Multilingual Hate Speech Analysis on Facebook:

A Comparative Study in English, Arabic, and

Romanian

Hussain Al Sharoufi1*, Ahmed Essam Sultan2

Gulf University for Science and Technology, Kuwait, 2University of Kerbala, Iraq
1

Abstract This study explores hate speech on Facebook within three

linguistic and cultural contexts: English, Arabic, and Romanian. By
integrating Mey’s (2010) pragmemes, Sharifian’s (2017) cultural schema,
and Al-Sharoufi’s (2020) culturemes, supported by Pishghadam’s (2020)
Cultuling Analysis (CLA), the study provides a nuanced framework for
understanding hate speech. Analyzing 90 hate speech comments, it
examines how cultural values and communicative practices shape hateful
discourse online. The study identifies recurring themes, such as moral
condemnation, political nationalism, and critiques of public figures,
revealing how cultural schemata drive distinct patterns in hate speech
across languages. Findings underscore the importance of culturally
tailored hate speech detection strategies and suggest that integrating
interdisciplinary approaches including linguistic, and cultural perspectives
can enhance moderation efforts. The study’s insights have significant
implications for policy, content moderation, and the development of
algorithmic solutions to address hate speech in multicultural digital spaces.
Keywords: Hate speech, Facebook discourse, Pragmatics, Cultural
schemata, Culturemes analysis

1. Introduction
*
Corresponding Author:
Hussain Al Sharoufi
[email protected]

Received: August 2024

T he advancement of technology in media has highly promoted hate
speech in a way that threatens the existence of diverse ethnicity,
religious, or race groups. This issue is exacerbated by the anonymity
provided by social networks, affecting social order and harmony (Castaño-
Pulgarín et al., 2021). In addition to general threats, hate speech has become
Revised: October 2024
Accepted: October 2024 an information warfare instrument reflecting the emotional roles of a digital
Published: November 2024 confrontation (Kolotaev, 2022). Worldwide, the trends show that with the
growth of online hatred, multiculturalism and intercultural communication
© 2024 Al Sharoufi and are also affected (Nielsen et al., 2021). Other kinds of hostility on Social
Sultan. Media Sites (SSMs) comprise cyber harassment and trolling (Nemade et al.,
This is an open-access article
distributed under the terms of
2023) and the instability of user identity and psychological well-being
the Creative Commons consequently (Cover, 2023), urging for ethical and technological novelty.
Attribution License (CC BY). Cyberbullying, which can also occur offline, is an aggressive language used
https://doi.org/10.22034/ijscl.2024.2038402.3638
 Multilingual Hate Speech Analysis on Facebook: A Comparative Study in English, Arabic, and Romanian

to target or insult people based on their color, ethnicity, religion, or gender (Castaño-Pulgarín et al.,
2021). This section aims to review articles published in the last three years on the use of pragmemes,
cultural schemata, and culturemes in hate speech, pragmatic, and discursive moves. As this study’s
theoretical framework, Mey’s (2010) concept of pragmemes, Sharifian’s (2017) cultural schema theory,
and Al-Sharoufi’s (2020) idea of culturemes provide a foundation for analyzing hate speech in this
research. Moh’d and Moghrabi (2021) consider racism in the work of literature, and Jassim and Ahmed
(2021) investigate classism in literature. Fadhel and Muhammed (2023) pay attention to hate speech in Page | 2
animated movies in America, and others focus on hate speech in Rwandan newspapers, American
political discourse (Khlopotunov, 2020), and Nigerian sermons (Ayansola, 2021). According to Ononye
and Nwachukwu (2019), the meaning of hate speech cannot be disentangled from certain pragmemes
and cultural frameworks.
Cultural differences play a crucial role in shaping the effectiveness of hate speech classifiers. Lee et al.
(2023) highlight the issue of "cultural blindness", where classifiers often perform poorly when applied
to datasets from diverse cultural contexts due to a lack of cultural sensitivity. This problem is more or
less salient in contemporary settings, especially concerning hate speech on sites such as Facebook (Das
et al., 2020). Such issues underscore the broader implications of technology on society and legislation.
Vuchkovich and Luchich (2023) thus ponder the liberty of speech that can hinder democratic decline
in this regard. Ramadhan et al. (2022) argue that communication technology is both a source for hate
speech dissemination and its counterpart.
In many contexts, social media features can reinforce negative narratives even when designed for
positive engagement. In Morales (2022), Kebuh and Tizie (2022) are cited to illustrate how Facebook
served as a platform for propagating hate speech during the Anglophone crisis in Cameroon. They
identify specific words and expressions that fueled ethnopolitical hostility. Such cases illustrate how
social media features can reinforce negative narratives, even though they are designed for positive
engagement. Morales argues that while Facebook is designed for social engagement, it can
unintentionally foster toxic communication, especially in sensitive contexts. This paper demonstrates
how the features that are intended to foster engagement with content on Facebook can lead to toxic
reinforcement of echo chambers. Solving this problem is a task that implicates the technological, legal,
and educational fields and the work of linguists, culturalists, and computer scientists. This, therefore,
indicates that effective early intervention strategies must regard these multiple and complex social
relations as a way of overcoming hate speech in a different cultural setting and offer introductory
culturally reflective and viable strategies.
That is why this study’s main feature can be considered an attempt to apply syntheses of linguistic,
cultural, and technological approaches to hate speech. Mey’s (2010) concept of pragmemes (context-
specific communicative actions in language use), Sharifian’s (2017) theory of cultural schema
(cognitive frameworks that guide understanding within cultural contexts), and Al-Sharoufi’s (2020)
concept of culturemes (cultural knowledge units embedded within language) have been as the core
concepts while cultuling analysis (CLA) has been used as the supporting methodology. These
complexities underscore the importance of interdisciplinary research that brings together insights from
linguistics and cultural studies and develops comprehensive strategies for combating hate speech. This
integrated approach is essential for addressing the multifaceted nature of online hate speech and its
profound impact on global societies. This study is significant because it addresses a critical and timely
issue in the context of our increasingly interconnected digital society. By focusing on hate speech across
multiple languages and cultural contexts- English, Arabic, and Romanian- this research provides a
comprehensive understanding of how hate speech manifests differently yet shares commonalities across
diverse communities. This insight is crucial for developing culturally sensitive and effective strategies
to mitigate hate speech.
The novelty of this study lies in its interdisciplinary approach, which integrates linguistic and cultural
perspectives to analyze hate speech. Using frameworks such as Mey’s (2010) pragmemes, Sharifian’s
(2017) cultural schema, and culturemes, this research provides a unique methodological contribution.
This combination advances academic knowledge and has practical implications for policy-making,
content moderation, and technological solutions to combat hate speech. The study's focus on multiple
 H. Al Sharoufi & A. E. Sultan/ International Journal of Society, Culture, & Language, 2024 ISSN 2329-2210

