Tree

Tree data structure is a collection of data (Node) which is organized in hierarchical structure and this
is a recursive definition
In tree data structure, every individual element is called as Node. Node in a tree data structure, stores
the actual data of that particular element and link to next element in hierarchical structure.

In a tree data structure, if we have N number of nodes then we can have a maximum of N-1 number
of links.
Example

Terminology
In a tree data structure, we use the following terminology...
Root
In a tree data structure, the first node is called as Root Node. Every tree must have root node. We can
say that root node is the origin of tree data structure. In any tree, there must be only one root node.
We never have multiple root nodes in a tree.

Edge
In a tree data structure, the connecting link between any two nodes is called as EDGE. In a tree with
'N' number of nodes there will be a maximum of 'N-1' number of edges.

1
Parent
In a tree data structure, the node which is predecessor of any node is called as PARENT NODE. In
simple words, the node which has branch from it to any other node is called as parent node. Parent
node can also be defined as "The node which has child / children".

Child
In a tree data structure, the node which is descendant of any node is called as CHILD Node. In simple
words, the node which has a link from its parent node is called as child node. In a tree, any parent
node can have any number of child nodes. In a tree, all the nodes except root are child nodes.

Siblings
In a tree data structure, nodes which belong to same Parent are called as SIBLINGS. In simple words,
the nodes with same parent are called as Sibling nodes.

2
Leaf
In a tree data structure, the node which does not have a child is called as LEAF Node. In simple
words, a leaf is a node with no child.

In a tree data structure, the leaf nodes are also called as External Nodes. External node is also a
node with no child. In a tree, leaf node is also called as 'Terminal' node.

Degree
In a tree data structure, the total number of children of a node is called as DEGREE of that Node. In
simple words, the Degree of a node is total number of children it has. The highest degree of a node
among all the nodes in a tree is called as 'Degree of Tree'

Level
In a tree data structure, the root node is said to be at Level 0 and the children of root node are at
Level 1 and the children of the nodes which are at Level 1 will be at Level 2 and so on... In simple
words, in a tree each step from top to bottom is called as a Level and the Level count starts with '0'
and incremented by one at each level (Step).

3
Height
In a tree data structure, the total number of egdes from leaf node to a particular node in the longest
path is called as HEIGHT of that Node. In a tree, height of the root node is said to be height of the
tree. In a tree, height of all leaf nodes is '0'.

Depth
In a tree data structure, the total number of egdes from root node to a particular node is called
as DEPTH of that Node. In a tree, the total number of edges from root node to a leaf node in the
longest path is said to be Depth of the tree. In simple words, the highest depth of any leaf node in a
tree is said to be depth of that tree. In a tree, depth of the root node is '0'.

Path
In a tree data structure, the sequence of Nodes and Edges from one node to another node is called
as PATH between that two Nodes. Length of a Path is total number of nodes in that path. In below
example the path A - B - E - J has length 4.

4
Ancestor & Descendant
Ancestor – The node itself, parent, parent of parent, etc.
Descendant – The node itself, child, child of child, etc.

Outdegree: Total number of leaving vertices is known as outdegree.

Indegree: Total number of entering vertices is known as indegree. T
Total degree: The summation of indegree and outdegree is known as total degree.

5
Binary Tree

In a normal tree, every node can have any number of children. Binary tree is a special type of tree
data structure in which every node can have a maximum of 2 children. One is known as left child and
the other is known as right child.

A tree in which every node can have a maximum of two children is called as Binary Tree.

In a binary tree, every node can have either 0 children or 1 child or 2 children but not more than 2
children.
Example

There are different types of binary trees and they are...

1. Strictly Binary Tree
In a binary tree, every node can have a maximum of two children. But in strictly binary tree, every
node should have exactly two children or none. That means every internal node must have exactly
two children. A strictly Binary Tree can be defined as follows...

A binary tree in which every node has either two or zero number of children is called Strictly Binary
Tree

Strictly binary tree is also called as Full Binary Tree or Proper Binary Tree or 2-Tree

Strictly binary tree data structure is used to represent mathematical expressions.

6
Example

2. Complete Binary Tree

In a binary tree, every node can have a maximum of two children. But in strictly binary tree, every
node should have exactly two children or none and in complete binary tree all the nodes must have
exactly two children and at every level of complete binary tree there must be 2level number of nodes.
For example at level 2 there must be 22 = 4 nodes and at level 3 there must be 23 = 8 nodes.

