HARDWARE AND INPUT UNITS b.

Special keys- Used for special

functions such as Ctrl, Alt, the
HARDWARE
windows key and Esc.
A Computer system is a set of integrated devices c. Function keys- used to perform
that input, output, process and store data and specific tasks such as, <F1>, <F2>,
information. etc.
• When any key is pressed, an
• Hardware refers to the physical, tangible electronic signal is produced. The
computer equipment and devices, which signal sends a binary code
provide support for major functions such as corresponding to the key pressed to
input, processing, output, secondary the CPU.
storage and communication.
• There are many types of keyboards
• It is directed by the software to execute any but 101 keys keyboard is the most
command or instruction. popular one.
• Comparing to software, hardware is a
physical entity. II. POINTING DEVICES
• Hardware and software are
• Devices that enter data and
interconnected. instructions into the computer using
• Software is the set of instructions that can a pointer that appears on the
be stored and run by hardware. screen.
• Computer hardware includes the physical • Items to be entered are selected by
parts of a computer, such as CPU, monitor, either pointing to or clicking on
mouse, keyboard, computer data, storage, them. Ex: Mouse, Joystick, Touch
graphics card, sound card, speakers etc. sensitive screen, etc.
INPUT DEVICE MOUSE
• It is a piece of hardware that sends data • Small device used to point to and
and control signals. select items on your computer
• The key distinction between an input and screen.
output device is that the former sends data • Has two buttons: a primary button
to the computer, whereas the latter (left button) and a secondary button
receives data from the computer. (right button) and a wheel between
• The most common input device are the the two – allows to scroll smoothly
mouse and keyboard, but there are many through the screens of information.
others. • Primary button is usually used.
EXAMPLES OF INPUT DEVICE • Pointing and clicking with the mouse
is the main way to interact with the
1. KEYING DEVICE It is the device used to computer.
enter data into the computer using a set of • Types of mouse: Mechanical
keys. Ex: Keyboard, Key-to-storage and mouse, Optical mouse, Optical-
keypad. mechanical mouse and Laser
mouse.
I. KEYBOARD
• Four ways to use the mouse:
• Most common type of input device. 1. Clicking
• Before keyboards, punch cards and 2. Double-clicking
paper tape are used to carry out 3. Right clicking
instruction to the computer. 4. Dragging
• Contains three types of keys-
Alphanumeric keys, Special keys JOYSTICK
and Function keys.
• Used to control characters and
a. Alphanumeric keys- same letter,
vehicles in computer video games.
number, punctuation, special
symbols like $, %, @, A etc.
 • It has triggers and buttons that can SCANNERS
be pressed to use weapons or
• It is an input device that uses optical
projectiles in games.
technology to transfer images into a
• It has a handle that pivots on a base
computer, where the signal is
and sends its angle or direction to
converted into a digital image.
the computer as data.
• The digital image can then be
TOUCH SCREEN viewed on a monitor screen, saved,
edited, emailed or printed.
• Acts like a mouse, used to point,
drag or select option on a screen. DOCUMENT READERS
• It is a touch-sensitive monitor
• Documents that read data directly
screen that reacts to fingers moving
from source document and convey
across it.
them as input in the form of
• It is common in portable devices,
electronic signal.
such as tablets, palmtops, laptops
• Types of Document Readers:
and smart phones.
a. Optical Mar Reader (OMR) -
TOUCH PAD capture human-marked data from
document forms such as surveys
• Common substitute for a computer and tests.
mouse. b. Barcode Readers – can read
• It is essentially a specialized surface printed barcodes, decode the data
that can detect the movement of a contained in the barcode and send
