CALCULUS I

Chapter 2: FUNCTIONS OF ONE VARIABLE

LÊ THÁI THANH ([email protected])

HCMC University of Technology

DEFINITION OF A FUNCTION
Definition 1: A function f is a rule that assigns to each
element x in a set D exactly one element, called f px q, in a
set E . The set D is called the domain of the function. The
range of f , denoted by Rf , is the set of all possible values of
f px q as x varies throughout the domain. Note that Rf Ă E .
Definition 2: If f is a function with domain D, then its
graph is the set of ordered pairs tpx , f px qq | x P Du. In the
other words, the graph of f consists of all points px , y q in the
coordinate plane such that y “ f px q and x is in the domain
of f . The graph of a function is a curve in the xy -plane.
The following test is used to test any curves, which are graphs of
functions.

The Vertical Line Test

A curve in the xy -plane is the graph of a function of x if and
only if no vertical line intersects the curve more than once.
Four Ways to Represent a Function

There are four possible ways to represent a function:

verbally (by a description in words). For example, the
area of a circle as a function of its radius.
algebraically (by an explicit formula). For example,
A “ πr 2
numerically (by a table of values). For example,
r 1 2 3 ...
A π 4π 9π . . .
visually (by a graph). We can sketch a graph of A (half
a parabola).
Because a circle has to have a positive radius, the domain is
tr | r ą 0u “ p0, 8q, and the range is also p0, 8q.
Example 1:
A rectangular storage con-
tainer with an open top has a
volume of 10m3 . The length
of its base is twice its width.
Material for the base costs $10
per square meter; material for
the sides costs $6 per square
meter. Express the cost of
materials as a function of the
width of the base.
Solution : Let w , 2w , h be the width, length, and height of
the container (w ą 0). The total cost is

C pw q “ 10p2w 2 q ` 6r2pwhq ` 2p2whqs

5
Since the volume of the container is 10m3 , we have h “ 2 .
w
Finally, we obtain
180
C pw q “ 20w 2 ` pw ą 0q
w
Example 2: Find the domain of each function.
?
(1) f px q “ x ` 2
1
(2) gpx q “ 2
x ´x

Solution :
(1) The domain of f consists of all values of x such that
x ` 2 ě 0 ô x ě ´2, so the domain is the interval
r´2, `8q.
1
(2) Since gpx q “ and division by 0 is not
x px ´ 1q
allowed, we see that gpx q is not defined when x “ 0 or
x “ 1. Thus the domain of g is tx | x ‰ 0, x ‰ 1u.
THE ELEMENTARY
FUNCTIONS
 Definition 3 (The Power Function): The function f px q “
x α , where α is a real constant, is called a power function.

The domain and graph are dependent on α. Here are graphs of

power functions for some values of α.

y y

x x
y “x y “ x2
pα “ 1q pα “ 2q
y y

x x
? 1
y “ x 1{2 “ x y “ x ´1 “ x
pα “ 1{2q pα “ ´1q
Definition 4 (Polynomials): A function P is called a poly-
nomial if

Ppx q “ an x n ` an´1 x n´1 ` ¨ ¨ ¨ ` a1 x ` a0

where n is a non-negative integer and the numbers

a0 , a1 , a2 , . . . , an are constants called the coefficients of
the polynomial. The domain of any polynomial is R “
p´8, `8q. If the leading coefficient an ‰ 0, then the degree
of the polynomial is n.
Example 3:
A polynomial of degree 1: Ppx q “ ax ` b is called a
linear function.
A polynomial of degree 2: Ppx q “ ax 2 ` bx ` c is
called a quadratic function.
A polynomial of degree 3: Ppx q “ ax 3 ` bx 2 ` cx ` d
is called a cubic function.
Definition 5 (Rational Functions): A rational function f is
Ppx q
a ratio of two polynomials: f px q “ , where P and Q
Qpx q
are polynomials. The domain consists of all values of x such
that Qpx q ‰ 0.

Example 4:

The function
2x 4 ´ x 2 ` 1
f px q “
x2 ´ 4
is a rational function with do-
main tx | x ‰ ˘2u.
Definition 6 (Algebraic Functions): A function f is called
an algebraic function if it can be constructed using algebraic
operations (such as addition, subtraction, multiplication, di-
vision, and taking roots) starting with polynomials. Any ra-
tional function is automatically an algebraic function.

Example 5: Here are examples of algebraic functions:

?
f px q “ x 2 ` 1
x 4 ´ 5x 2 ?
gpx q “ ? ` px ` 3q 3 x ´ 1
2x ` x
?
px ` 2q3 ` 4 x
hpx q “ ?
p1 ` x q5 ` 3x 2
 Definition 7 (The Exponential Functions): The function
f px q “ ax , where a is a real constant (a ą 0, a ‰ 1), is
called an exponential function.