languages and cultural contexts enhances its relevance globally. In sum, The study tries to explore
specific pragmemes used by hate-speech writers across cultural contexts and examine shared cultural
schemata in hate speech by speakers of English, Arabic, and Romanian on Facebook. It also seeks to
analyze unique culturemes influenced by hate-speech schemata across these linguistic groups and
uncover thematic patterns in hateful comments on social media, thereby revealing communicative
practices among Facebook users and contributing to effective hostility mitigation strategies.
Page | 3
2. Theoretical Framework
This study employs a comprehensive theoretical framework to analyze hate speech on social media
platforms, particularly Facebook. It integrates three core concepts with CLA, which is used as a
supporting methodology.
Firstly, Mey (2010) introduces the concept of pragmemes, broadly defined as generalized situational
prototypes for specific contexts. In the context of hate speech, pragmemes refer to the communicative
perspectives engaged in the diffusion of hostile messages (Capone & Graci, 2024). Retta (2023)
distinguishes hate speech in social media into slurs and insults, focusing on a pragmatic approach, which
aligns with Mey’s concept of pragmemes. Similarly, Mohammed and Saleh (2023) focus on assertive
and commissive strategies in hate speech related to Trump, demonstrating how pragmemes operate in
specific contexts. Thus, studying these pragmemes, this work will pursue the goal of identifying the key
processes of hate speech production in various languages and cultures.
Secondly, the framework incorporates the concept of “culturemes” as outlined by Al Sharoufi (2020),
which refers to the smallest units of cultural knowledge embedded within language. Culturemes act as
markers of cultural identity and can influence how messages, including hate speech, are constructed
and interpreted. Al Sharoufi’s (2020) study emphasizes that these cultural elements must be understood
to accurately identify the nuances of hate speech across different linguistic communities. Mey (2010)
defined pragmemes as situational prototypes of verbal communication actualized by practs, which are
specific utterances illustrating the pragmeme prototypes. These pragmemes are part of the communal
repertoire that forms Sharifian’s (2016) cultural schema in which meaning is anchored. Building further
on this, Al-Sharoufi (2020) proposed the ‘cultureme’, which is the immediate realization of a pragmeme
due to various linguistic and paralinguistic factors.
The third is Sharifian’s (2011) cultural schema theory. Cultural schemas are the cognitive patterns that
people use to categorize information and make meaning out of events in their cultural worlds (Sharifian,
2017). For example, Sharifian’s study (2018) described the ‘shekasteh-nafsi’ schema operating in
Persian-speaking contexts, demonstrating how cultural knowledge constructs and interprets language.
Studies such as Aljarah et al. (2020) highlight religious and socio-political components in Arabic hate
speech. Additionally, Paasch-Colberg et al. (2021) explore the socio-political category of hate speech
in German. Additionally, David and Tălmăcian (2013) discuss how Romanian hate speech is influenced
by English lexical borrowings, highlighting the role of cultural schemata in shaping language.
In addition to the aforementioned concepts, CLA, developed by Pishghadam et al. (2020), is used to
examine cultural patterns and memes manifesting in language. CLA emphasizes the connection
between cultural cognition and language use, making it particularly useful for analyzing hate speech.
By applying CLA, this study seeks to uncover how cultural memes embedded in specific linguistic
communities shape hostile language behaviors. CLA complements the pragmatic analysis by revealing
how cultural patterns in the language deepen the understanding of hate speech.
Combining Mey’s pragmemes, Sharifian’s cultural schema, and Al-Sharoufi’s culturemes, this study
aims to investigate using CLA as the supporting methodology to analyze how cultural and
communicative patterns shape and reinforce expressions of hate speech in online discourse. This
approach helps to understand the specificity of hate speech discursive construction and reception across
languages and cultures and shows how cultures define languages. These insights, alongside the theories
mentioned, form the foundation for exploring hate speech across different linguistic communities.
Furthermore, the study adopts a comparative approach of legislative measures on hate speech online,
having considered Getahun (2023). This perspective discusses moderation of hate speech against
 Multilingual Hate Speech Analysis on Facebook: A Comparative Study in English, Arabic, and Romanian

freedom of speech, mostly in non-democratic societies, when describing the necessity of adherence to
law and regulations. Sharifian’s cultural schema theory further complements this perspective, showing
how cultural schemas can influence the interpretation of hate speech and its regulation (Sharifian, 2017).
Using the best of these theoretical frameworks, the study aligns itself with an integrative framework for
comprehending hate speech on the site. This comprehensive theoretical framework emphasizes the role
of cultural and linguistic factors in understanding hate speech across diverse contexts. Aligning with
the computational linguistics aspect of this framework. Owing to its broad approach, this paper Page | 4
effectively covers the plausible challenges in hate speech identification and solutions and enhances the
strategies for cultivating a responsible and harmonious online society. Furthermore, it is worth
mentioning that Derrida’s notion of ‘iterability’ puts pressure on Searle’s claim that speech acts do
verbs because of their specialness. Recent pragmatic research clearly points out that there are some
misconceptions in Searle’s theory of speech acts, especially the syntactic interpretation presented in this
prominent pragmatic theory (Al Sharoufi, 2020). The integration of Mey’s pragmemes, Sharifian’s
cultural schema, and Al-Sharoufi’s culturemes is illustrated in Figure 1. The triangle structure starts
from the broad foundational level (cultural schema) at the base and narrows to more specific realizations
(cultureme) at the top. The progression from the bottom to the top does not indicate that one level is
more or less important but rather reflects the movement from generalized cultural frameworks to more
specific, context-dependent linguistic elements. Each level builds upon the previous one: Cultural
schema forms the underlying cognitive framework, which is then manifested through speech
acts/events. These acts are shaped by pragmemes, which are realized through specific practs, and
finally, culturemes represent the smallest units of culturally embedded meaning. The triangle illustrates
how these concepts are interconnected, with each layer contributing to the overall understanding of
cultural and linguistic behaviors, such as hate speech, in this study. This approach helps to understand
the specificity of hate speech discursive construction and reception across languages and cultures and
shows how cultures define languages.