user’s finger and use that the data to a computer.
information to direct a pointer and c. Optical Character Reader (OCR)
control a computer. – convert different types of
• Usually used for laptops. documents such as scanned paper
GRAPHIC TABLET documents, PDF files, etc. into
editable and searchable data.
• Also known as digitizers.
• It is an input device used for DIGITAL CAMERA
converting hand-drawn artwork into • Used to capture photographs and
digital images. videos independently.
• User draws with a stylus on a • Photo and video files can be
special flat surface like drawing on a transferred to a computer by
piece of paper. memory card and slotting it into
• Drawing appears on computer computer or through Bluetooth.
screen and can be saved, edited or • These photos on computer can be
printed. saved, edited, emailed or printed.
• It offers greater control and
versatility for digital artists by WEB CAM
allowing them to see their drawing • Different from digital camera.
appear live on their monitor as they • No inbuilt memory.
create it. • Cannot operate independently from
III. SCANNING DEVICE a computer.
• Can capture photographs and
• Devices that capture an object or a videos, they are more often used to
document directly from the source. live-stream videos or facilitate video
• They are classified according to the chats on the computer.
technology used to capture data.
Ex: Scanners and Document MICROPHONE
readers.
 • Captures audio and sends it to a • There are different types of printers which
computer where it is converted to a vary in their speed and print quality.
digital format. • The two main types of printers are
• Once audio has been digitized, it 1. Impact Printers
can be played back, copied, edited, • It strikes paper and ribbon together
uploaded, or emailed. to form a character, like a typewriter.
• Also used to record audio or to relay • Impact printers use a print head
sounds live as part of a video chat containing a number of metal pins,
or audio stream. which strike an inked ribbon placed
OUTPUT UNITS & MEMORY UNITS between the print head and the
paper.
OUTPUT DEVICES • Line printers, dot-matrix printers are
Output units are units that delivers information some of the examples.
from the computer (output) to the user Advantages
• Less expensive
or other devices in a readable form. • Can make multiple copies with
multipart paper
• When the data is given to the computer, it
Disadvantages
is processed and is delivered as desired
output. • Noisy
• This output may be delivered as soft copy • Print quality lower in some types
or hard copy • Poor graphics or none at all
• Soft copy output: The output displayed on • Slow
the screen, for e.g., Files viewed in TYPES OF IMPACT PRINTERS
monitor.
• Hard copy output: The output exists in 1. LINE PRINTER: - Line printers are high
paper form, for e.g., Files in printed form. speed printers capable of printing an entire
• Examples of output devices: - Monitor, line at a time.
Printer, Plotter, Speakers, Headphones… 2. DOT MATRIX PRINTER: - Dot matrix
printer creates characters by striking pins
MONITOR against an ink ribbon. Each pin makes a
dot, and combinations of dots form
A monitor is a soft copy output device that displays
characters and illustrations.
information in pictorial form.
• Visual Display Unit (VDU) / Display Screen 2. Non-Impact Printers
• Images and texts are displayed on the • It uses ink spray, toner powder or inkless.
screen
Advantages
• The smallest dot that can be displayed is
called as pixel. • Quiet
• The resolution of the monitor determines • Can handle graphics and often a wider
the quality of the display. variety of fonts than impact printers
• Computer monitor appears similar to a • Fast
television set and is measured diagonally
Disadvantages
TYPES OF MONITORS
• More expensive
• Cathode Ray Tube (CRT) • Occupies a lot of space
• Liquid Crystal Display (LCD) • The cost of maintaining it is high
• Thin Film Transistors (TFT)
• Light Emitting Diode (LED) TYPES OF NON-IMPACT PRINTERS

