motivation

Lecture 7
 Lecture outline

1. What is motivation?
Learning Outcomes

2. Early theories of motivation

3. Contemporary theories of motivation

4. Current issues in motivation

© 2013 Cengage Learning

 What is Motivation
• Motivation
– Is the result of an interaction between the person and
a situation; it is not a personal trait.
– Is the process by which a person’s efforts are
energized, directed, and sustained towards attaining
a goal.
• Energy: a measure of intensity or drive.
• Direction: toward organizational goals
• Persistence: exerting effort to achieve goals.
– Motivation works best when individual needs are
compatible with organizational goals. 3
 Early Theories of Motivation
• Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs Theory
• McGregor’s Theories X and Y
• Herzberg’s Two-factor Theory
• McClelland’s Three Needs Theory

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 Hierarchy of Needs Theory
Needs for growth,
achieving one’s potential
and self-fulfillment, the
drive to
bec o m e w h a t
N e e ds f o r internal
one is cap a b l o f
e s t ee m factors,
becomin g
s uch as self-
respect,
autonomy, and
achievement,
N ee d fo r a ff
an d x te rn a l
ection,
b el o n g in
estee m f a c to r
g ness,
s.
A p e rs o n
ac c e p ta n
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requirements
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for s e c u r it
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 Early Theories of Motivation (cont.)
• Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs Theory
– Needs were categorized as five levels of lower- to
higher-order needs.
• Individuals must satisfy lower-order needs before they can
satisfy higher order needs.
• Satisfied needs will no longer motivate.
• Motivating a person depends on knowing at what level that
person is on the hierarchy.
– Hierarchy of needs
• Lower-order (external): physiological, safety
• Higher-order (internal): social, esteem, self-actualization

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 Early Theories of Motivation (cont.)
• McGregor’s Theory X and Theory Y
– Theory X
• Assumes that workers have little ambition, dislike
work, avoid responsibility, and require close
supervision.
– Theory Y
• Assumes that workers can exercise self-direction,
desire responsibility, and like to work.
• Assumption:
– Motivation is maximized by participative decision making,
interesting jobs, and good group relations.
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 Early Theories of Motivation (cont.)
• Herzberg’s Motivation-Hygiene Theory
– Job satisfaction and job dissatisfaction are created by
different factors.
• Hygiene factors: extrinsic (environmental) factors that
create job dissatisfaction.
• Motivators: intrinsic (psychological) factors that create job
satisfaction.
– Attempted to explain why job satisfaction does not
result in increased performance.
• The opposite of satisfaction is not dissatisfaction, but
rather no satisfaction.

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Herzberg’s Two-Factor Theory

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Contrasting Views of Satisfaction -
Dissatisfaction

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 Early Theories of Motivation (cont.)
• Three-Needs Theory (McClelland)
– There are three major acquired needs that are
major motives in work.
• Need for achievement (nAch)
– The drive to excel and succeed
• Need for power (nPow)
– The need to influence the behavior of others
• Need of affiliation (nAff)
– The desire for interpersonal relationships

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 Contemporary Theories of
Motivation
• Goal-Setting Theory
• Reinforcement Theory
• Designing Motivating Jobs
• Equity Theory
• Expectancy Theory

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 Contemporary Theories of
Motivation (cont.)
• Goal-Setting Theory
– Proposes that setting goals that are accepted,
specific, and challenging yet achievable will result in
higher performance than having no or easy goals.
• Benefits of Participation in Goal-Setting
– Increases the acceptance of goals.
– Fosters commitment to difficult, public goals.
– Provides for self-feedback (internal locus of control)
that guides behavior and motivates performance
(self- efficacy).
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 Contemporary Theories of
Motivation (cont.)
• Reinforcement Theory
– Assumes that a desired behavior is a function of
its consequences, is externally caused, and if
reinforced, is likely to be repeated.
• Positive reinforcement is preferred for its long-
term effects on performance
• Ignoring undesired behavior is better than
punishment which may create additional
dysfunctional behaviors.

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 Contemporary Theories of
Motivation (cont.)
• Job Design
– The way into which tasks can be combined to form
complete jobs.
– Factors influencing job design:
• Changing organizational environment/structure
• The organization’s technology
• Employees’ skill, abilities, and preferences
– Job enlargement
• Increasing the job’s scope (number and frequency of tasks)
– Job enrichment
• Increasing responsibility and autonomy (depth) in a job.