Figure 1
Integration of Pragmemes, Cultural Schema, and Cultureme

3. Methodology
In a wider examination of the hate-speech dynamics on Facebook, this study examined 90 samples of
hate-speech comments from particular political-social articles written in English, Arabic, and
Romanian. While the theoretical framework explored various analytical methods, this study specifically
adopted Mey’s pragmemes (2010), Sharifian’s cultural schemata (2017), and Al Sharoufi’s culturemes
(2020) to analyze the collected data, creating a comprehensive approach to understanding hate speech
dynamics. Additionally, this study considered CLA, developed by Pishghadam et al. (2020), as a minor
theory to examine cultural patterns and memes manifesting in the language used within the comments.
The primary analysis is based on three major theories: Mey’s pragmemes (2010), Sharifian’s cultural
schemata (2017), and Al Sharoufi’s culturemes (2020), which collectively provide a comprehensive
approach for analyzing hate speech dynamics.
 H. Al Sharoufi & A. E. Sultan/ International Journal of Society, Culture, & Language, 2024 ISSN 2329-2210

This multisectoral approach not only focused on language analysis but also on the behaviors influenced
by cultural, societal, and political elements. To this end, this multisectoral approach sought to
comprehend and reveal the complex application of hate speech within the various linguistic and cultural
grounds that were evidently present within the online site.
3.1. Corpus
Page | 5
The research focused on 90 hate speech comments from political and social articles that were posted on
Facebook in English, Arabic, and Romanian. These comments were gathered between November 2022
and December 2023. The comments were selected based on their relation to sensitive political and social
issues and garnered from keyword searches of ‘hot button’ topics during this period. Each language was
represented separately, with 30 Arabic comments collected from November 24, 2022, 30 English
comments collected from November 22, 2022, and 30 Romanian comments collected from December
2, 2022. The comments were chosen based on their hate speech characteristics and their negative
valency toward the user or group identification by race, ethnicity, or political leaning. This approach
ensured that each language was well-represented in the sample, enabling comparisons of hate speech
across different contexts. The collected data also provided insights into communication behaviors and
the realistic consequences of hate speech, with the goal of fostering an appreciation for the use of
courteous language online.
3.2. Procedure
The method of studying hate speech on Facebook was comprised of several steps; data gathering was
the initial step, and the qualitative analysis was conducted further. Overall, 90 hate speech comments
were gathered from Facebook by targeting political and social articles in English, Arabic, and Romanian
languages. The following comments were chosen because of their direct calls for violence towards
specific people or because they targeted minorities based on their race, ethnicity, or political persuasion.
Based on Mey’s pragmemes, some of which include condemnation, insults, and rhetorical questions,
the comments were grouped. Subsequent analysis used Sharifian’s cultural schemata (2017) and Al
Sharoufi’s (2020) cultureme frameworks for cultural and linguistic aspects. CLA was employed to
reveal the cultural patterns and behaviors that were deeply rooted in language use. In the
operationalization of the approach, the out-in approach was used to perform lexical semantics, syntactic,
morphological, phonological, and phonetic analyses to compare patterns of hate speech across
languages.
Mey’s concept of ‘pragmemes’ (2010) provides a crucial extension to these cultural-linguistic
frameworks, such as Sharifian’s cultural schemata and Al Sharoufi’s cultureme. Pragmemes refer to
generalized situational prototypes that help explain how specific speech acts like condemnation or
rhetorical questions in hate speech are contextually influenced by broader cultural patterns. By
integrating pragmemes into the study, we are able to connect the cultural and pragmatic dimensions of
language, thus offering a more comprehensive analysis of hate speech. Figure 2 illustrates the out-in
approach to linguistic analysis, which aligns with this study’s framework by showing how meaning
builds progressively from foundational linguistic levels, such as phonetics, to the outermost pragmatic
layer where cultural context and pragmemes operate. This layered approach enables the analysis of each
aspect of language, beginning from sounds and words up through sentences to meaning in context, to
understand how hate speech reflects cultural patterns. Specifically, Mey’s framework on pragmemes
connects with the pragmatic layer in Figure 2, where meaning in discourse is shaped by cultural
schemata and culturemes, allowing classification of hate speech strategies and examination of how these
strategies reflect cultural characteristics in English, Arabic, and Romanian languages. By linking the
outer pragmatic layer to cultural schemata and culturemes, Figure 2 supports this study’s approach of
exploring how each linguistic level contributes to the cultural embedding of hate speech. This
connection enhances the understanding of how language operates within different cultural and social
contexts in online settings, ultimately improving comprehension of hate speech dynamics on social
media.
 Multilingual Hate Speech Analysis on Facebook: A Comparative Study in English, Arabic, and Romanian

Figure 2
The Out-In Approach to Linguistic Analysis

Page | 6

4. Results
There is, however, a recognizable pattern concerning all the instances that laid down the basis for a
consistent flow of sarcastic remarks, thereby echoing the negatively-toned ideologies of the
commentators. In as much as the social media platform enables people to effectively exhibit themselves,
it seems that such Facebook users disregard the space as one where they can freely post their ideological
perspectives with impunity. This entitlement on social media frees people to unleash their inner hatred
and contempt toward particular positions and concepts. For instance, an excerpt from The Independent
highlights this phenomenon: “So far, this World Cup has been a veritable feast of own goals - FIFA,
David Beckham, and Morgan Freeman, to name a few”. This statement gives a perspective of how these
users employ public events in the dissemination of negative sentiments, a trend well captured in the
findings of this analysis. Based on these results, it can be concluded that the freedom provided by social
media and people’s willingness to hide behind pseudonyms play a major role in hate speech and
negative comments. Figure 3 demonstrates how these dynamics unfold, and this knowledge can be used
to make recommendations on ways of managing unhealthy discourse on these platforms.

Figure 1
Reaching Out: A Powerful Gesture of Unity and Connection
 H. Al Sharoufi & A. E. Sultan/ International Journal of Society, Culture, & Language, 2024 ISSN 2329-2210

4.1. English Facebook Comments

Among all the comments gathered from English Facebook posts, the specifics analyzed indicate that
people disapprove of and criticize Morgan Freeman for working with Qatar. As will be seen, the
comments remain negative and focused on the perceived motives of the subject. These insights are
categorized in Table 1.
Page | 7
Table 1
Recurring Themes of Disappointment and Criticism toward Morgan Freeman's Involvement in Qatar on Facebook
Theme Comment Analysis
"I was so disappointed to see Morgan Reflects a sense of betrayal and
Disappointment Freeman in Qatar... I really thought he disappointment based on moral and ethical
and Perceived had more integrity than supporting such expectations.
Lack of Integrity a barbaric country." Reinforces the feeling of disapproval
"Totally agree - shame on Freeman!" towards Freeman's actions.
"The reason for him being there must
Suggests that Freeman’s involvement is
have been for monetary gain - what else?
motivated by financial gain, ignoring ethical
Certainly not for supporting Qatar’s
concerns.
human rights record!"
Emphasizes the financial motivations
"What is Morgan doing there? He’s
behind his actions.
getting paid: what do u think?"
Criticizes Freeman for his perceived lack of
"The people from Hollywood are terribly
humility and moral integrity due to financial
greedy for money, and that is what he is
gains.
doing. There is no humility in this man at
Monetary A direct statement accusing Freeman of
all; no matter how old he is, 85 years old,
Motivations being financially motivated.
he did not learn. I am so disappointed
Highlights money as the only factor driving
with him”.
his actions.
"He is getting paid lots and lots of
Reaffirms the idea that financial incentives
money."
are his primary reason for being in Qatar.
"It is all about money."
A simple yet pointed comment about
"Making money. That’s what he’s
financial motivation.
doing."
Sarcastically implies that Freeman’s
"Getting paid."
integrity can be bought with money.
"Money can buy anything lol."
"He’s acting how everyone should act
when exposing your hypocrisy and Accuses Freeman of hypocrisy and
Criticism of
ignorance." ignorance.
Hypocrisy and
"He’s acting how everyone should act Repeated accusation of hypocrisy,
Ignorance
when exposing your hypocrisy and emphasizing disillusionment with Freeman.
ignorance."
"That is the ultimate obscenity! The cost!
In money x in lives!!" Links Freeman’s actions to broader political
"Qatar, with other gulf dictatorships, are and ethical concerns, especially financial
kept in power by American and British cost in human lives.
Political and
assistance, so 1st we must stop our Highlights the geopolitical implications of
Ethical Concerns
governments from profiting from these Freeman’s actions and criticizes global
dictators, or else things will remain the involvement in Qatar.
same." A metaphorical reference that subtly mocks
"Is that quicksand? You’d think Morgan Freeman’s role, hinting at ethical concerns.
would rescue him."