PRINTER 1. LASER PRINTER: - Laser printer uses a laser

beam and dry powdered ink to
A printer is a hard copy output device that prints
paper documents. produce a fine dot matrix pattern.
2. INKJET PRINTERS: - Inkjet printer operates by The ALU has direct input and output access to the
propelling variably-sized droplets of liquid or processor controller, main memory and
molten material (ink) onto almost any sized page. input/output devices.
3. THERMAL PRINTER: - Thermal printers are Working
printers that produce images by pulling electrically
• Inputs and outputs flow along an electronic
heated pins against special heat-sensitive paper
path that is called a BUS.
PLOTTER • The input consists of an instruction word
that contains an operation code, one or
Plotter is an output device that draws shapes on
more operands, and sometimes a format
paper based on commands from a
code.
computer. Plotter differs from printers in that they • The operation tells the ALU what operation
draw lines using a pen. to perform and the operands are used in
the operation.
• As a result, they can produce continuous
• The output consists of a result that is
lines, whereas printers can only stimulate
placed in a storage register and settings
lines printing a closely spaced series of
that indicate whether the operation was
dots.
performed successfully.
• Multicolor plotters use different colored
• The flow of bits and the operations
pens to draw different colors.
performed on them in the subunits of the
• Plotters are more expensive than printers.
ALU is controlled by gated circuits.
• They are used in engineering applications.
• The gates in these circuits are controlled by
SPEAKER a sequence logic unit that uses a particular
algorithm or sequence for each operation
A speaker is an output device connected to a
code.
computer's sound card that outputs
An ALU performs basic arithmetic and logic
sounds generated by the computer.
operations.
• Speakers are transducers that converts Examples of arithmetic operations are addition,
electromagnetic waves into sound waves. subtraction, multiplication, and division.
• Speakers can be used for various sounds
meant to alert the user, as well as music Examples of logic operations are comparisons of
and spoken text. values such as NOT, AND and OR.