A binary tree in which every internal node has exactly two children and all leaf nodes are at same
level is called Complete Binary Tree.

Complete binary tree is also called as Perfect Binary Tree

7
Binary Tree Representations
Binary tree data structure is represented using two methods. Those methods are as follows...
1. Array Representation
2. Linked List Representation
Consider the following binary tree...

1. Array Representation
In array representation of binary tree, we use a one dimensional array (1-D Array) to represent a
binary tree.
Consider the above example of binary tree and it is represented as follows...

To represent a binary tree of depth 'n' using array representation, we need one dimensional array with
a maximum size of 2n+1 - 1.

2. Linked List Representation

We use double linked list to represent a binary tree. In a double linked list, every node consists of
three fields. First field for storing left child address, second for storing actual data and third for storing
right child address.
In this linked list representation, a node has the following structure...

The above example of binary tree represented using Linked list representation is shown as follows...

8
Binary Tree Traversals

When we wanted to display a binary tree, we need to follow some order in which all the nodes of that
binary tree must be displayed. In any binary tree displaying order of nodes depends on the traversal
method.

Displaying (or) visiting order of nodes in a binary tree is called as Binary Tree Traversal.

There are three types of binary tree traversals.

1. In - Order Traversal
2. Pre - Order Traversal
3. Post - Order Traversal
Consider the following binary tree...

9
1. In - Order Traversal ( leftChild - root - rightChild )
In In-Order traversal, the root node is visited between left child and right child. In this traversal, the left
child node is visited first, then the root node is visited and later we go for visiting right child node. This
in-order traversal is applicable for every root node of all subtrees in the tree. This is performed
recursively for all nodes in the tree.

In the above example of binary tree, first we try to visit left child of root node 'A', but A's left child is a
root node for left subtree. so we try to visit its (B's) left child 'D' and again D is a root for subtree with
nodes D, I and J. So we try to visit its left child 'I' and it is the left most child. So first we visit 'I' then go
for its root node 'D' and later we visit D's right child 'J'. With this we have completed the left part of
node B. Then visit 'B' and next B's right child 'F' is visited. With this we have completed left part of
node A. Then visit root node 'A'. With this we have completed left and root parts of node A. Then we
go for right part of the node A. In right of A again there is a subtree with root C. So go for left child of
C and again it is a subtree with root G. But G does not have left part so we visit 'G' and then visit G's
right child K. With this we have completed the left part of node C. Then visit root node 'C' and next
visit C's right child 'H' which is the right most child in the tree so we stop the process.

That means here we have visited in the order of I - D - J - B - F - A - G - K - C - H using In-Order

Traversal.
In-Order Traversal for above example of binary tree is

I-D-J-B-F-A-G-K-C-H

2. Pre - Order Traversal ( root - leftChild - rightChild )

In Pre-Order traversal, the root node is visited before left child and right child nodes. In this traversal,
the root node is visited first, then its left child and later its right child. This pre-order traversal is
applicable for every root node of all subtrees in the tree.

In the above example of binary tree, first we visit root node 'A' then visit its left child 'B' which is a root
for D and F. So we visit B's left child 'D' and again D is a root for I and J. So we visit D's left
child 'I' which is the left most child. So next we go for visiting D's right child 'J'. With this we have
completed root, left and right parts of node D and root, left parts of node B. Next visit B's right child 'F'.
With this we have completed root and left parts of node A. So we go for A's right child 'C' which is a
root node for G and H. After visiting C, we go for its left child 'G' which is a root for node K. So next
we visit left of G, but it does not have left child so we go for G's right child 'K'. With this we have
completed node C's root and left parts. Next visit C's right child 'H' which is the right most child in the
tree. So we stop the process.

That means here we have visited in the order of A-B-D-I-J-F-C-G-K-H using Pre-Order Traversal.
Pre-Order Traversal for above example binary tree is

A-B-D-I-J-F-C-G-K-H
3. Post - Order Traversal ( leftChild - rightChild - root )
In Post-Order traversal, the root node is visited after left child and right child. In this traversal, left child
node is visited first, then its right child and then its root node. This is recursively performed until the
right most node is visited.

Here we have visited in the order of I - J - D - F - B - K - G - H - C - A using Post-Order Traversal.

