COMPUTER SCIENCE – 11

Chapter 5
Computer Architecture
Contents
• Computer Architecture
• CPU
• Memory Unit
• Computer Bus
• I/O Unit
• CPU Registers
• Instruction Set
• Instruction Format
• Fetch - Decode - Execute Cycle
• Port
• Operating System
• Programming Languages
• Language Translator
Computer Architecture
Q.2 What is computer architecture? Explain components of computer
architecture.
 Von Neumann Design
• 1951 → proposed design of a stored-program computer
• By Von Neumann & his team
• Design → a sequence of instructions (called a program) & data are stored in
memory
• Computer reads instructions one by one
• executes these instructions to perform different operations on data
• Very simple design & general-purpose
• Modern digital computers → based on Von Neumann design
 Computer Architecture
• Components of computer
• each component performs a specific function
• Components of computer communicate with one another
• Computer architecture → Way in which various components of computer are
connected
 Components of Computer Architecture
1- CPU
• CPU → Central Processing Unit, Processor
• Considered as brain of computer
• Processes (or manipulates) data according to given instructions and converts it
into useful information
• Components of CPU
Control Unit (CU)
• Acts as a supervisor of computer
• Controls all parts of computer & coordinates all activities of computer
• Fetches instructions & data from memory unit
• Decodes & executes instructions one by one
Arithmetic & Logic Unit (ALU)
• Performs all arithmetic & logical operations on data
 Components of Computer Architecture
2- Main Memory
• Memory → Used to store data and instructions
• CPU loads data & instructions in main memory
• Reads data & instructions from main memory
• Process data according to given instructions
• Data and results of calculations → stored in main memory
• Working area of computer (computer cannot work without having main memory)
3- I/O Unit
• Controls communication between processor & peripheral devices (i.e. I/O devices)
• Peripheral devices → keyboard, monitor, printer, & disk drives
• Controls different I/O devices connected to computer system
4- Bus Interconnection
• Bus → electrical path through which data, instructions, or control signals flow from one
component of computer to another
• Communication channel on motherboard
• Connects different components of computer (such as CPU, main memory, and I/O units)
• Components → communicate with each other → through Bus interconnection
CPU
Q.3 Explain CPU with its main components.
 CPU
• CPU → Central Processing Unit, Processor
• Considered as brain of computer
• Performs different operations on the data according to given instructions
• Manages other operations of computer
• CPU of personal computer → microprocessor
• Single chip
• Located on motherboard
• Other components connected to it → through Bus interconnection
• CPU sends & receives data to/from different components of computer
through Bus interconnection
 Components of CPU
1. Control Unit
• Acts as a supervisor of computer
• Controls all parts of computer & coordinates all activities of computer
• Example: receives data & instructions from input device and stores them in main
memory.
• Also controls execution of instructions given to computer
• Fetches instructions & data from memory unit
• Decodes & executes instructions one by one
2. Arithmetic & Logic Unit (ALU)
• Performs arithmetic & logical operations on data
• Arithmetic operations →ALU performs addition, subtraction, multiplication, & division
• Logical operations →ALU compares numerical data as well as alphabetic data
• For example: checks whether first number is greater than second, less than second or equal to
second, etc.
Memory Unit
Q.4 What is the main memory? Describe its structure. How data is accessed in
main memory?