HEADPHONES All information in a computer is stored and

manipulated in the form of BINARY NUMBERS
Headphones are a pair of small speakers used for i.e., 0 and 1.
listening to sound from a computer, music player
or other such devices. This is referred to as a GATE because the
arrangement can be used to allow or stop a
• They are similar to speakers; except they current.
are worn on the ears so only one person
can hear the output at a time.
Arithmetic Logic Units (ALU)
An arithmetic logic unit (ALU) is the part of a
computer processor (CPU) that carries out
arithmetic and logic operations on the operands in
computer instruction words.
The ALU is divided into two units,
(i) an Arithmetic Unit (AU)
(ii) a Logic Unit (LU) CONTROL UNIT (CU)
The Control unit (CU) is a component of a The program counter is one of the most critical
computer’s Central Processing Unit (CPU) that registers in CPU. It keeps track on which
directs the operation of the processor. It tells the instruction is being executed and what the next
computer’s memory, arithmetic and logic units instruction will be.
and input and output devices how to respond to
The instruction register (IR) is used to hold the
the instructions that have been sent to the
instruction that is currently being executed.
processor.
The two registers MAR and MDR are used to
It directs the operations of the other units by
handle the data transfer between the main
providing timing and control signals.
memory and the processor.
Most computer resources are managed by the
The MAR holds the address of the main memory
CU.
to or from which data is to be transferred.
It directs the flow of data between the CPU and
The MDR contains the data to be written into or
the other devices.
read from the addressed word of the main
This unit controls the operations of all parts of the memory.
computer but does not carry any actual data
Whenever the processor is asked to communicate
processing operations.
with devices, we say that the processor is
Functions of CU servicing the devices. The processor can service
these devices in one of the two ways:
• It directs the flow of data sequence
between the processor and other devices. (i) one way is to use the polling routine and
• It can interpret the instructions and control
(ii) the other way is to use an interrupt
the flow of data in the processor.
• It cannot process and store the data. Polling enables the processor software to check
• It has the ability to fetch, decode, handle each of the input and output devices frequently.
the execution and store results. During this check, the processor tests see if any
• It generates the sequence of control devices need servicing or not.
signals from the received instructions and Interrupt method provides an external
commands from the instruction register. asynchronous input that informs the processor
Basic operational concepts that it should complete whatever instruction that is
currently being executed and fetch a new routine
The primary function of a computer system is to that will service the requesting device.
execute a program, sequence of instructions.
These instructions are stored in computer Software and Operating System
memory. These instructions are executed to Computer consists of hardware and software.
process data which are already loaded in the
computer memory through some input devices. Hardware:

After processing the data, the result is either Represents physical and tangible components.
stored in the memory for further reference, or it is
Ex: Input devices, output devices, CPU etc.
sent to the outside world through some output.
Software:
To perform the execution of an instruction, in
addition to the arithmetic logic unit, and control Represents the set of programs that govern the
unit, the processor contains a number of registers operation of the computer system and make the
used for temporary storage of data and some hardware run.
special function registers.
Types of Software
The special function registers include program
▪ System software
counters (PC), instruction registers (IR), memory
address registers (MAR) and memory and ▪ Application software
memory data registers (MDR).
System Software:
It is a software that controls internal computer • Assembler: Converts programs written in
operations. assembly language to machine language.
• Interpreter: Converts a HLL program into
Two categories:
machine language by converting and
• Operating System (OS) executing line by line.
• Language Processor • Compiler: Converts HLL program into
machine language but the conversion
Operating System
manner is different. It converts the entire
• A program which acts as an interface program in one go and reports all error in
between a user and the hardware. the program along with the line numbers.
• Primary goal is to make computer system Application Software
convenient to use.
• Secondary goal is to use computer • Set of programs needed to carryout
hardware in efficient manner. operations for a specified application.
• It controls and coordinates the use of • These are the programs written by the
hardware among the various application programmers to enable computer to
programs for the various users. perform specific task.