These comments illustrate a pervasive perception of moral and ethical breaches associated with
Freeman’s actions, with monetary gain being a dominant attributed motive. The repeated sentiments of
disappointment and accusations of hypocrisy suggest a broader public disillusionment with perceived
celebrity endorsements of controversial entities. This data underlines the significant impact of public
figures’ actions on their reputation and the potent role of social media in amplifying these perceptions.
 Multilingual Hate Speech Analysis on Facebook: A Comparative Study in English, Arabic, and Romanian

4.2. Arabic Facebook Comments

Table 2 illustrates a cultural schema condemning moral decline in the entertainment industry. The
comments use religious and moral critiques, emphasizing the belief that fame often requires ethical
compromises. Many comments also reflect strong religious sentiments, invoking religious language to
reinforce moral judgments.
Page | 8
Table 2
Analysis of Arabic Facebook Comments Reflecting Moral Disapproval and Cultural Criticism in the
Entertainment Industry
Arabic Text English Translation
Had actresses not made concessions, they would not have
‫الفنانات لو ما قدموا تنازالت ما وصلو‬
reached any lofty status.
‫كالم صح مية بالمية والدليل على ذلك اللي عم نشوفه على‬
What the interviewee said is 100% true, the proof of which is
‫صفات التواصل اإلجتماعي الشاطرة يال بدها تشلح أكتر‬
what we watch on social media. Some actresses go as far as
‫وتعرض جسمها أكتر لتقدر تغري وتجيب عروض أكتر‬
doing unacceptable deeds only to increase the number of
‫وهذا مظبوط للكل دون استثناء برافو عليك وهللا يستر على‬
possible offers.
‫بناتنا‬
‫ يختي يا مصدومه إذا انتي مذيعه وانحدر مستوى برامجك‬Oh, my dear, if you, as a presenter, let your show degrade for
‫إذا الفن بأوروبا وامريكا كل الفنانات‬.. ‫ علشان المصاري‬money... If all actresses in Europe and America admit to
.‫شو الي عنا بدهم يكونوا‬.. ‫ تعترفوا انو تم استغاللهم جنسيا‬having been sexually exploited, what do you think ours will
‫ اشرف وراجعي دفاتر فنانين قدامى في مصر كانو مجندين‬be? Check the records of old Egyptian artists who were spies.
‫ لالستخبارات قال مصدومه‬And you say you're shocked!
‫ بارك هللا فيك كالمك صح هو فجور صوت وصوره وليس‬May Allah bless you! This is not art; rather, it is live
.‫ فن‬promiscuity.
‫ صح لسانك لقد وصفت الوسط السفلي بشكل صادق وصريح‬Bless you! You have just minutely described the decadence of
‫ وجرئ‬this decadent milieu.
‫أن الفن من جانب والشرف والعفة والحياء من جانب‬... ‫ نعم‬Absolutely, so-called art is on one side, and honour is on the
‫كل في طريق واليجتمعان‬....‫ اخر على طرفي نقيض‬opposite side, each of which has its own path that shall never
‫احسنت‬...‫وكالمك صحيح واصاب الحقيقة‬...‫ ابدا‬ever meet. Your words are true and hit the mark. Well said!
‫ الرجل‬.‫ هو فقط يفضح الواضحات فلماذا كل هذا االستغراب‬He has explained what is already crystal clear. A bitter truth
‫ لم يقل اال الحقيقة التي يعرفها الجميع‬known by all!
The slogan of art has always been as follows: "Descend
‫قلناها من قبل وما زلنا نكرر بأن شعار الفن “ اهبط تصعد‬
morally to ascend artistically!" (The more decadent morally
‫ أي أهبط بأخالقك تصعد بنجوميتك‬، “
you are, the more famous and likable you will be.)

These Arabic comments reflect a cultural schema condemning the perceived moral decline in the
entertainment industry. The use of religious references, sentiments, and moral judgments highlights
deep-seated cultural values. The comments align with the cultural schema of “Insulting an Adversary”,
employing strong language to express disapproval and reinforce collective moral standards. The
analysis of Arabic Facebook comments reveals consistent cultural schemata and pragmemes aimed at
condemning perceived moral transgressions in the entertainment industry. These comments utilize
rhetorical questions, emphatic statements, and moral judgments to express and reinforce negative
sentiments. The frequent invocation of religious language, such as "May Allah bless you", further
illustrates how religious sentiment is used to strengthen moral critiques. Understanding these dynamics
is crucial for developing strategies to address and mitigate the impact of hate speech on social media.
4.3. Romanian Facebook Comments

Table 3 presents Romanian comments criticizing Hungary's EU role and Viktor Orban’s political stance.
These comments reflect a cultural schema of condemnation, expressing frustration with Hungary’s
behavior and advocating its exit from the EU. The use of idiomatic expressions, like “You can’t have
your cake and eat it too”, highlights the sentiment of disapproval. In addition, some comments reflect
 H. Al Sharoufi & A. E. Sultan/ International Journal of Society, Culture, & Language, 2024 ISSN 2329-2210

concerns about cultural identity, with Romania's sovereignty and national identity being contrasted
against Hungary's political actions.