The exponential function is defined for all x P R.

Properties of Exponential Functions

ax ą 0 for all x P R
a0 “ 1
ax `y “ ax ¨ ay
ax 1
ax ´y “ y ùñ a´x “ x
a a
pax qy “ axy
When a “ e pe « 2.718281828...q we have the most popular
function y “ ex , that has many applications in all sciences.
The graphs of the exponential functions are dependent on a.

y y

x x
y “ ax y “ ax
pa ą 1q p0 ă a ă 1q
 Definition 8 (The Logarithmic Functions): The function
f px q “ loga x , where a is a real constant (a ą 0, a ‰ 1), is
called a logarithmic function.

The logarithmic function is defined for all x ą 0.

Properties of Logarithmic Functions

loga 1 “ 0
loga pxy q “ loga x ` loga y
x 1
loga “ loga x ´ loga y ùñ loga “ ´ loga x
y x
loga x y “ y loga x
When a “ e pe « 2.718281828...q we denote y “ ln x , and we have

ln x
loga x “
ln a
The graphs of the logarithmic functions are dependent on a.

y y

x x
y “ loga x y “ loga x
pa ą 1q p0 ă a ă 1q
Definition 9 (The Trigonometric Functions): We have
the following trigonometric functions and their graphs.
y “ sin x : its domain is R, its range is r´1, 1s.
y “ cos x : its domain is R, its range is r´1, 1s.
y y

x x

y “ sin x y “ cos x
Definition 10 (The Trigonometric Functions):
sin x
" *
π
y “ tan x “ : its domain is R ´ ` kπ, k P Z .
cos x 2
1 cos x
y “ cot x “ “ : its domain is R ´ tkπ, k P Zu.
tan x sin x

y y

x x

y “ tan x y “ cot x
Properties of Trigonometric Functions

cos2 x ` sin2 x “ 1
sin 2x “ 2 sin x cos x
cos 2x “ cos2 x ´ sin2 x “ 1 ´ 2 sin2 x “ 2 cos2 x ´ 1.
From this property we obtain the following useful
formulas:
1 ` cos 2x 1 ´ cos 2x
cos2 x “ ; sin2 x “
2 2
1
1 ` tan2 x “ , and from this we have
cos2 x
1 tan2 x
cos2 x “ ; sin2 x “
1 ` tan2 x 1 ` tan2 x
And more ¨ ¨ ¨ ¨ ¨ ¨ ¨ ¨ ¨ ¨ ¨ ¨ ¨ ¨ ¨
Definition 11 (The Hyperbolic Functions): The following
functions are called the hyperbolic functions:
ex ´ e´x
(1) The Sine Hyperbolic Function: y “ sinh x “
2
(2) The Cosine Hyperbolic Function:
ex ` e´x
y “ cosh x “
2
(3) The Tangent Hyperbolic Function:
sinh x ex ´ e´x
y “ tanh x “ “ x
cosh x e ` e´x
(4) The Cotangent Hyperbolic Function:
1 cosh x ex ` e´x
y “ coth x “ “ “ x
tanh x sinh x e ´ e´x
Properties of Hyperbolic Functions

cosh2 x ´ sinh2 x “ 1
sinh 2x “ 2 sinh x cosh x
cosh 2x “ cosh2 x ` sinh2 x “ 2 cosh2 x ´ 1 “
1 ` 2 sinh2 x . From this we have
1 ` cosh 2x cosh 2x ´ 1
cosh2 x “ sinh2 x “
2 2
And more ¨ ¨ ¨ ¨ ¨ ¨ ¨ ¨ ¨ ¨ ¨ ¨
Definition 12 (Piecewise Defined Functions): The func-
tions in the following examples are defined by different for-
mulas in different parts of their domains. Such functions are
called piecewise defined functions.

Example 6: A function f is defined by

#
1 ´ x , if x ď ´1
f px q “
x 2, if x ą ´1

Then
Since ´2 ď ´1, we have f p´2q “ 1 ´ p´2q “ 3
Since 0 ą ´1, we have f p0q “ 02 “ 0
Example 7:

The next example of a piece-

wise defined function is the ab-
solute value function
#
x, if x ě 0
f px q “ |x | “
´x , if x ă 0