 Memory Unit
• Memory → store data & instructions
• Personal computer contains a main memory
• CPU loads data & instructions in main memory to process data
• CPU reads data & instructions from main memory & processes data according
to given instructions
• Data & results of calculations are also stored in main memory
• Working area of computer
• computer cannot work without having main memory
• Two types of memories
• RAM
• ROM
 Structure of Main Memory
• Built in form of a chip
• chip → made of semiconductor material
• Main memory of computer → consists of thousands or millions of cells
• Each cell → store a bit (Binary digit)
• bit represents 0 or 1
• Cells logically organized into a group of 8 bits → byte

• Byte in memory → unique number assigned → address of that byte

 Accessing Data in Main Memory
• Main memory → collection of bytes arranged in an order
• CPU access any byte → by specifying its address
• Different bytes → accessed directly or randomly
• Accessing any part of memory → takes an equal amount of time
• Very fast to access data as compared to other storage devices (magnetic and
optical disks)
• because; main memory does not involve any mechanical movement in accessing data
 RAM
• RAM → Random Access Memory
• Because; data accessed directly
• Used for storage of active programs & data
• Processor directly write & read information (data & instructions) to/from RAM
• read/write memory
• Processor → write information (data & instructions) to RAM
• Processor → read information from RAM
• Temporarily storage, primary memory
• volatile memory
• data and programs lost when power is turned off
• Information must be saved on storage devices for later use
• Storage capacity → measured in bytes
• PCs → RAM size 4GB or more
• More RAM size → computer can use a powerful program with a large size
• Improves data processing speed
 Types of RAM
1. DRAM
• DRAM → Dynamic Random Access Memory
• Used in most of the computers
• To maintain data in DRAM → refreshed with electric charge again and again
• otherwise, data lost
• During refreshing process → CPU has to wait (write/read data to/from DRAM)
• Slow memory
2. SRAM
• SRAM → Static Random Access Memory
• Does not have to be refreshed with electric charge again and again
• Faster than DRAM
• because CPU does not have to wait
• Utilize less power than DRAM
• More expensive than DRAM chip
• SRAM technology → used to build a very fast memory → cache memory
 Cache Memory
• Processor obtains data & instructions from RAM during data processing
• Often obtains same data or instructions again and again
• a lot of time wasted
• Performance affected
• Cache memory → very small but very fast memory than RAM
• Used to improve performance of processor
• Build-in with CPU
• Separate chips on motherboard (located between RAM and CPU)
• Stores frequently used instructions & data
• When CPU needs specific data or program instruction
• quickly obtains from cache memory
• Speeds up the working of CPU
• If required data & instructions not found → processor loads them
• into RAM from disk (i.e. hard disk)
• loads/stores a copy in cache memory
 ROM
• ROM → Read Only Memory
• Data and instructions stored by manufacturer at time of ROM manufacturing
• cannot be changed afterward
• Data or instructions can only be read but cannot be written
• That is why, Read Only Memory
• Stores permanently
• non-volatile memory
• When power turned off → instructions not lost
• Contains instructions → help booting process
• When computer is switched on → instructions in ROM automatically activated
• prepare the computer for use
 Types of ROM
1. PROM
• PROM → Programmable Read Only Memory
• Initially blank
• User or manufacturer write data or programs on it → by using special devices
• Once program or data is written → cannot be changed
• If error in writing program or data → cannot be removed
• PROM chip becomes unusable
2. EPROM
• EPROM → Erasable Programmable Read Only Memory
• Initially blank; user or manufacturer write a program or data → by using special devices
• Program or data can be removed (erased) by using special devices and ultraviolet rays
• program or data can be changed & new data can be added
• When EPROM is in use, only read contents
3. EEPROM
• EEPROM → Electrically Erasable Programmable Read Only Memory
• User can write or change instructions or information → with the help of electrical devices
• Data can be modified easily
 ROM RAM
• Read-only memory • Read & write memory
• Permanent memory • Temporary memory
• Non-volatile memory • Volatile memory
• Manufacturer → only write data • User → read & write
and programs (at manufacturing data/programs (at any time
time) during data processing)
• Small storage capacity • Large storage capacity
• Data written → using special • Data written → using electrical
devices & ultraviolet rays devices
Computer Bus
Q.9 What is a computer Bus? Explain its basic types.
 Computer Bus
• Different components of computer → interconnected by using a set of parallel lines
or conducting wires
• Computer Bus → set of electrical paths through which computer (CPU) sends &
receives data & instructions (and also sends command signals) to/from different
components of computer
• Backbone of computer
• Without bus → Computer cannot perform any function
• Various devices or components communicate through buses
• Example: buses transfer data
• input device → memory
• memory → output device or storage device or between memory and processor
• Capacity of bus → depends upon number of data lines
• For example: bus with 16-lines → carry 16-bits at a time
• Bus Width → amount of data (or a number of bits) that a Bus can carry at one time
• For example: bus with 32 lines →transfer 32 bits (or 4 bytes) at a time
• Larger number of bits handled by bus → faster data transfer rate
 Types of Buses
(1) System Buses
• Connects main components of computer
• such as CPU & main memory on motherboard
• System Buses → part of motherboard
• Normally 70 – 100 lines
• Types of System Bus
• Data Bus
• Address Bus
• Control Bus
(2) Expansion Buses
• Connect CPU (processor) to peripheral devices
• Peripheral devices: keyboard, mouse, modem, printer, etc.