Table 3
Romanian Comments Criticizing Hungary’s Role in the EU and Viktor Orban’s Political Stance with English
Translations
Page | 9 Original Text English Translation
Viktor Orban accuses the European Commission of
Viktor Orban acuză Comisia Europeană că blochează
blocking European funds for conspicuous political
fondurile europene din „motive politice evidente”
reasons.
Ungaria ar face bine sa inteleaga o aluzie fina si sa Hungary would be well advised to take a hint and
iasa singura din UE sa ne lase in pace fiindca a ajuns exit the EU by itself. Hungary should leave us alone,
ca la toata Uniunea sa-i fie scirba de o asemenea tara as the whole EU has come to be disgusted by such a
si de comportamentul ei. Ungaria sa se duca sa cinte country and its behavior. Hungary should go
la alta masa, la masa lui Putin de exemplu, ca in someplace else, like where Putin is, because there is
Uniunea Europeana nu mai are absolut nici un viitor. absolutely no future for Hungary in the European
Cu cit mai repede ungurii vor intelege lucrul asta cu Union. The sooner the Hungarians understand it, the
atit mai bine va fi -si pentru ei si pentru UE. better it is for themselves and the EU.
Asta vrea și cu slanina în pod și cu varza unsa! You can’t have your cake and eat it too.

These comments demonstrate a strong cultural schema aimed at condemning Hungary and its
leadership. The use of rhetorical questions and emphatic statements underscores a deep resentment and
a desire to see Hungary ousted from the EU and NATO. This aligns with the broader cultural schemata
of “Usurp Traitors of Any Rights!” and “Quashing an Adversary”. Additionally, many of the comments
express concerns related to cultural identity, particularly Romania’s sovereignty and national identity,
reflecting historical tensions between the two countries. This emphasis on national pride and identity
further intensifies the condemnation of Hungary’s political stance.
4.4. Repetitive Comments
4.4.1. English Examples
Table 4 outlines the cultural pragmatic framework of “Quashing an Adversary” and demonstrates how
money is depicted as the driving force behind actions, regardless of morals or values.

Table 4
Cultural Pragmatic Framework: Quashing an Adversary
Element Description
Cultural
Quashing an adversary
Schema
Speech Showing how money is the catalyst of everything in existence, irrespective of any morals or
Act/event values
Pragmeme Rip the person off his honesty and integrity!
Pract Money can buy anything lol
[SOURCE TEXT, Money can buy anything lol] Using a declarative utterance here can strongly
Cultureme
attain the writer’s objective of showing how hypocritical and dishonest Morgan Freeman is.

Table 4 demonstrates how the cultural schema “Quashing an Adversary” produces a specific pragmeme:
a phatic communicative move intended to subvert an intended referent. For instance, according to Mey
(2010), a pragmeme is a kind of real-world episode for specific conditions. In this case, the pragmeme
entails the employment of social media to demoralize someone, like the Facebook post: “Money can
buy anything lol”, directed at Morgan Freeman. This comment suggests a desire to depict Freeman as
a con-artist, and so develops a cultureme of discreditation. Such culturemes, based on Sharifian (2017)
and Al-Sharoufi (2020), are constructed by the cultural narrative and by the Facebook environment that
nurtures internal conflicts.
 Multilingual Hate Speech Analysis on Facebook: A Comparative Study in English, Arabic, and Romanian

4.4.2. Arabic Examples

Table 5 outlines the cultural pragmatic framework of “Moral Decay in the Art Industry” and
demonstrates how fame and success are depicted as dependent on the moral compromises of actresses,
with honor and integrity being sacrificed for artistic and financial gain.

Page | 10
Table 5
Cultural Pragmatic Framework of “Moral Decay in the Art Industry” in Arabic Comments
Element Description
Cultural
Moral degradation of actresses for fame and success
Schema
Speech Criticizing actresses for sacrificing their morals to achieve higher status in the entertainment
Act/event industry
Pragmeme “Descent morally to ascend artistically”
“‫( ”وصلو ما تنازالت قدموا ما لو لفنانات‬Had actresses not made concessions, they would not have
Pract
reached any lofty status)
Cultureme Using a declarative utterance, the writer’s objective is to criticize the lack of integrity in the
industry and highlight its moral corruption.

Table 5 demonstrates how the cultural schema "Moral Decay in the Art Industry" produces a specific
pragmeme: a communicative act aimed at condemning the ethical degradation in the entertainment
industry. As Mey (2010) explains, a pragmeme represents context-specific speech acts tied to real-world
situations. In this case, the pragmeme focuses on exposing the perceived moral compromises made by
actresses to achieve success, as seen in the comment: "‫( "وصلو ما تنازالت قدموا ما لو الفنانات‬Had actresses
not made concessions, they would not have reached any lofty status). This creates a cultureme of moral
decay, where the entertainment industry is portrayed as a space where honor and integrity are
compromised for fame and recognition. Drawing on the work of Sharifian (2017) and Al-Sharoufi
(2020), this cultureme reflects a broader societal critique of the entertainment industry and is shaped by
the cultural narratives and social media platforms that facilitate such discourse.
4.4.3. Romanian Examples
To analyze the Romanian comments, a recurring sentiment is evident regarding Hungary's role in the
European Union and its political alignment. The comments reflect strong disapproval of Hungary's
behavior within the EU, particularly its perceived association with non-EU powers like Russia, which
is seen as undermining the Union’s cohesion. Additionally, there is a notable critique of the perceived
hypocrisy, where Hungary is viewed as attempting to benefit from EU membership while disregarding
its values. This analysis can be structured into a cultural pragmatic framework to better understand the
recurring themes present in these comments. Below is a detailed breakdown of the cultural schema,
pragmeme, and cultureme emerging from these repetitive critiques (Table 6).

Table 6
Repetitive Theme: Criticizing Hungary’s Role in the EU
Element Description
Cultural
Discontent with Hungary’s political behavior in the European Union
Schema
Speech
Criticizing Hungary for disrupting EU unity and aligning with non-EU powers like Russia
Act/event
Pragmeme "Exit the EU if actions do not align with European values"
"Ungaria ar face bine sa inteleaga o aluzie fina si sa iasa singura din UE sa ne lase in pace"
Pract
(Hungary would be well advised to take a hint and exit the EU by itself)
Use of declarative statements to demand Hungary's departure from the EU and criticism of its
Cultureme
stance
 H. Al Sharoufi & A. E. Sultan/ International Journal of Society, Culture, & Language, 2024 ISSN 2329-2210

This analysis highlights how the recurring theme of discontent with Hungary’s role in the EU produces
a pragmeme: a communicative act urging Hungary to leave the EU. This critique emphasizes
accusations that Hungary’s alignment with non-EU powers like Russia is disrupting European unity, as
demonstrated in the comment, "Ungaria ar face bine sa inteleaga o aluzie fina si sa iasa singura din UE
sa ne lase in pace". These comments create a cultureme of distrust and frustration, portraying Hungary
as an obstacle to European cohesion. Drawing from the work of Sharifian (2017) and Al-Sharoufi
Page | 11 (2020), this cultureme reflects the tension between national and supranational loyalties within the EU,
particularly when certain countries are perceived to be undermining the Union’s core values.