We see that the graph of f coincides with the line y “ x to

the right of the y -axis and coincides with the line y “ ´x to
the left of the y -axis.
PROPERTIES OF FUNCTIONS
Definition 13 (Even Functions):
If a function f px q satisfies
f p´x q “ f px q for every num-
ber x in its domain, then f is
called an even function. For
instance, the function f px q “
x 2 is even because f p´x q “
p´x q2 “ x 2 “ f px q.
The geometric significance of an even function is that its
graph is symmetric with respect to the y -axis (see Figure).
This means that if we have plotted the graph of f for x ě 0,
we obtain the entire graph simply by reflecting this portion
about the y -axis.
Definition 14 (Odd Functions):
If a function f px q satisfies
f p´x q “ ´f px q for every
number x in its domain, then f
is called an odd function. For
instance, the function f px q “
x 3 is odd because f p´x q “
p´x q3 “ ´x 3 “ ´f px q.
The geometric significance of an even function is that its
graph is symmetric about the origin (see Figure). This means
that if we have plotted the graph of f for x ě 0, we obtain
the entire graph simply by rotating this portion through 180o
about the origin.
Example 8: Determine whether each of the following func-
tions is even, odd, or neither even nor odd.
p1q f px q “ x 5 `x ; p2q gpx q “ 1´x 4 ; p3q hpx q “ 2x ´x 2

Solution :
(1) f p´x q “ p´x q5 ` p´x q “ ´x 5 ´ x “ ´px 5 ` x q “
´f px q. Therefore f is an odd function.
(2) gp´x q “ 1 ´ p´x q4 “ 1 ´ x 4 “ gpx q. So g is even.
(3) Since hp´x q ‰ hpx q and hp´x q ‰ ´hpx q, we conclude
that h is neither even nor odd.
Definition 15 (Increasing and Decreasing Function): A
function f is called increasing on an interval I if f px1 q ă
f px2 q whenever x1 ă x2 in I. It is called decreasing on I if
f px1 q ą f px2 q whenever x1 ă x2 in I.

Example 9:

The function y “ x 2 is de-

creasing on p´8, 0q and in-
creasing on p0, `8q.
Definition 16 (Periodic Functions): A function f is called
periodic if there exists a positive constant τ such that for all
x from its domain f px ` τ q “ f px q. The smallest positive
value T of all values of τ is call the period of this function.

Example 10:
The functions y “ sin x and y “ cos x are periodic
with T “ 2π.
The functions y “ tan x and y “ cot x are periodic
with T “ π.
 Example 11:
2π
The function y “ sin kx is periodic with T “ .
k
x x
The functions y “ tan and y “ tan are periodic
2 3
with the periods T “ 2π and T “ 3π, respectively.
x x
Then the function f px q “ tan ` tan is periodic
2 3
with the period T “ SCMp2π, 3πq “ 6π.

(SCM = Smallest Common Multiple)

TRANSFORMATIONS OF
FUNCTIONS
Vertical and Horizontal Shifts
Suppose C ą 0. To obtain the graph of
y “ f px q ` C , shift the graph of y “ f px q a distance C
units upward
y “ f px q ´ C , shift the graph of y “ f px q a distance C
units downward
y “ f px ´ C q, shift the graph of y “ f px q a distance C
units to the right
y “ f px ` C q, shift the graph of y “ f px q a distance C
units to the left
Vertical and Horizontal Stretching and Reflecting

Suppose C ą 1. To obtain the graph of

y “ Cf px q, stretch the graph of y “ f px q vertically by
a factor of C
1
y “ f px q, shrink the graph of y “ f px q vertically by
C
a factor of C
y “ ´f px q, reflect the graph of y “ f px q about the
x -axis
y “ f p´x q, reflect the graph of y “ f px q about the
y -axis
Example 12: The following figure illustrates these stretching
transformations when applied to the function y “ cos x with
C “ 2 to obtain the graphs of y “ 2 cos x , y “ 1
2 cos x ,
y “ cos 2x , and y “ cos 2x.
1
COMBINATIONS OF
FUNCTIONS
 Addition, Subtraction, Multiplication, and Division of
Functions
Two functions f and g can be combined to form new func-
tions f ` g, f ´ g, fg, and f {g in a manner similar to the
way we add, subtract, multiply, and divide real numbers. The
sum, difference, product, and quotient functions are defined
by
pf ` gqpx q “ f px q ` gpx q, pf ´ gqpx q “ f px q ´ gpx q
f px q
pfgqpx q “ f px qgpx q, pf {gqpx q “
gpx q

Note that if the domain of f is A and the domain of g is B, then

the domain of f ˘ g is the intersection A X B because both f px q
and gpx q have to be defined. The domain of fg is A X B too,
however, the domain of f {g is tx P A X B | gpx q ‰ 0u.
 ?
Example 13: The domain of f px q “ x is r0, `8q and the
?
domain of gpx q “ 2 ´ x is p´8, 2s. Therefore
? ?
The domain of f px q ` gpx q “ x ` 2 ´ x is
r0, `8q X p´8, 2s “ r0, 2s.
? ?
The domain of f px q ´ gpx q “ x´ 2 ´ x is also
r0, 2s.
The domain of
? ?
f px q ¨ gpx q “ x ¨ 2 ´ x “ x p2 ´ x q is also r0, 2s.
a
? c
f px q x x
The domain of “? “ is
gpx q 2´x 2´x
r0, 2s ´ t2u “ r0, 2q.
Definition 17 (The Composite Function): Given two func-
tions f and g, the composite function f ˝ g (also called the
composition) of f and g is defined by

pf ˝ gqpx q “ f pgpx qq

The domain of f ˝g is the set of all x in the domain of g such

that gpx q is in the domain of f . In other words, pf ˝ gqpx q is
defined whenever both gpx q and f pgpx qq are defined.
Example 14: If f px q “ x 2 and gpx q “ x ` 3, find the
composite functions f ˝ g and g ˝ f .