Post-Order Traversal for above example binary tree is

I-J-D-F-B-K-G-H-C–A

10
Expression Tree
Expression tree is a binary tree in which each internal node corresponds to operator and each leaf
node corresponds to operand so for example expression tree for 3 + ((5+9)*2) would be:

Inorder traversal of expression tree produces infix version of given postfix expression (same with
preorder traversal it gives prefix expression)
Evaluating the expression represented by expression tree:

Let t be the expression tree

If t is not null then
If t.value is operand then
Return t.value
A = solve(t.left)
B = solve(t.right)

// calculate applies operator 't.value'

// on A and B, and returns value
Return calculate(A, B, t.value)

Construction of Expression Tree:

Now For constructing expression tree we use a stack. We loop through input expression and do
following for every character.
1) If character is operand push that into stack
2) if character is operator pop two values from stack make them its child and push current node again.
At the end only element of stack will be root of expression tree.

Binary Search Tree

11
Binary Search Tree is a binary tree in which every node contains only smaller values in its left
subtree and only larger values in its right subtree.
In a binary search tree, all the nodes in left subtree of any node contains smaller values and all the
nodes in right subtree of that contains larger values as shown in following figure...

Example
The following tree is a Binary Search Tree. In this tree, left subtree of every node contains nodes with
smaller values and right subtree of every node contains larger values.

Every Binary Search Tree is a binary tree but all the Binary Trees need not to be binary search
trees.

Search Operation in BST

12
In a binary search tree, the search operation is performed with O(log n) time complexity. The search
operation is performed as follows...
 Step 1: Read the search element from the user
 Step 2: Compare, the search element with the value of root node in the tree.
 Step 3: If both are matching, then display "Given node found!!!" and terminate the function
 Step 4: If both are not matching, then check whether search element is smaller or larger than
that node value.
 Step 5: If search element is smaller, then continue the search process in left subtree.
 Step 6: If search element is larger, then continue the search process in right subtree.
 Step 7: Repeat the same until we found exact element or we completed with a leaf node
 Step 8: If we reach to the node with search value, then display "Element is found" and
terminate the function.
 Step 9: If we reach to a leaf node and it is also not matching, then display "Element not
found" and terminate the function.

Insertion Operation in BST

In a binary search tree, the insertion operation is performed with O(log n) time complexity. In binary
search tree, new node is always inserted as a leaf node. The insertion operation is performed as
follows...
 Step 1: Create a newNode with given value and set its left and right to NULL.
 Step 2: Check whether tree is Empty.
 Step 3: If the tree is Empty, then set set root to newNode.
 Step 4: If the tree is Not Empty, then check whether value of newNode
is smaller or larger than the node (here it is root node).
 Step 5: If newNode is smaller than or equal to the node, then move to its left child. If
newNode is larger than the node, then move to its right child.
 Step 6: Repeat the above step until we reach to a leaf node (e.i., reach to NULL).
 Step 7: After reaching a leaf node, then isert the newNode as left child if newNode
is smaller or equal to that leaf else insert it as right child.
Example
Construct a Binary Search Tree by inserting the following sequence of numbers...
10,12,5,4,20,8,7,15 and 13
Above elements are inserted into a Binary Search Tree as follows...

13
Introduction to Graphs
Graph is a non linear data structure, it contains a set of points known as nodes (or vertices) and set of
linkes known as edges (or Arcs) which connets the vertices. A graph is defined as follows...

Graph is a collection of vertices and edges which connects nodes in the graph

Generally, a graph G is represented as G = ( V , E ), where V is set of vertices and E is set of

edges.
Example
The following is a graph with 5 vertices and 6 edges.
This graph G can be defined as G = ( V , E )
Where V = {A,B,C,D,E} and E = {(A,B),(A,C)(A,D),(B,D),(C,D),(B,E),(E,D)}.

14
We use the following terms in graph data structure...
Vertex
A individual data element of a graph is called as Vertex. Vertex is also known as node. In above
example graph, A, B, C, D & E are known as vertices.
Edge
An edge is a connecting link between two vertices. Edge is also known as Arc. An edge is
represented as (startingVertex, endingVertex). For example, in above graph, the link between vertices
A and B is represented as (A,B). In above example graph, there are 7 edges (i.e., (A,B), (A,C), (A,D),
(B,D), (B,E), (C,D), (D,E)).

Edges are three types.

1. Undirected Edge - An undirected egde is a bidirectional edge. If there is a undirected edge
between vertices A and B then edge (A , B) is equal to edge (B , A).
2. Directed Edge - A directed egde is a unidirectional edge. If there is a directed edge between
vertices A and B then edge (A , B) is not equal to edge (B , A).
3. Weighted Edge - A weighted egde is an edge with cost on it.