4.5. Cultural Pragmatic Framework

4.5.1. English Examples

The Cultural Pragmatic Framework offers a valuable lens for analyzing how individuals use language
to express cultural values, beliefs, and attitudes. In the context of online discourse, particularly on social
media platforms, the schema of “Insulting an Adversary” is frequently employed to discredit or criticize
targets for perceived failures or actions. A recurring strategy involves the use of rhetorical questions to
challenge the credibility or sincerity of a public figure or institution. This framework can be observed
in comments directed at The Independent regarding its perceived inaction related to the World Cup
being held in Qatar. Table 8 outlines how the cultural schema, pragmeme, pract, and cultureme interact
in this context.

Table 8
Cultural Pragmatic Framework of “Insulting an Adversary” in Criticizing The Independent’s Stance on the World
Cup in Qatar
Component Description
Cultural Schema Insulting an Adversary
Speech Act/Event Criticizing The Independent for perceived inaction regarding the World Cup in Qatar
Pragmeme Posing rhetorical questions to criticize The Independent's stance
"What on Earth is the World Cup doing in Qatar? Where was The Independent when the
Pract
decision to hold the games here was made? Too late to make all this fuss now!"
The rhetorical question emphasizes condemnation, using all relevant linguistic and
Cultureme
paralinguistic cues to discredit The Independent.

Table 8 illustrates the Cultural Pragmatic Framework of “Insulting an Adversary” with a focus on how
rhetorical questions are employed to discredit The Independent. The cultural schema reflects an
adversarial stance, where The Independent is criticized for not acting in a timely manner on the decision
to hold the World Cup in Qatar. The pragmeme, in this case, is delivered through rhetorical questions
like: “What on Earth is the World Cup doing in Qatar? Where was The Independent when the decision
to hold the games here was made? Too late to make all this fuss now!”. This pract exemplifies how
rhetorical questions are strategically used to undermine The Independent’s credibility. The comments
express frustration and imply that “The Independent has been negligent”, aligning with the broader
cultural schema of “Insulting an Adversary”. The cultureme reinforces the condemnation, using both
linguistic and paralinguistic cues to amplify the criticism. By framing the questions rhetorically, the
speaker emphasizes The Independent’s perceived ineffectiveness, aiming to humiliate and discredit the
target. This type of rhetorical strategy is common in online discourse, particularly on social media
platforms, where it is used to express collective frustration and challenge authority or credibility. This
pragmatic approach is a powerful tool for shaping negative public opinion, illustrating how cultural
schemas like “Insulting an Adversary” influence the way criticisms are communicated and how
adversaries are discredited in specific contexts.
Similarly, the Cultural Pragmatic Framework is a useful tool for analyzing how language is used to
reflect societal values and beliefs, especially in the context of public discourse. When public figures are
seen as compromising their moral or ethical standards, particularly through their associations or actions,
they often become the target of criticism. In the case of Morgan Freeman’s involvement with Qatar,
 Multilingual Hate Speech Analysis on Facebook: A Comparative Study in English, Arabic, and Romanian

Facebook comments reflect a widespread sense of betrayal and disappointment. These comments reveal
a cultural schema of “Condemning a Public Figure’s Integrity”, where Freeman’s actions are framed as
a violation of ethical expectations. Table 9 illustrates how this framework is applied in the analysis of
the online discourse.

Table 9
Page | 12
Cultural Pragmatic Framework of 'Condemning a Public Figure’s Integrity' in Criticizing Morgan Freeman’s
Involvement with Qatar
Component Description
Cultural
Condemning a Public Figure’s Integrity
Schema
Speech
Criticizing Morgan Freeman for working with Qatar
Act/Event
Expressing disappointment and disapproval through accusations of moral and ethical
Pragmeme
compromises
"I was so disappointed to see Morgan Freeman in Qatar... I really thought he had more
Pract
integrity than supporting such a barbaric country."
The comment frames Freeman’s involvement as a betrayal of ethical standards, emphasizing
Cultureme
disappointment and a loss of trust.

Table 9 outlines the Cultural Pragmatic Framework of ‘Condemning a Public Figure’s Integrity’,
illustrating how expressions of disappointment and moral disapproval are directed at Morgan Freeman
for his involvement with Qatar. The cultural schema reflects a sense of betrayal, where Freeman is
viewed as compromising his integrity by aligning with a country that commenters perceive negatively.
The pragmeme is demonstrated through statements that express personal disappointment and
disapproval, questioning Freeman’s ethical judgment. An example of this pract is the comment: “I was
so disappointed to see Morgan Freeman in Qatar ... I really thought he had more integrity than
supporting such a barbaric country”. This rhetorical expression challenges Freeman’s moral integrity,
framing his actions as contradictory to the ethical standards expected of public figures. The
disappointment expressed is not only personal but also indicative of broader societal expectations for
celebrities to uphold certain moral values. The cultureme reinforces the tone of condemnation by
highlighting moral and ethical concerns, positioning Freeman as having failed to meet those
expectations. By framing his actions in this way, the speaker discredits Freeman in the public’s eyes,
portraying his involvement with Qatar as a betrayal of trust. This pragmatic approach is commonly used
in online platforms, where public figures often face collective criticism for perceived ethical missteps.
This framework is instrumental in shaping negative public sentiment, demonstrating how ‘Condemning
a Public Figure’s Integrity’ influences the discourse around moral and ethical controversies, particularly
when a public figure’s actions are seen as conflicting with societal values. CLA reveals how cultural
schemas and stimuli shape critical online discourse. In the example of “Insulting an Adversary” aimed
at The Independent, CLA highlights patterns and cultulings that drive collective frustration toward
perceived inaction on Qatar's World Cup. Understanding these cultural roots provides insight into how
criticisms are linguistically framed to challenge authority. Table 8 outlines this schema, where rhetorical
questions like, “What on Earth is the World Cup doing in Qatar?” are used to underscore public
condemnation. The cultureme reflects societal disapproval, utilizing language as a tool for discrediting
and expressing dissatisfaction in specific contexts.
4.5.2. Arabic Examples
Table 10 highlights the cultural schema "Condemn the Wrongdoers!" where actresses are criticized for
perceived moral decadence. The cultureme, supported by the statement "Had actresses not made
concessions, they would not have reached any lofty status", emphasizes societal judgment within
specific contexts.
 H. Al Sharoufi & A. E. Sultan/ International Journal of Society, Culture, & Language, 2024 ISSN 2329-2210

Table 10
Cultural Pragmatic Framework: Condemning Actresses
Element Description
Cultural Schema Condemn the Wrongdoers!
Speech Act/event Accusing actresses of moral decadence
Pragmeme Condemn actresses for their wrongful deeds.
Page | 13 Pract [Had actresses not made concessions, they would not have reached any lofty status.]
[SOURCE TEXT] Read or implemented in a specific context of a situation where all
Cultureme
pertinent linguistic and paralinguistic parameters are observed.