Types of OSs: Three types are (i) packages, (ii) customize and
(iii) utilities:
• Single Program OS: Single user operating
system, one user can be supported and 1. Packages:
executed by it at any point of time. General software designed are may be used by
• Multi-program OS: It supports individual users in manner they suit their needs
multiprogramming i.e., more than one user and requirements. Such general application
can be supported by it, therefore, more software is Packages.
than one user programs are loaded and
active in the main store at the same time. Some Major Categories are:
Active programs are executed using some Word processing Software:
techniques one by one.
• Time Sharing OS: It uses the time-sharing • It is a package that processes textual
technique. Each active user program is matters and creates organized and
given a fair share of CPU time. The active flawless document.
programs are scheduled for execution • There are program packages available
using certain job scheduling techniques. which can even guide us in adjusting and
• Real Time OS: The jobs have fixed modifying writing skills.
deadlines and the jobs have to be • Electronic cutting and pasting of lines,
completed within their deadlines. If this job words, paragraphs, and text from other
cannot be completed within its deadline, sources can be achieved in a flash.
this situation is called deadline overrun. • Text processing packages gives us
• Multiprocessing OS: A mode of operation everything and much more than what you
in which two or more processors in a could achieve before the advent of the
computer simultaneously process two or computers.
more different portions of the same
Electronic Spreadsheets
program (set of instructions).
• Interactive OS: Interactive in nature. • It a program that accepts data in a tabular
Provides GUI interface to facilitate move form in a row-column and allows to
and easy interaction to users. manipulate, calculate, analyses data in the
desired manner.
Language Processor
• Spreadsheets not only allow manipulation
The system programs which process the High- of data, but also can generate graphs and
Level Language (HLL) to the machine language. charts to show the relationships among
numbers more vividly.
Language Processors are given below:
Database Management System(DBMS) Some Important Utilities:
• DBMS is a package that handle and Text editor
manage a bulk of stored data.
• The utility program is used for creating,
• Data base management software extends
editing text files.
your ability to organize collections of data
• Text editor software supports special
stored in your computer and provides tools
commands for text editing ie, can insert,
for listing subsets of the data that meet
delete, find, replace characters, lines and
specified criteria.
paragraphs.
Desktop Publishing Packages
Backup Utility
• The software that handles page layout by
The utility program facilitates the backing up of
combining the functions of the traditional
disk.
type setter and a layout artist is known as
desktop publishing package. • Back-up means duplicating the disk
• Scanners are available for black and white information, so that in case of any damage
or color pictures to be included in main or data lose, this backed up data may be
body of texting using standard programs used.
and can be included in final layout. • These files or folders or even drives can be
• The design and layout of complete book or backed up using this utility.
journal can be achieved without much
Compression Utility
trouble using a suitable DTP package.
Graphic, Multimedia and Presentation Application • This utility program facilitates the
compression of files.
• The application software that manipulates • Large files can be compressed so that they
image is known as graphic software. take less storage area.
• The software that incorporates images,
Disk Defragmenter
text, sound, computer animation and video
sequence is called multimedia software. • This utilities program attempts to minimize
• The application software that can create the fragmentation on your drive.
professional looking visual aids is called • A file is fragmented when it becomes too
presentation graphic software. large for computer to store in a single
• The visual aids can be computer images, location on a disk.
paper printouts or photographic • Disk defragmenter speeds up disk access
transparencies. by rearranging that files and free space on
2. Customized Software: your computer, so that files are stored in
contiguous units and free space is
• This type of software is tailor made consolidated in on contiguous block.
software according to a user’s requirement.
Anti-virus software
• This type of software is developed to meet
all the requirements specified by the user. • This utility program ensures virus free work
environment.
3. Utilities:
• A computer virus is a computer program
Utilities are those application program that assist that can infect other computer programs by
the computer by performing housekeeping modifying them in such a way as to include
functions like backing up disk or scanning or a copy of itself.
cleaning viruses or arranging information etc. • An antivirus software scans disk for reuses
and removes them, if any virus is found.
Utilities ensures the smooth functioning of the
computers. Operating System
Utilities helps to backup data, remove outdated Software that communicates with hardware and
files or recover data that has been accidently allows programs to run. It provides basic
erased. functionalities.
Common OSs are Windows and Linux. • Initial release on November 20, 1985,
Latest release on December 14, 2020.
MAJOR FUNCTIONS OF OS
• Microsoft Windows is also known as
1. Processor Management Windows and Windows OS.
• It is developed by Microsoft to run personal
2. Storage Management
computers.
3. Information Interchange
2. MacOS:
1. Processor Management:
• Developed and marketed by Apple Inc.
• In multiprogramming environment, OS since 2001(24 March,2001).
decides which program get the processor,
3. iOS (Apple):
when and for how much time. This process
is called Scheduling. • It is a mobile operating system created and
Job Scheduling: developed by Apple Inc. exclusively for its
hardware. iOS is used in phones, iPod,
