
and hoped they would abandon their pride of race and love
of power. But his South African miniature campaign was
never absent from his mind as a possible weapon in India,
and as a student of Tolstoi he had come to suspect authority
as the source of all evil.
Under these postwar conditions any serious clash in India
was dangerous because the Gandhi weapon of noncoopera-
tion could be called into action. At this moment, shortly after
the Great War, terroristic bands, as often before, were sup-
pressed as criminal conspiracies by the Indian Government,
which was invested with special police powers. This particu-
lar suppression caused Gandhi to proclaim passive resistance,
which he called civil resistance or noncooperation, a treat-
ment of the government as no less untouchable than the
8
Ibid., p. 203.
18 The Renaissance of Asia
lowest castes of Hinduism. Only under Hinduism, with its
caste system, could so unusual an attack be used success-
fully. Naturally, such a campaign would ordinarily have no
appeal to the 80 million Mohammedans, whose religious con-
ceptions are strikingly different from those of the Hindus.
But the Mohammedans, in turn, had been seriously offended
by the defeat of Turkey and the destruction of the caliphate
at Constantinople. And, in addition, a common bond was the
attraction of the ascetic saintliness of Gandhi. He was careful
to make no distinction between Hindu and Mohammedan,
with the result that thousands of both religions flocked to
hear him. H e campaigned to free the untouchables from their
position. His frailty, asceticism, and personal magnetism gave
him a hold over the silent masses which was difficult, if not
impossible, for Westerners to understand.
Mohammedanism, with its democratic, militant, rigid,
monotheistic creed, stands in sharp contrast with caste-ridden
and yet flexible, philosophical, and polytheistic Hinduism.
Hinduism, ever in motion, has had the elasticity from time
immemorial to absorb other faiths and to produce recently
such men as Tagore the poet, Singh the Christian mystic,
Radhakrishnan the philosopher, and Gandhi the nationalistic
leader.
Gandhi has been committed throughout to a program
of nonviolence, but it was not to be expected that the millions
of his followers could avoid bloodshed. On April 6, 1919, a
collision occurred in Delhi, followed some time later by mob
attacks at Amritsar, of unholy memory, in which five Eng-
lishmen were killed. The mobs were suppressed before Gen-
Klingberg: India 19
cral Dyer arrived upon the scene, but, finding a protest meet-
ing of 6000 to 10,000 people assembled in a small enclosure,
he opened fire without warning with machine guns, killed
379, wounded 1200, to whom no aid was given, and issued
a crawling order (requiring Indians to walk on all fours in
a certain street), which later was withdrawn by the lieutenant
governor. But Indian opinion was completely inflamed long
before the machinery of the British Government officially
condemned General Dyer for his action. Gandhi "did re-
peated penance for the violences committed by his followers,
but, on the other hand, denounced the government as satanic,
and henceforth worked for united action by Mohammedan
and Hindu.
More specifically, Gandhi boycotted the 1919 Government
of India Act by asking that no Indians vote or stand as candi-
dates for the Legislative Councils and that no Indian import
or use British manufactures; all were to wear homespun
clothes of native-grown cotton. All Indians were to resign
their offices, give up their titles, withdraw from their profes-
sions, take their children from the schools, and, later on, re-
fuse to pay taxes. By this exercise of "soul force" would India
attain self-government within a year, in Gandhi's expecta-
tion. His plan was only partly successful, but he became the
idol of the masses in a way unexampled since the days of
Buddha. He constantly talked of the beauty and freedom of
village life in the olden days, and although he condemned
violence it was carried on in his name. The Gandhi move-
ment was particularly hostile to Western industrialism, and
strikes were common, the people smashing liquor shops, then
20 The Renaissance of Asia
teapots, as symbols of Western influence. Racial hatred natu-
rally developed rapidly.
Concurrently with Gandhi's leadership of the Hindus was
a Mohammedan Caliphate movement in which an attempt
was made, again shortly after the Great War, to convince the
80 million Mohammedans in India that the defeat of the sul-
tan was an attack upon Islam. The result was that the old
Mohammedan confidence in British rule was seriously under-
mined. T w o brothers, Mohammed and Shaukat Ali, prison-
ers during the Great War, led delegations to see David Lloyd
George and received sympathy in Great Britain, especially
from the Jews, who had not forgotten that the Mohammedan
Turk had provided a city of refuge for them when they were
driven out of Spain. Gandhi and the brothers Ali joined
forces in the movement for self-government, a significant mo-
ment for the new Hindu-Mohammedan cooperation. Ex-
tremely dangerous to British rule this cooperation might have
become, had not the Angora Assembly, at this very moment,
abolished the Caliphate.
Under these strained relations the Government of India Act
of 1919 was proclaimed on February 9, 1921. The proclama-
tion from the king-emperor stated: "Today you have the be-
ginnings of 'Swaraj' (self-government) within my Empire
and the widest scope and ample opportunity for progress to
the liberty which my other dominions enjoy." Briefly, the
constitution provided for a substantial grant of power to In-
dians for a ten-year stage, with the proviso that within this
time a full investigation into the working of this experiment
would be undertaken. The grant of powers to the Indians
Klingberg: India 21
Secolo XV.
Secolo XVI.