The cultural schema is, therefore, ‘Condemn the Wrongdoers!’ that guides the perception and
understanding of discussions related to actresses in that it serves to create a negative link between
actresses and moral depravity. It is common to find social media users bitter and resentful; they crucify
actresses for moral demise. This condemnation reactivates the cultural schema through the use of the
directive speech act to underpin some immoral vices in society. Thus, the pragmeme “Condemn
actresses for their wrongful deeds” preserves the normative way of expressing censure as to how people
have to formulate these accusations. A particular type of pragmeme, which is supported by the pract
‘Had actresses not made concessions, they would not have reached any lofty status’ is that it implies
that to become successful, actresses must become immoral. This statement performs the directive
speech act, reconnecting with the cultural schema that this statement reactivates. Herein the cultureme
is simply “[SOURCE TEXT] which can be read or implemented in a definite scope with definite
linguistic and paralinguistic features”, which corresponds to the general cultural conceptualization and
determines the interpretative and evaluative reaction. This cultureme follows contextual norms,
meaning that the cultural schema is integrated into communication practices. CLA shows what cultural
prior and stimuli cause hate speech. The way the schema “Condemn the Wrongdoers!” works in the
context of condemning actresses is explained by CLA alongside the patterns and cultulings behind such
discourse. Knowledge of these elements is important as a starting point for analyzing the issues of
cultural origin of incivility in different languages and cultures. Table 11 illustrates the cultural schema
"Condemn the Wrongdoers!" where the phrase "Descend morally to ascend artistically!" is used to
criticize artists. The cultureme emphasizes how language reflects societal condemnation in specific
contexts.

Table 11
Cultural Pragmatic Framework: Condemning Artists
Element Description
Cultural Schema Condemn the Wrongdoers!
Speech Act/event Descend morally to ascend artistically!
Pragmeme [Utter these words with confidence.]
Pract [Descend morally to ascend artistically!]
[Descend morally to ascend artistically!] Read or implemented in a specific context of a
Cultureme situation where all the interviewee observes all the pertinent linguistic and paralinguistic
parameters of context.

In this analysis, therefore, we discuss how cultural pragmatic framework, cultural schemes, speech act,
pragmeme, pract, and cultureme exist in the discussion that artists undergo on social media. It is a
memory structure that defines or prescribes the way in which the culture’s members perceive and
categorize phenomena. Also present here is the schema “Condemn the Wrongdoers!” which is based
on the reasoning that art causes moral corruption. Another revelation that social media users from the
selected genres have towards artists is the disgust of the artists because they are considered immoral.
Therefore, it influences communication patterns, and there is the condemnation of near and dear ones.
The imperative “Descend morally to ascend artistically!” points to the idea that artists should be
immoral if they want to succeed. The imperative phrase “Say this with confidence’ is an act of this
nature through which people are instructed to be loud about such a belief. This reflects the cultural
schema because it underscores the fact that one has to be immoral to be artistic. A pragmeme like
 Multilingual Hate Speech Analysis on Facebook: A Comparative Study in English, Arabic, and Romanian

“Saying these words aloud” is the universalizable or abstract form of doing this speech act. It is used in
the pract, “[Descend morally to ascend artistically!]” when people discuss artists, thus mirroring the
overall cultural frame. A cultureme such as [Descend morally to ascend artistically!] is a carrier of
meaning that runs on linguistic and paralinguistic parameters. This cultureme reinforces prejudice
against artists and thus demonstrates how the culture affects communicative processes on the Internet.

4.5.3. Romanian Examples Page | 14

To further illustrate the application of the cultural pragmatic framework, we analyzed comments from
Romanian data. These examples demonstrate how cultural schemas, pragmemes, and culturemes
operate in the context of hate speech, as detailed in Table 12.

Table 12
Cultural Pragmatic Framework of 'Usurping Traitors of Any Rights' in Calls for Hungary's Removal from NATO
and the EU
Comment (Original) Translation Analysis
"Ungaria ar face bine sa "Hungary would be well A suggestion that Hungary should leave the
inteleaga o aluzie fina si sa advised to take a hint and EU voluntarily reflecting frustration with
iasa singura din UE..." exit the EU by itself..." Hungary’s stance.
An idiomatic expression implying that
"Asta vrea și cu slanina în "You can’t have your cake
Hungary wants to benefit without making
pod și cu varza unsa!" and eat it too."
sacrifices.
"PAI SA VA DEA PUTIN. "Let Putin give you what A sarcastic comment suggesting Hungary's
PRIETENUL LA NEVOIE you need. A friend in need close relationship with Russia, highlighting
SE CUNOASTE." is a friend indeed!" disdain for Viktor Orban's policies.
"Why so? Oh, because little Accusing Viktor Orban of being pro-Russian,
"Oare de ce? Aaa ca
Victor is a Russophile? with a mocking tone, referring to him as “little
victoras este rusofil? Dap!"
Yes!" Victor.”

These comments can be taken as an example of the cultural schema “Insulting an Adversary”. The
pragmemes entail the use of questions and direct referents to damage and demean Viktor Orban and
Hungary’s political position. The practs refer to specific kinds of speech that reiterate a more profound
culture of scorn toward the target. In this case, the culturemes are the expressions of the insults intended
and the reprobation that are contained within the registers of linguistic and paralinguistic
communication in Romanian. The cultural pragmatic framework provides a powerful tool for
understanding how language is used to convey societal values, especially in the realm of political
criticism and public discourse. In the context of discussions about Hungary’s political role in the EU
and NATO, the cultural schema of ‘Usurping Traitors of Any Rights’ is frequently employed to express
deep-seated frustrations and advocate for punitive actions. This framework can be seen in comments
that demand Hungary’s removal from influential political bodies like the EU and NATO, reflecting a
broader sentiment of disapproval toward Hungary’s leadership under Viktor Orban. Table 13 illustrates
how the cultural schema, pragmeme, pract, and cultureme function in these instances.