• Processor communicates with peripheral → via expansion bus & system bus
• Width of expansion buses → from 16 to 64 bits
 Types of System Bus
1. Data Bus
• Transfer data (and instructions) between different components
• Connects CPU, memory unit, and other hardware devices on motherboard
• bi-directional
• Data sent & received through this electrical path
• For example: CPU write & read data to/ from main memory through a data bus
• Consists of 8, 16, 32, or 64 parallel lines
• Data Bus of 64-line → transfer 64-bits (or 8 bytes) of data at a time
• Number of lines → affects speed of data transfer
 Types of System Bus
2. Address Bus
• Carry address information or memory locations
• Unidirectional
• information flows only in one direction
• CPU can only send address information & cannot receive any information
• Components → connected through address bus
• Each component → assigned unique ID → address of that component
• When a computer component needs to communicate
• uses address bus to specify address of that component
• Suppose → CPU needs to read data from memory
• places address of that memory location on address bus
• address is carried to memory
• Data from requested memory location →fetched
• placed on data bus
• CPU reads data from data bus
• Width of address bus → from 16 to 32 bits
• 32-bit address bus → address 232 (4,294,967,296 i.e. 4GB) memory locations
 Types of System Bus
3. Control Bus
• CPU sends control signals to different components or devices
• Control signal → timing information & command signal
• Timing information → time for which device or component can use data & address bus
• Command signal → specifies the type of operation that is to be performed
• CPU (control unit) → controls functioning of components through control bus
• Components & devices → input/output devices, main memory, secondary storage
devices, etc.
• Width of control bus → from 8 to 16 bits
• Suppose → CPU wants to read data from main memory
• Control bus send "memory read" command to main memory
• Also transmit other control signals like ACKS (Acknowledgement signals)
• When CPU sends command to main memory → writing data
• memory sends back acknowledgment signal to CPU after writing data successfully
 CPU Commands → CPU operations
• Memory Write
• Used to write data to a specified location in main memory
• Memory Read
• Used to read data from a specified location in main memory
• I/O Write
• Used to write data to an output device
• I/O Read
• Used to read data from an input device
• Bus Request
• Used to request for taking control of Bus
• so that requesting device can use it to transmit data
• Bus Grant
• Used by Bus controller to indicate grant of the Bus to a device
Data Communication: CPU → Memory
• Suppose → CPU wants to read data from main memory
• Control bus → "memory read" command send to main memory
• Address bus → CPU places address of memory location
• Address carried to memory
• Data from requested memory location →fetched
• placed on data bus
• CPU reads data from data bus
If Number of components connected to system bus increase, then
• More components try to use System Bus at same time
• Slow down computer
• Because; components have to wait longer to get access to Bus
• Solution of Problem:
• Only major components are connected
• Remaining components are connected to another external Bus →Expansion Bus
• Expansion Bus → connected to System Bus
I/O Unit
Q.14 Describe the function of the I/O Unit of the computer system.
 I/O Unit
• Input/output devices
• keyboard, mouse, scanner, monitor, printer, microphone, video camera, etc.
• Different functions
• Different data transfer rate
• Support different formats
• Impossible to connect directly to system bus
• Difficult for CPU to control directly.
• Solution → Special hardware component → I/O unit
• I/O unit → control different I/O devices
• Only I/O unit → connected to Bus
• CPU and all other devices are connected → to I/O unit
• Works as an interface between CPU & I/O devices
• Performs all I/O operations or tasks without direct involvement of CPU
• Responsible to manage speed difference between processor & I/O devices
Ways of transferring data from peripheral devices into computer
1) Interrupts
• Signal sent by CPU → I/O device (or sent by I/O device → CPU)
• CPU issues command to I/O device for I/O operation
• When device gets ready → generates an interrupt signal to processor
• CPU on receiving interrupt signal → suspends all other processing & performs I/O
operation
+Requires no additional hardware
+Easy to implement
- Processor suspends all other processing
- Reduces overall performance of computer system
Ways of transferring data from peripheral devices into computer
2) DMA
• DMA → Direct Memory Access
• DMA controller → special hardware component
• Data transfer takes place without involvement of
CPU
• CPU → sends request to DMA controller to perform
I/O operation
• CPU → continues to do other tasks
• When data transfer completed
• DMA controller → sends on interrupt signal to CPU
• CPU involved only at beginning & end of data transfer
+ Processor does not have to wait for completion
of I/O operation
+ Performance increased
- More complex & more hardware needed to
implement
CPU Registers
Q.16 What are CPU registers? Describe the special-purpose registers.
Q.17 Explain different general-purpose registers (GPR).
Q.18 Explain the purposes of different Segment / Address registers.