Solution : We have
pf ˝ gqpx q “ f pgpx qq “ rgpx qs2 “ px ` 3q2
pg ˝ f qpx q “ gpf px qq “ f px q ` 3 “ x 2 ` 3
We see that, in general, f ˝ g ‰ g ˝ f .
 ? ?
Example 15: If f px q “ x and gpx q “ 2 ´ x , find each
function and its domain: f ˝ g, g ˝ f , f ˝ f , and g ˝ g.

Solution : We have
a? ?
2´x “ 2 ´ x.
a 4
pf ˝ gqpx q “ f pgpx qq “ gpx q “
Its domain is p´8, 2s.
a ?
2 ´ f px q “ 2 ´ x . Its
a
pg ˝ f qpx q “ gpf px qq “
domain is r0, 4s.
a? ?
x “ 4 x . Its
a
pf ˝ f qpx q “ f pf px qq “ f px q “
domain is r0, `8q.
a ?
2 ´ gpx q “ 2 ´ 2 ´ x .
a
pg ˝ gqpx q “ gpgpx qq “
Its domain is r´2, 2s.
It is possible to take the composition of three or more functions.
For instance, the composite function f ˝ g ˝ h is found by first
applying h, then g, and then f as follows:

pf ˝ g ˝ hqpx q “ f pgphpx qqq

x
Example 16: If f px q “ , gpx q “ x 5 , and hpx q “ x ` 2,
x `1
then
gphpx qq rhpx qs5
pf ˝ g ˝ hqpx q “ f pgphpx qqq “ “
gphpx qq ` 1 rhpx qs5 ` 1
px ` 2q5
“
px ` 2q5 ` 1
INVERSE FUNCTIONS
Definition 18: A function f is called a one-to-one function if
it never takes on the same value twice; that is f px1 q ­“ f px2 q
whenever x1 ­“ x2 .

Horizontal Line Test

A function is one-to-one if and only if no horizontal line in-
tersects its graph more than once.

This function is not

one-to-one because x1 ‰ x2
and f px1 q “ f px2 q.
Example 17: The function f px q “ x 3 is one-to-one on R,
because if x1 ­“ x2 , then x13 ­“ x23 . The function gpx q “ x 2 is
not one-to-one on R, because 1 ­“ ´1 but gp´1q “ gp1q “ 1.
However, gpx q is one-to-one on R` “ r0, `8q.
 Definition 19: Let f be a one-to-one function with domain
D and range E . Then its inverse function f ´1 has domain E
and range D and is defined by f ´1 py q “ x ô f px q “ y for
any y in E .

The following procedure shows you how to find the inverse

function of a one-to-one function f :
Step 1 Write y “ f px q
Step 2 Solve this equation for x in terms of y (if possible)
Step 3 To express f ´1 as a function of x , interchange x and
y . The resulting equation is y “ f ´1 px q.
Example 18: Find the inverse function of f px q “ 2x ` 3.

Solution : According to the above procedure

We write y “ 2x ` 3.
y ´3
Then we solve this equation for x : x “ .
2
x ´3
Finally, we interchange x and y : y “ .
2
x ´3
Therefore the inverse function is f ´1 px q “ .
2
NOTE

Note that

f ´1 pf px qq “ x

f pf ´1 px qq “ x
and the graph of f ´1 px q is
obtained by reflecting the
graph of f px q about the
line y “ x .
From the elementary functions we have

aloga x “ x and loga ax “ x

Then the exponential function y “ ax is the inverse function

of the logarithmic function y “ loga x and vice versa.

y “ ax

x
y “ loga x
x
“
y
Definition 20 (The Inverse Function of y “ sin x ): We
” π πı
consider y “ sin x : ´ , ÝÑ r´1, 1s. This is one-to-
2 2
one function. Therefore, it has an inverse function, that is
” π πı
denoted by y “ arcsin x : r´1, 1s ÝÑ ´ ,
2 2
Definition 21 (The Inverse Function of y “ cos x ): We
consider y “ cos x : r0, πs ÝÑ r´1, 1s. This is one-to-
one function. Therefore, it has an inverse function, that is
denoted by y “ arccos x : r´1, 1s ÝÑ r0, πs
Definition 22 (The Inverse Function of y “ tan x ): We
´ π π¯
consider y “ tan x : ´ , ÝÑ p´8, `8q. This is one-
2 2
to-one function. Therefore, it has an inverse function, that
´ π π¯
is denoted by y “ arctan x : p´8, `8q ÝÑ ´ ,
2 2
LIMITS OF A FUNCTION
Definition 23: Let f be a function defined on some open
interval that contains the number a, except possibly at a
itself. Then we say that the limit of f px q as x approaches a
is L, and we write lim f px q “ L if for every number ε ą 0
x Ña
there is a number δ ą 0 such that if 0 ă |x ´ a| ă δ then
|f px q ´ L| ă ε. That is