Table 13
Cultural Pragmatic Framework of 'Usurping Traitors of Any Rights' in the Context of Hungary’s Position in the
EU and NATO
Component Description
Cultural Schema Usurping Traitors of Any Rights; Quashing an Adversary
Speech
Usurping Hungary of any rights in the EU and NATO
Act/Event
Pragmeme Declaring the ousting of Hungary from NATO and the EU emphatically
"Afară cu Ungaria din UE și NATO" (Oust Hungary from NATO and the European
Pract
Union)
Using emphatic language and all available contextual parameters to reinforce
Cultureme
condemnation
 H. Al Sharoufi & A. E. Sultan/ International Journal of Society, Culture, & Language, 2024 ISSN 2329-2210

The cultural pragmatic framework helps explain how language conveys political frustrations,
particularly in Facebook discussions criticizing Hungary under Viktor Orban. Users employ cultural
schemas like “Usurping Traitors of Any Rights” to advocate for Hungary’s removal from NATO and
the EU. CLA identifies the cultural roots and stimuli fueling political criticisms within Romanian
discourse. The schema “Usurping Traitors of Any Rights” illustrates how dissatisfaction toward
Hungary’s political alignment is expressed through emphatic calls for removal from NATO and the EU.
Page | 15 CLA highlights the patterns of scorn and rejection embedded in these comments, reflecting a broader
cultural frustration. Table 13 showcases this schema, where phrases like “Oust Hungary from NATO
and the EU” are employed to reinforce disdain for Hungary’s stance. The cultureme encapsulates
societal condemnation, showing how language serves as a vehicle for public disapproval in specific
geopolitical contexts.
5. Discussion
This study aimed to explore hate speech on Facebook across three linguistic and cultural environments:
English, Arabic, and Romanian. With the help of a framework based on pragmemes and culturemes,
the research explored 90 hate speech comments and showed how hate speech commentary is
addressable in terms of current cultural values and processes of communication.
Altogether, the study adopted an interdisciplinary approach that involved four analytic frameworks:
Mey’s (2010) pragmemes, Sharifian’s (2011) cultural schema, Al-Sharoufi’s culturemes (2020), and
Pishghadam’s (2020) CLA were utilized to explore the dynamics of hate speech in these diverse
contexts. The results were consistent with the prior research showing that by utilizing pragmeme theory
proposed by Mey (2010), one could define the communicative strategies used in hate speech. There is
a noticeable pattern between insults, condemnation, and rhetorical questions in all three languages, thus
backing Capone and Graci’s (2024) claims that pragmemes involve broad prototypes of the general
position of speech acts in certain contexts. The study also compares such cultural scripts as ‘Condemn
the Wrongdoers!’ in English, Arabic, and Romanian commentaries as consistent with Sharifian’s (2011)
concept of cultural cognition, holding that cultural knowledge determines the understanding and usage
of language.
In the English comments, the analysis reveals that hate speech largely focuses on moral integrity, with
figures like Morgan Freeman being criticized for perceived hypocrisy and financial motives. The
cultural schema of "Quashing an Adversary" is evident in these comments. Sarcasm and direct
accusations are frequently used to diminish the target’s credibility. For example, the statement “Money
can buy anything lol” reflects how sarcasm is employed to question the moral integrity of public figures
when they are perceived as betraying ethical standards for monetary gain. These comments are rooted
in a cultural expectation of moral conduct, and when these expectations are perceived to be violated,
public figures are subject to direct, often harsh, criticism.
In the Romanian comments, hate speech is primarily politically driven, expressing nationalism and
frustration toward Hungary’s role in the European Union. Idiomatic expressions such as “You can’t
have your cake and eat it too”, and calls for political expulsion reveal deep-rooted historical grievances.
The cultural schema of "Usurping Rights" dominates the discourse, highlighting the tension between
Romania’s national identity and Hungary’s perceived political overreach. Additionally, many
comments reflect concerns about cultural identity, particularly Romania’s sovereignty and national
pride, which are often invoked to justify calls for Hungary’s exclusion from the EU. These comments
illustrate a strong sense of nationalistic resentment rooted in historical conflicts, as Romanians express
frustration with their geopolitical relationship with Hungary.
In the Arabic comments, moral and religious condemnation are predominant, especially in discussions
related to the entertainment industry. The schema "Condemn the Wrongdoers!" is used with pragmemes
that emphasize adherence to moral and religious standards. For instance, comments like “May Allah
bless you! This is not art; rather, it is live promiscuity” reflect how religious sentiments are deeply
intertwined with moral critiques. Religious sentiments are frequently invoked to condemn public
figures, reinforcing a collective sense of moral responsibility. These comments highlight a strong
 Multilingual Hate Speech Analysis on Facebook: A Comparative Study in English, Arabic, and Romanian

cultural expectation that entertainment and public conduct must align with religious values, and any
deviation from these values is met with moral condemnation.
Despite these cultural differences, all comments share common linguistic features, such as rhetorical
questions and direct critiques, to convey discontent and express disdain for the targets. This pattern
reflects the broader cultural narratives that underpin hate speech, but the content and targets of these
narratives are uniquely shaped by the ethical, political, or religious concerns within each language's Page | 16
cultural context. Other peculiarities of comments were spotted: religious sentiments in Arabic
comments, as per Aljarah et al. (2020), and the conflict of cultural identity in Romanian comments, as
discussed by David and Tălmăcian (2013). Through the use of Mey’s pragmemes, Sharifian’s cultural
schema, and Al-Sharoufi’s cultureme, the current study sought to analyze the multiple layers of meaning
in hate speech on Facebook. This multiple-perspective approach enabled the study to go further than
simply cataloging hate speech and identifying specifically how it is built up, transmitted, and perceived,
depending on linguistic and cultural contexts.
The following culturemes “Money can buy anything lol,' (English) 'What on Earth is the World Cup
doing in Qatar?'(English), and 'Descend morally to ascend artistically!' (Arabic), show how pragmemes
are realized in terms of both linguistic and paralinguistic features. In the English comments, phrases
like “Money can buy anything lol” and “What on Earth is the World Cup doing in Qatar?” reflect the
cultural schema of "Quashing an Adversary" through sarcasm and moral condemnation of perceived
hypocrisy. Meanwhile, the Arabic comment, “Descend morally to ascend artistically!” illustrates how
religious and moral critique is used to condemn perceived immoral behavior in the entertainment
industry. These examples confirm Al-Sharoufi’s (2020) proposal that culturemes and pragmemes
operate through both linguistic choices and contextual, culturally specific cues.
The study has insights for policy and content moderation with strong recommendations for culturally
appropriate algorithmic detection targeting hate speech and avoiding false positives. Intermittent
educational programs on the subject of intercultural communication are also suggested as a way of
promoting multicultural tolerance and combating hatred. Future work should include the collection of
large amounts of data and the usage of different languages to capture all the hate speech in the world.
It might perhaps be promising to incorporate modern advances in artificial intelligence and machine
learning to bolster the measures of detection. Further, researching hate speech patterns across the
timeline, especially after certain momentous sociopolitical transformations, might help to unveil a lot
about hostility relations and the efficiency of the interference measures.
Acknowledgment
The first author is grateful for the exceptional support and resources the Gulf University for Science
and Technology, Kuwait, has given him, which played a key role in the publication of this article.
Disclosure Statement
The authors claim no conflict of interest.
Funding
The research did not receive any specific grants from funding agencies.
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