Directed Graph
A graph with only directed edges is said to be directed graph.
Adjacent
If there is an edge between vertices A and B then both A and B are said to be adjacent. In other
words, Two vertices A and B are said to be adjacent if there is an edge whose end vertices are A and
B.
Degree
Total number of edges connected to a vertex is said to be degree of that vertex.
Indegree
Total number of incoming edges connected to a vertex is said to be indegree of that vertex.
Outdegree
Total number of outgoing edges connected to a vertex is said to be outdegree of that vertex.
Path
A path is a sequence of alternating vertices and edges that starts at a vertex and ends at a vertex
such that each edge is incident to its predecessor and successor vertex.
Length of a path
Number of edges in the path; Sometimes the sum of the weights of the edges

15
Predecessor and Successor
Here is an example graph (directed) and the terminology to describe them.

In the directed graph, there is an edge from node 2 to node 1; therefore:

 Node 2 is a predecessor of node 1.
 Node 1 is a successor of node 2.

Graph Representations
Graph data structure is represented using following representations...
1. Adjacency Matrix
2. Adjacency List
Adjacency Matrix
In this representation, graph can be represented using a matrix of size total number of vertices by
total number of vertices. That means if a graph with 4 vertices can be represented using a matrix of
4X4 class. In this matrix, rows and columns both represents vertices. This matrix is filled with either 1
or 0. Here, 1 represents there is an edge from row vertex to column vertex and 0 represents there is
no edge from row vertex to column vertex.

For example, consider the following undirected graph representation...

Directed graph representation...

16
Adjacency List
In this representation, every vertex of graph contains list of its adjacent vertices.

For example, consider the following directed graph representation implemented using linked list...

This representation can also be implemented using array as follows..

Graph Traversals - DFS

Graph traversal is technique used for searching a vertex in a graph. The graph traversal is also used
to decide the order of vertices to be visit in the search process. A graph traversal finds the egdes to
be used in the search process without creating loops that means using graph traversal we visit all
verticces of graph without getting into looping path.

There are two graph traversal techniques and they are as follows...
1. DFS (Depth First Search)
2. BFS (Breadth First Search)

DFS (Depth First Search)

DFS traversal of a graph, produces a spanning tree as final result. Spanning Tree is a graph without
any loops. We use Stack data structure with maximum size of total number of vertices in the graph
to implement DFS traversal of a graph.

We use the following steps to implement DFS traversal...

 Step 1: Define a Stack of size total number of vertices in the graph.
 Step 2: Select any vertex as starting point for traversal. Visit that vertex and push it on to
the Stack.
 Step 3: Visit any one of the adjacent vertex of the verex which is at top of the stack which is
not visited and push it on to the stack.
 Step 4: Repeat step 3 until there are no new vertex to be visit from the vertex on top of the
stack.

17
  Step 5: When there is no new vertex to be visit then use back tracking and pop one vertex
from the stack.
 Step 6: Repeat steps 3, 4 and 5 until stack becomes Empty.
 Step 7: When stack becomes Empty, then produce final spanning tree by removing unused
edges from the graph

Back tracking is coming back to the vertex from which we came to current vertex.

Example

18
19
20
21
BFS (Breadth First Search)
BFS traversal of a graph, produces a spanning tree as final result. Spanning Tree is a graph without
any loops. We use Queue data structure with maximum size of total number of vertices in the graph
to implement BFS traversal of a graph.

We use the following steps to implement BFS traversal...

 Step 1: Define a Queue of size total number of vertices in the graph.
 Step 2: Select any vertex as starting point for traversal. Visit that vertex and insert it into the
Queue.
 Step 3: Visit all the adjacent vertices of the verex which is at front of the Queue which is not
visited and insert them into the Queue.
 Step 4: When there is no new vertex to be visit from the vertex at front of the Queue then
delete that vertex from the Queue.
 Step 5: Repeat step 3 and 4 until queue becomes empty.
 Step 6: When queue becomes Empty, then produce final spanning tree by removing unused
edges from the graph
Example

22
23
Applications of Graph
1. Social network graphs
2. Transportation networks.
3. Utility graphs
4. Document link graphs
5. Protein-protein interactions graphs.
6. Network packet traffic graphs.
7. Scene graphs
8. Finite element meshes.
9. Robot planning
10. Neural networks

24