• It not only assigns priority to jobs but also iPad.
admits new jobs for processing at
4. Android:
appropriate time.
• Program is a set of instruction submitted to • Android OS is a Linux based platform for
the computer, while Process is a program mobile phones.
in execution.
5. Linux:
Criteria for Scheduling:
• Linux is the name of a popular computer
• CPU Utilization: Maximum possible CPU operating system. It is a free software and
utilization. open source development.
• Turn-around Time: Minimum possible
Other functions of OS:
turnaround time.
• Waiting Time: Minimum waiting time. • Manage computer resources.
• Response Time: System should give fast • Establish user interface.
response. • Execute and provide services for
• Throughput: Maximum possible application software.
throughput. (Throughput refers to how • Security
much data can be transferred from one • Error detecting aids
location to another in a given amount of
time. It is used to measure the performance Advantages:
of hard drives and RAM, as well as Internet • Manages inputs and outputs.
and network connections.) • Manages resource allocation.
2. Storage Management: • Provides Graphical User Interface (GUI).
• Converts program into process.
CPU Memory I/O System
Main Program of OS
• Memory is a large array of bytes, each with
its own address. The CPU reads and writes The bootstrap program is loaded into the main
on specific memory address. memory when the computer reboots. The
• Information management bootstrap program loads into the ROM. One main
• A computer system works on information. program of the OS is Kernel. When we load OS in
It stores, processes and provide main memory, first of all kernel loads into the
information. Thus, managing this memory.
information is an important and necessary MEMORY UNITS
task performed by OS.
Memory is the unit responsible for providing the
COMMONLY USED OPERATING SYSTEMS space for storing data.
1. Microsoft Windows:
 • The area where computer store something • These are semiconductor memories.
temporarily or permanently is called • It is known as the main memory.
memory. • Usually volatile (retaining data only as long
• Memory is an essential component of any as there is a power supply connected.)
digital computer. memory.
• Data is lost in case power is switched off.
MEMORY
• It is the working memory of the computer.
• Cache Memory • Faster than secondary memories.
• Primary Memory • A computer cannot run without the primary
• Secondary Memory memory.
CACHE MEMORY SEMICONDUCTOR RAM
Cache memory is a very high-speed Semiconductor memory is a digital electronic
semiconductor memory which can speed up the semiconductor device used for digital data
storage, such as computer memory. It typically
CPU.
refers to MOS memory, where data is stored
• It acts as a buffer between the CPU and the within Metal Oxide Semiconductor (MOS)
main memory. memory cells on a silicon integrated circuit
• It is used to hold those parts of data and memory chip.
program which are most frequently used by ADVANTAGES OF SEMICONDUTOR RAM
the CPU.
• The parts of data and programs are • The semiconductor ram contrasts with data
transferred from the disk to cache memory storage media such as hard disks and CDs
by the operating system, from where the which read and write data consecutively
CPU can access them. and therefore the data can only be
• Cache memory is faster than main memory accessed in the same sequence it was
• It consumes less access time as compared written.
to main memory. • Semiconductor memory also has much
• It stores the program that can be executed faster access times than other types of
within a short period of time. data storage; a byte of data can be written
• It stores data for temporary use. to or read from semiconductor memory
• Cache memory has limited capacity. within a few nanoseconds, while access
• It is very expensive. time for rotating storage such as hard disks
is in the range of milliseconds.
PRIMARY MEMORY • For these reasons it is used for main
Primary memory is the main memory of the computer memory (primary storage), to
computer. hold data the computer is currently working
on, among other uses.
• Primary memory holds only those data and
VOLATILE MEMORY
instructions on which the computer is
currently working. Volatile memory loses its stored data when the
• It has a limited capacity and data is lost power to the memory chip is turned off.
when power is switched off.
RAM (Random Access Memory)
• It is generally made up of semiconductor
device. RAM is the internal memory of the CPU for storing
• The CPU communicates directly only with data, program, and program result.
the main memory.
• Access time in RAM is independent of the
• It is divided into two subcategories
address, that is, each storage location
RAM
inside the memory is as easy to reach as
ROM other locations and takes the same amount
of time.
Characteristics of Main Memory
 • Data in the RAM can be accessed • DRAM: Camcorders, Hard disk Drives
randomly but it is very expensive. (HDD), graphics card, personal computers,
• RAM is volatile. Hence, a backup video memory, printers, etc
Uninterruptible Power System (UPS) is
Two types of DRAM
often used with computers.
• RAM is small, both in terms of its physical Synchronous and Asynchronous DRAM
size and in the amount of data it can hold.
In Synchronous DRAM, the system clock
RAM is of two types − coordinates or synchronizes the memory
accessing. Therefore, the CPU knows the timing
• Static RAM (SRAM) or the exact number of cycles in which the data
• Dynamic RAM (DRAM) will be available from the RAM to the input, output
Static RAM (SRAM) bus. It increases memory read and write speed.
Overall, the Synchronous DRAM is faster in speed
The word static indicates that the memory retains and operates efficiently than the normal DRAM
its contents as long as power is being supplied.
However, data is lost when the power gets down In asynchronous DRAM, the system clock does
due to volatile nature. not coordinate or synchronizes the memory
accessing. When accessing the memory, the
SRAM chips use a matrix of 6-transistors and no value appears on the input, output bus after a
capacitor. certain period. Therefore, it has some latency that
Characteristic of Static RAM minimizes the speed.