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 Contemporary Theories of
Motivation (cont.)
• Job Characteristics Model (JCM)
– A conceptual framework for designing motivating jobs
that create meaningful work experiences that satisfy
employees’ growth needs.
– Five primary job characteristics:
• Skill variety: how many skills and talents are needed?
• Task identity: does the job produce a complete work?
• Task significance: how important is the job?
• Autonomy: how much independence does the jobholder
have?
• Feedback: do workers know how well they are doing?
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Job Characteristics Model

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Guidelines for Job Redesign

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 Contemporary Theories of Motivation
(cont.)
• Suggestions for Using the JCM
– Combine tasks (job enlargement) to create more
meaningful work.
– Create natural work units to make employees’ work
important and whole.
– Establish external and internal client relationships to
provide feedback.
– Expand jobs vertically (job enrichment) by giving
employees more autonomy.
– Open feedback channels to let employees know how
well they are doing. 19
 Contemporary Theories of
Motivation (cont.)
• Equity Theory (By Stacy Adams)
– Proposes that employees perceive what they get from
a job situation (outcomes) in relation to what they
put in (inputs) and then compare their
inputs-outcomes ratio with the inputs-outcomes
ratios of relevant others.
• If the ratios are perceived as equal then a state of equity
(fairness) exists.
• If the ratios are perceived as unequal, inequity exists and the
person feels under- or over-rewarded.
• When inequities occur, employees will attempt to do
something to rebalance the ratios (seek justice).
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 Contemporary Theories of
Motivation (cont.)
• Expectancy Theory (By Victor Vroom)
– An individual tends to act in a certain way based on
the expectation that the act will be followed by a given
outcome and on the attractiveness of that outcome
to the individual.
– Motivation = Expectancy x Instrumentality x Valence
• Expectancy: effort - performance linkage
• Instrumentality: performance – reward linkage
• Valence: attractiveness of reward

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 Current Issues in Motivation
Cross-Cultural Challenges
– Motivational programs are most applicable in cultures
where individualism and quality of life are cultural
characteristics
• Uncertainty avoidance of some cultures inverts Maslow’s
needs hierarchy.
• The need for achievement (nAch) is lacking in other cultures.
• Collectivist cultures view rewards as “entitlements” to be
distributed based on individual needs, not individual
performance.
– Cross-Cultural Consistencies
• Interesting work is widely desired, as is growth, achievement,
and responsibility.

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 Current Issues in Motivation (cont.)
Motivating unique groups of workers
• Motivating a diverse workforce
– Compressed work week
• Longer daily hours, but fewer days
– Flexible work hours (flextime)
• Specific weekly hours with varying arrival, departure, lunch
and break times around certain core hours during which
all employees must be present.
– Job Sharing
• Two or more people split a full-time job.
– Telecommuting
• Employees work from home using computer links.

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 Current Issues in Motivation (cont.)
Motivating unique groups of workers
• Motivating Professionals
– Characteristics of professionals
• Strong and long-term commitment to their field of
expertise.
• Loyalty is to their profession, not to the employer.
• Have the need to regularly update their knowledge.
• Don’t define their workweek as 8:00 am to 5:00
pm.
– Motivators for professionals
• Job challenge
• Organizational support of their work
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 Current Issues in Motivation (cont.)
Motivating unique groups of workers
• Motivating Contingent Workers
– Opportunity to become a permanent employee
– Opportunity for training
– Equity in compensation and benefits

• Motivating Low-Skilled, Minimum-Wage

Employees
– Employee recognition programs
– Provision of sincere praise

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Current Issues in Motivation (cont.)
Designing Appropriate Rewards Programs
– Open-book management
• Involving employees in workplace decision by opening up the
financial statements of the employer.
– Employee recognition programs
• Giving personal attention and expressing interest,
approval, and appreciation for a job well done.
– Pay-for-performance
• Variable compensation plans that reward employees on the
basis of their performance:
– Piece rates, wage incentives, profit-sharing, and lump-sum
bonuses

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 Current Issues in Motivation (cont.)
Designing Appropriate Rewards Programs
• Stock option programs
– Using financial instruments (in lieu of monetary
compensation) that give employees the right to
purchase shares of company stock at a set (option)
price.
– Options have value if the stock price rises above the
option price; they become worthless if the stock
price falls below the option price.

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Suggestions for Motivating Employees
• Recognize individual differences
• Match people to jobs
• Use goals
• Ensure that goals are perceived as attainable
• Individualize rewards
• Link rewards to performance
• Check the system for equity
• Use recognition
• Show care and concern for employees
• Don’t ignore money

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 Terms to Know
• motivation • three-needs theory
• hierarchy of needs theory • need for achievement
• physiological needs (nAch)
• safety needs • need for power (nPow)
• social needs • need for affiliation (nAff)
• esteem needs • goal-setting theory
• self-actualization needs • self-efficacy
• Theory X • reinforcement theory
• Theory Y • reinforcers
• motivation-hygiene • job design
theory • job scope
• hygiene factors • job enlargement 36
• motivators
 Terms to Know (cont.)
• job enrichment • procedural justice
• job depth • expectancy theory
• job characteristics • compressed workweek
model (JCM) • flexible work hours
• skill variety (flextime)
• task identity • job sharing
• task significance • telecommuting
• autonomy • open-book management
• feedback • employee recognition
• equity theory programs
• referents • pay-for-performance
• distributive justice programs
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• stock options