@ε ą 0, Dδ ą 0, 0 ă |x ´ a| ă δ ñ |f px q ´ L| ă ε
Example 19: Show that lim p3x ´ 2q “ 4.
x Ñ2

Solution : We have a “ 2, L “ 4, f px q “ 3x ´2 and we need

to find a number δ ą 0 such that @ε ą 0, if 0 ă |x ´ 2| ă δ
then |p3x ´ 2q ´ 4| ă ε. From the last inequality, we have

|p3x ´ 2q ´ 4| ă ε ô |3x ´ 6| ă ε ô |3px ´ 2q| ă ε

ε
ô |x ´ 2| ă
3
ε
This suggests that we should choose δ “ .
3
Theorem 1 (Algebraic Laws): Suppose that C is a constant
and the limits lim f px q and lim gpx q exist. Then
x Ña x Ña
(1) lim rf px q ` gpx qs “ lim f px q ` lim gpx q
x Ña x Ña x Ña
(2) lim rf px q ´ gpx qs “ lim f px q ´ lim gpx q
x Ña x Ña x Ña
(3) lim rCf px qs “ C lim f px q
x Ña x Ña
(4) lim rf px qgpx qs “ lim f px q ¨ lim gpx q
x Ña x Ña x Ña

f px q lim f px q
(5) lim “ x Ña if lim gpx q ­“ 0
x Ña gpx q lim gpx q x Ña
x Ña
Theorem 2 (Limit of Composite Functions): If
lim f px q “ L and lim gpx q “ b, then lim f pgpx qq “ L
x Ñb x Ña x Ña

Example 20: Suppose that lim f px q “ 3 and lim gpx q “ 2.

x Ñ2 x Ñ1
Then lim f pgpx qq “ 3.
x Ñ1

NOTE:
From the above laws, we have, if lim f px q “ L, then
x Ña

1. lim rf px qsn “ Ln
x Ña
a ?
2. lim n f px q “ L pL ą 0q
n
x Ña
Theorem 3 (Direct Substitution Property): If f is a com-
bination or composition of elementary functions and a is in
the domain of f , then
lim f px q “ f paq
x Ña

?3
x 2 ` 2x ´ 7
Example 21: Find lim f px q where f px q “ ? .
x Ñ1 3x 3 ` 5x ` 8
Since the function f px q is an algebraic function and a “ 1 is
in its domain, then
? ? ?
1 `2¨1´7
3 2 3
´4 3
4
lim f px q “ f p1q “ ? “ ? “ ´
x Ñ1 3 ¨ 13 ` 5 ¨ 1 ` 8 16 4
Theorem 4 (The Inequality Theorem): If f px q ď gpx q
when x is near a and the limits of f and g both exist as x
approaches a, then

lim f px q ď lim gpx q

x Ña x Ña

Theorem 5 (The Squeeze Theorem):

Suppose f px q ď gpx q ď hpx q when x is near a and if
lim f px q “ lim hpx q “ L, then lim gpx q “ L.
x Ña x Ña x Ña
 1
Example 22: Find lim x 2 sin2 .
x Ñ0 x

1
Solution : We know that 0 ď x 2 sin2 ď x 2 , and lim x 2 “
x x Ñ0
2 1
0. By the Squeeze Theorem, we obtain lim x sin
2 “ 0.
x Ñ0 x
Definition 24 (Infinite Limits):

lim f px q “ `8 ô @M ą 0, Dδ ą 0, such that

x Ña
0 ă |x ´ a| ă δ ñ f px q ą M

lim f px q “ ´8 ô @N ă 0, Dδ ą 0, such that

x Ña
0 ă |x ´ a| ă δ ñ f px q ă N
Definition 25 (Limits at Infinity): Let f px q be a function
defined on some interval pa, 8q. Then