• Long life Usually, asynchronous RAM works in low-speed

memory systems but not appropriate for modern
• No need to refresh
high-speed memory systems. At present, the
• Faster
manufacturing of asynchronous RAM is quite low.
• Used as cache memory
Today, synchronous DRAM is used instead of the
• Large size
asynchronous DRAM
• Expensive
• High power consumption
Dynamic RAM (DRAM)
DRAM, unlike SRAM, must be continually
refreshed in order to maintain the data. This is
done by placing the memory on a refresh circuit
that rewrites the data several hundred times per
second.
All DRAMs are made up of memory cells, which
are composed of one capacitor and one transistor.
Characteristics of Dynamic RAM
• Short data lifetime
• Needs to be refreshed continuously
• Slower as compared to SRAM
• Used as RAM
• Smaller in size
• Less expensive
• Less power consumption
APPLICATIONS
• SRAM: Cache memory, cell phones,
multimedia computers, super computers,
networking, telecommunications, etc.
 known as masked ROMs, which are
inexpensive.
• EPROM (Erasable and Programmable
ROM) :- EPROM can be erased by
exposing it to ultra-violet light for a duration
of up to 40 minutes and can be re-
programmed.
• EEPROM (Electrically Erasable and
Programmable ROM) :- This is equivalent
to EPROM , but does not require UV rays
to erase the content. It can be erased by
exposing it to an electrical charge.
APPLICATIONS
EPROM : CD-ROM Drives, embedded memory,
code storage, modems, etc.
EEPROM: Smart phones, disk drives, embedded
memory, anti-lock braking systems, smart cards
NON –VOLATILE MEMORY
etc.
Non-volatile memory preserves the data stored in
Flash Memory :It is used in portable devices such
it during periods when the power to the chip is
as USB flash drives, and removable memory
turned off. Therefore, it is used for the memory in
cards used in digital cameras and cellphones
portable devices, which don't have disks, and for
removable memory cards among other uses. SECONDARY MEMORY
ROM (Read Only Memory) The secondary memory is used as auxiliary
memory. The secondary memory is used for bulk
ROM is the memory from which we can only read
storage or mass storage of programs , data and
but cannot write on it. The information is stored
other information.
permanently in such memories during
manufacture. A ROM stores such instructions that • This type of memory is also known as
are required to start a computer. This operation is external memory.
referred to as bootstrap. • It is slower than the main memory.
• Non-volatile in nature • These are used for storing data/information
• Cannot be accidentally changed permanently.
• Cheaper than RAMs • CPU directly does not access these
memories.
• Easy to test
• The contents of secondary memories are
• More reliable than RAMs
first transferred to the main memory, and
• Static and do not require refreshing
then the CPU can access it.
• Contents are always known and can be
• Magnetic disks and optical disks are some
verified
of the examples.
Types of ROM
Characteristics of Secondary Memory
• PROM (Programmable ROM) :- It is the
• These are magnetic and optical memories.
memory on which data can be written only
• It is known as the backup memory.
once. It can be programmed using PROM
programmer or PROM burner. • It is a non-volatile memory.
• MROM (Masked ROM ) :- The very first • Data is permanently stored even if power is
ROMs were hard-wired devices that switched off.
contained a pre-programmed set of data or • It is used for storage of data in a computer.
instructions. These kinds of ROMs are • Computer may run without the secondary
memory.
• Slower than primary memories.
MAGNETIC DISKS It is a new memory technology that allowed stored
data to be saved when the memory device was
The Magnetic Disk is flat, circular platter with
disconnected from its power sources.
metallic coating that is rotated beneath
Flash memory is a non-volatile memory chip used
read/write heads. It is a Random-access device;
for storage and for transferring data between a
read/write head can be moved to any location on
personal computer (PC) and digital devices. It has
the platter.
the ability to be electronically reprogrammed and
Two types of magnetic disks are erased. It is often found in USB flash drives, MP3
players, digital cameras and solid-state drives.
• Hard Disk :- A hard disk consists of one or
more rigid metal plates coated with a metal Flash memory is a type of electronically erasable
oxide material that allows data to be programmable read only memory (EEPROM), but
magnetically recorded on the surface of the may also be a standalone memory storage device
platters such as a USB drive. EEPROM is a type of data
• Floppy disk :- Floppy disks are small memory device using an electronic device to
removable disks that are plastic coated erase or write digital data. Flash memory is a
with magnetic recording material. This distinct type of EEPROM, which is programmed
portable storage device is a rewritable and erased in large blocks.
media and can be reused a number of The two main types of flash memory, NOR flash
times. and NAND flash, are named for the NOR and
OPTICAL DISKS NAND logic gates. NOR and NAND flash use the
same cell design, consisting of floating gate
Optical mass storage devices store bit values as MOSFETs. They differ at the circuit level
variations in light reflection. depending on whether the state of the bit line or
• They have higher area density & longer word lines is pulled high or low. In NAND flash, the
data life than magnetic storage. They are relationship between the bit line and the word
also Standardized and relatively lines resembles a NAND gate; in NOR flash, it
inexpensive. resembles a NOR gate.
• Their Uses: read-only storage with low Uses of flash memory
performance requirements, applications
with high-capacity requirements & where Flash memory generally used in computers,
portability in a standardized format is television set-up box, cell phone, etc.
needed We use flash memory to store reprogrammed
There are different types of optical laser disks data.

• Compact Disk (CD): - A compact disc is a It is also used in industrial applications.

portable storage medium that can be used Advantages
to record, store and play back audio, video
and other data in digital form. The types of Flash memory is very durable and portable which
CD are CD-ROM (read only), CD-R we use everywhere easily
(record), CD-RW (re-writable). Can read and erase data easily
• Digital Versatile Disk (DVD): - A DVD is a
type of optical media used for storing digital Store much more data in flash memory
data. Disadvantages
• Blu-Ray Disk (BD): - BD often known
simply as Blu-ray, is a digital optical disk Virus can be easily transferred in flash memory
storage format. It is designed to supersede If flash memory crashes data will be lost
the DVD format, capable of storing several
hours of video in high-definition. Both NAND and NOR memory has limited number
of programming/ erasure cycles.

Flash Memory