lim f px q “ L ô @ε ą 0, DN ą 0, @x ą N ñ |f px q ´ L| ă ε
x Ñ8

and

lim f px q “ 8 ô @M ą 0, DN ą 0, @x ą N ñ f px q ą M
x Ñ8
Some useful limits
We consider some useful limits of the elementary functions
when x approaches ˘8.
α ą 0 ùñ lim x α “ `8 and
x Ñ`8
α ă 0 ùñ lim xα “ 0
x Ñ`8
If a ą 1, then lim ax “ `8 and lim ax “ 0
x Ñ`8 x Ñ´8
If a ą 1, then lim loga x “ `8
x Ñ`8
$
’0,
’ if n ă m
a0 x n ` a1 x n´1 ` ¨ ¨ ¨ ` an & a0
lim “ , if n “ m
x Ñ`8 b0 x m ` b1 x m´1 ` ¨ ¨ ¨ ` bm ’ b0
if n ą m
’
%
8,
The trigonometric functions (sin x , cos x , tan x , cot x )
have no limits when x approaches ˘8.
π
We have lim arctan x “ and
x Ñ`8 2
π
lim arctan x “ ´ . Sometime, we can write
x Ñ´8 2
π π
arctanp`8q “ and arctanp´8q “ ´
2 2
lim cosh x “ `8, lim sinh x “ ˘8,
x Ñ˘8 x Ñ˘8
lim tanh x “ 1
x Ñ˘8
ONE-SIDE LIMITS
Definition 26 (The Left-Hand Limit):

lim f px q “ L ô @ε ą 0, Dδ ą 0, such that

x Ña´
a ´ δ ă x ă a ñ |f px q ´ L| ă ε

Definition 27 (The Right-Hand Limit):

lim f px q “ L ô @ε ą 0, Dδ ą 0, such that

x Ña`
a ă x ă a ` δ ñ |f px q ´ L| ă ε
 1
Example 23: Consider the function f px q “ . We have
x
1 1
lim “ `8 and lim “ ´8
x Ñ0` x x Ñ0´ x

Example 24: Consider the function

#
1 ´ x , if x ă 1
f px q “
x 2, if x ě 1

We have

lim f px q “ lim p1´x q “ 0 and lim f px q “ lim x 2 “ 1

x Ñ1´ x Ñ1´ x Ñ1` x Ñ1`
 1
Example 25: Consider the function f px q “ 1 . When x
2 `1
x
1 1
approaches 0 from the left, we haveÝÑ ´8, then 2 x ÝÑ
1
x
0, so that 2 x ` 1 ÝÑ 1. This means that lim f px q “ 1.
x Ñ0´
On the other hand, when x approaches 0 from the right, we
1 1 1
have ÝÑ 8, then 2 x ÝÑ `8, and 2 x ` 1 ÝÑ `8. This
x
means that lim f px q “ 0.
x Ñ0`
Theorem 6:
lim f px q “ L if and only if lim f px q “ L “ lim f px q.
x Ña x Ña´ x Ña`

NOTE:
From the Direct Substitution Property we see that if a func-
tion f px q is defined at a number a then the limit of this
function when x approaches a can be found by replacing x
by a. Therefore, in reality, we often encounter with limits of
functions which are not defined at a. In these cases, we need
to apply other tools to calculate these limits.
 x 2 ´ 3x ` 2
Example 26: Find lim .
x Ñ2 x ´2

x 2 ´ 3x ` 2
Solution : The function f px q “ is not defined
x ´2
at x “ 2, so we can not replace x by 2. In order to find the
limit we factor the numerator as x 2 ´ 3x ` 2 “ px ´ 1qpx ´ 2q
and
x 2 ´ 3x ` 2 px ´ 1qpx ´ 2q
lim “ lim “ lim px ´ 1q “ 1
x Ñ2 x ´2 x Ñ2 x ´2 x Ñ2
Definition 28: We used to find the limits of following inde-
terminate forms:
0 8
, , 8 ´ 8, 18 , 08 , 0 ¨ 8, ...
0 8

SOME USEFUL LIMITS

sin x tan x 1 ´ cos x 1
(1) lim “ 1, lim “ 1, lim “
x Ñ0 x x Ñ0 x x Ñ0 x 2 2
ex ´1 lnp1 ` x q
(2) lim “ 1, lim “1
x Ñ0 x x Ñ0 x
p1 ` x qα ´ 1
(3) lim “α
x Ñ0 x
SOME USEFUL LIMITS
sinh x tanh x 1 ´ cosh x 1
(4) lim “ 1, lim “ 1, lim “
x Ñ0
ˆx
x Ñ0 x x Ñ0 x 2 2
1 x
˙
1
(5) lim 1 ` “ e, lim p1 ` x q x “ e
x Ñ8 x x Ñ0
$
’ 0, if n ă m
a0 x n ` a1 x n´1 ` ¨ ¨ ¨ ` an
’
&a
0
(6) lim “ , if n “ m
x Ñ8 b0 x m ` b1 x m´1 ` ¨ ¨ ¨ ` bm ’ b0
8, if n ą m
’
%
 sin 7x
Example 27: Find lim . We can rewrite
x Ñ0 tan 3x
sin 7x sin 7x 3x 7 7
lim “ lim ¨ ¨ “
x Ñ0 tan 3x x Ñ0 7x tan 3x 3 3

tan x ´ sin x
Example 28: Find lim . We can rewrite
x Ñ0 x3
tan x ´ sin x sin x
´ sin x
lim “ lim cos x 3
x Ñ0 x3 x Ñ0 x
sin x ´ sin x cos x
“ lim
x Ñ0 x 3 cos x
sin x 1 ´ cos x 1
“ lim ¨ ¨
x Ñ0 x x 2 cos x
1 1 1
“ 1¨ ¨ “
2 1 2
 ?
Example 29: Find lim x 3{2 x3 ` 2 ´ x3 ´ 2 . We
`? ˘
x Ñ`8
have
px 3 ` 2q ´ px 3 ´ 2q
lim f px q “ lim x 3{2 ? 3 ?
x Ñ`8 x Ñ`8 x ` 2 ` x3 ´ 2
?
4 x3
“ lim ? ?
x Ñ`8 x3 ` 2 ` x3 ´ 2
4 4
“ lim c “ “2
2 2 2
c
x Ñ`8
1` 3 ` 1´ 3
x x
 x `2 x
ˆ ˙
Example 30: Find lim .
x Ñ8 x ´ 2

x `2 x x ´2`4 x
ˆ ˙ ˆ ˙
lim “ lim
x Ñ8 x ´ 2 x Ñ8 x ´2
˙x ˜ ¸x
4 1
ˆ
“ lim 1 ` “ lim 1 ` x ´2
x Ñ8 x ´2 x Ñ8
4
˜ ¸ x ´2 ¨ 4 ¨x » ˜ ¸ x ´2 fi x4x´2
1 4 x ´2
1 4

“ lim 1 ` x ´2 “ lim – 1 ` x ´2 fl
x Ñ8 x Ñ8
4 4

“ e4
 1
Example 31: Find lim pcos x q x 2 . We have
x Ñ0

1 1
lim pcos x q x 2 “ lim p1 ` cos x ´ 1q x 2
x Ñ0 x Ñ0
” 1
ı cos x2´1
“ lim p1 ` pcos x ´ 1qq cos x ´1 x
x Ñ0
“ e ´1{2
ASYMPTOTES
Definition 29: The line x “ a is called a vertical asymptote of
the curve y “ f px q if at least one of the following statements
is true

lim f px q “ 8 lim f px q “ 8 lim f px q “ 8

x Ña x Ña´ x Ña`

lim f px q “ ´8 lim f px q “ ´8 lim f px q “ ´8

x Ña x Ña´ x Ña`

Definition 30: The line y “ L is called a horizontal asymp-

tote of the curve y “ f px q if either

lim f px q “ L or lim f px q “ L
x Ñ8 x Ñ´8
Example 32: Find vertical and horizontal asymptotes of the
function
2x 2 ` 3
f px q “
x2 ´ 1

Solution : We have
2x 2 ` 3
lim f px q “ lim “2
x Ñ8 x Ñ8 x 2 ´ 1

Then, the horizontal asymptote is y “ 2. And

2x 2 ` 3
lim f px q “ lim “ ˘8
x Ñ˘1 x Ñ˘1 x 2 ´ 1

Therefore, the vertical asymptotes are x “ ´1 and x “ 1.

Definition 31: The line y “ mx ` b is called a slant asymp-
tote of the curve y “ f px q if there exist the following limits

f px q
m “ lim , b “ lim rf px q ´ mx s
x Ñ8 x x Ñ8

2x 2 ` 1
Example 33: Find all asymptotes of the curve y “ .
x ´2

Solution : First of all, we have

2x 2 ` 1
lim f px q “ lim “ ˘8
x Ñ2 x Ñ2 x ´ 2

Therefore, the vertical asymptote is x “ 2.

We see that
f px q 2x 2 ` 1
m “ lim “ “2
x Ñ8 x x px ´ 2q
2x ` 1
„ 2 ȷ
b “ lim rf px q ´ mx s “ lim ´ 2x
x Ñ8 x Ñ8 x ´2
p2x ` 1q ´ 2x px ´ 2q
2 4x ` 1
“ lim “ lim “4
x Ñ8 x ´2 x Ñ8 x ´ 2

So, the slant asymptote is y “ 2x ` 4.

INFINITESIMALS
Definition 32: A function αpx q is called an infinitesimal when
x approaches a if
lim αpx q “ 0
x Ña

Example 34:
The functions x 2 , sin x , tan x , 1 ´ cos x , . . . are
infinitesimals when x Ñ 0.
1
The functions , 2´x , . . . are infinitesimals when
x
x Ñ `8.
πx
The function x 3 ´ 1, cot , . . . are infinitesimals when
2
x Ñ 1.
Definition 33: Two infinitesimals αpx q and βpx q when x
approaches a are called equivalent if
αpx q
lim “1
x Ña βpx q

In this case, we denote

αpx q „ βpx q px Ñ aq

Example 35:
sin x
sin x „ x px Ñ 0q, since lim “1
x Ñ0 x
x2 1 ´ cos x 1
1 ´ cos x „ px Ñ 0q, since lim “
2 x Ñ0 x2 2
We have some useful equivalent infinitesimals when x ap-
proaches 0

x3
$
’ sin x „ x ´
6
’
’
’
’
’
’
x3
’
’
tan x x
’
’ „ `
3
’
’
’
’
’
x2 x4
’
&
1 ´ cos x „ ´
’
’ 2 24
’ 2 3
’ex ´1 „ x ` x ` x
’
’
’
2 6
’
’
’
’
’
αpα ´ 1q 2
’
’
%p1 ` x q ´ 1 „ αx `
’
’ α x
2
’
Definition 34: Given two infinitesimals αpx q and βpx q when
x approaches a. We say that αpx q is an infinitesimal of higher
degree in comparison to βpx q, if

αpx q
lim “0
x Ña βpx q
In this case we denote

αpx q “ opβpx qq, px Ñ aq

Theorem 7 (Replacement by Equivalent Infinitesimals):
Given two infinitesimals f px q and gpx q when x approaches
a. Suppose that f px q „ αpx q, gpx q „ βpx q, px Ñ aq, and
αpx q
lim “ L. Then
x Ña βpx q

f px q
lim “L
x Ña gpx q
 tan x ´ sin x
Example 36: Find lim .
x Ñ0 x3
We know that
x3 x3
tan x „ x ` , sin x „ x ´ , px Ñ 0q
3 6
Therefore,

x3 x3 x3
ˆ ˙ ˆ ˙
tan x ´ sin x „ x` ´ x´ “ , px Ñ 0q
3 6 2

Then
tan x ´ sin x x 3 {2 1
lim “ lim “
x Ñ0 x 3 x Ñ0 x 3 2
CONTINUITY
 Definition 35: A function f is continuous at a if lim f px q “
x Ña
f paq. Otherwise, we say that f is discontinuous at a.

This definition requires three things if f is continuous at a:

(1) f is defined at a
(2) lim f px q exists
x Ña
(3) lim f px q “ f paq
x Ña
 $
& x2 ´ 4
Example 37: Given f px q “ , if x ­“ 2 . Find A
x ´2
% A, if x “ 2
such that f is continuous at x “ 2.

Solution : We see that f is defined at x “ 2, f p2q “ A and

x2 ´ 4 px ´ 2qpx ` 2q
lim f px q “ lim “ lim “ lim px `2q “ 4
x Ñ2 x Ñ2 x ´ 2 x Ñ2 x ´2 x Ñ2

From the above definition, f is continuous at x “ 2 if A “ 4.

Definition 36: We have the following definitions
(1) A function f is continuous from the right at a if
lim f px q “ f paq
x Ña`
(2) A function f is continuous from the left at a if
lim f px q “ f paq
x Ña´
(3) A function f is continuous on an opened interval pa, bq
if it is continuous at every number in the interval.
(4) A function f is continuous on an close interval ra, bs if
it is continuous on pa, bq, continuous from the right at
a, and continuous from the left at b.
Properties of Continuous Functions

(1) A function f is continuous at a when and only when it

is continuous from the left and from the right at a.
(2) The addition, subtraction, multiplication, division, and
composition of continuous functions are continuous
functions.
(3) The elementary functions are continuous on their
domains.
THE INTERMEDIATE VALUE THEOREM

Theorem 8 (The Intermediate Value Theorem): Suppose

f is continuous on the closed interval ra, bs and let N be any
number between f paq and f pbq, where f paq ­“ f pbq. Then
there exists a number c in pa, bq such that f pcq “ N.

The Intermediate Value The-

orem states that a continu-
ous function takes on every in-
termediate value between the
function values f paq and f pbq.
It is illustrated by the above
figure. Note that the value can
be taken on once or more than
once.
Example 38: Show that there is a root of the equation x 3 ´
3x ` 1 “ 0 between 1 and 2.

Solution : Let f px q “ x 3 ´ 3x ` 1. We are looking for a

solution of the given equation, that is, a number c between
1 and 2 such that f pcq “ 0. Therefore we take a “ 1, b “ 2,
and N “ 0 in this theorem. We have f p1q ă 0 ă f p2q;
that is, N “ 0 is a number between f p1q and f p2q. Now f is
continuous since it is a polynomial, so the Intermediate Value
Theorem says there is a number c between 1 and 2 such that
f pcq “ 0. In other words, the equation x 3 ´ 3x ` 1 “ 0 has
at least one root in the interval p1, 2q.
—– THE END —–