 CPU Registers
• Registers → CPU contains small, high-speed storage locations (areas)
• Used during program execution
• Temporarily hold instructions, data, or intermediate results of calculations
• Different types of registers → used for a specific purpose
• Size of registers → 1, 2, 4, or 8 bytes
• Large register → increases performance of CPU
• Example: computer having 32-bit (4-bytes) registers → CPU can process four bytes of
data at a time
• Types of Registers
• Special-purpose registers
• General-purpose registers
• Segment registers
 Special Purpose Registers
• Perform specific functions (special functions) during program execution
1. Program Counter (PC)
• Controls sequence in which instructions are fetched from memory
• Holds (stores) the address of next instruction to be fetched for execution
• When instruction fetched → value of PC incremented
• register always points or holds address of next instruction
• Instruction Pointer Register
2. Instruction Register (IR)
• Stores recently fetched instruction from memory
• Control unit takes this instruction
• decodes, and executes it
 Special Purpose Registers
3. Memory Address Register (MAR)
• Holds address of memory where CPU wants to read/write
• When CPU wants to read/write
• places address of required memory location in the MAR
4. Memory Buffer Register (MBR)
• Store data → coming from memory & going to memory
5. Stack Pointer
• Stack → set of memory blocks (data stored and retrieved in order)
• Order → Last In, First Out (LIFO)
• Stack pointer register → used to manage stacks in memory
• For example: undo & redo operations in different application software
 General-Purpose Registers
• Store data (operands), addresses of data and intermediate results of operations
• Used for arithmetic & logical operations, data movement
• Part of ALU
1. Accumulator Register (AX)
• Used for arithmetic and other data operations
2. Base Register (BX)
• Used during arithmetic, logic, and data movement operations
• Stores memory addresses of data
3. Counter Register (CX)
• Used for counting purposes
• Acts as a counter for looping
4. Data Register (DX)
• Used with Accumulator register → for division & multiplication operations
• Also used in input/output operations
 General-Purpose Registers
• General-purpose registers → EAX, EBX, ECX, and EDX
• Divided into a higher & lower byte
• Lower byte registers → AL, BL, CL, and DL
• Higher byte registers → AH, BH, CH, and DH
• A → Accumulator
• B → Base
• C → Count
• D → Data
• H → Higher
• L → Lower
• Size lower byte & higher byte → 1 byte (8 bits)
• Size of AX, BX, CX, and DX → 2 bytes (16 bits)
• Size of EAX, EBX, ECX, and EDX → 4 bytes (32 bits)
• Modern processors use → 4 bytes registers → EAX, EBX, ECX, and EDX
 Segment Registers
• Segment → A block of memory
• Segment Registers → store addresses of memory blocks that are being currently
used by CPU, Address registers
• Four segment registers → CS, DS, ES, & SS
• Size → 2-bytes
• Used with IP register or with two index registers DI & SI to address various areas or blocks of
memory
• CS (Code Segment)
• Holds base location of all executable instructions (code) of program
• Used along with IP register to fetch instruction
• DS (Data Segment)
• Used to store base location of memory variables
• Used along with DI or SI register to refer to data
• ES (Extra Segment)
• Used as an additional base location for memory variables
• SS (Stack Segment)
• Used to store base location of current program stack
Instruction Set
Q.19 What is instruction set? Explain different types of instructions executed by
CPU to perform various operations.
 Instruction Set
• Instruction set → A set of all instructions that a CPU can execute
• Different types of CPUs → different instruction set
• Modern CPU can execute 80 to 120 instructions
• Types of Instructions
• Data Transfer Instructions
• Arithmetic and Logical Instructions
• I/O Instructions
• Control Transfer Instructions
 Types of Instructions
1- Data Transfer Instructions
• Used to transfer data from one unit of computer to another during program
execution
• Different instructions for transfer of data → provided by CPU
• Programmer use to transfer data → from RAM to CPU registers and back to
RAM or to output devices etc.
2- Arithmetic and Logical Instructions
• Arithmetic Instructions →perform arithmetic operations
• Arithmetic operations →addition, subtraction, multiplication, and division
• Executed by ALU
• Logical Instructions → perform logical operations
• Logical operation → comparing two data values
• Executed by the ALU
 Types of Instructions
3- I/O Instructions
• Used for writing & reading data to peripheral devices
• Peripheral devices → keyboard, monitor, and disks, etc.
• programmer use → to perform I/O operations
4- Control Transfer Instructions
• Used to transfer execution control from one part of program to another during
program execution
• Used to execute or ignore a set of instructions after testing a condition
• Used to execute a set of instructions repeatedly for a specified number of times
• Examples: JUMP & JUMPZ (Jump if zero)
Instruction Format
Q.20 What is instruction format? Describe various instruction formats.
 Instruction Format
• Instruction → statement in machine code that tells computer to do something
• Consists of a group of bits that is logically divided into different parts
• Each part performs specific action
• Structure of instruction → Instruction format
• Variety of instruction code formats
• Control unit → responsible to interpret instruction code
• provides necessary control function needed to execute instruction
• Instruction code format for general-purpose computer → 16-bits
• General format of instruction → Opcode [Addresses of Operands]
• Parts of Instruction code format
• Opcode (operation code) → indicates type of action or operation (addition,
multiplication, subtraction, division, etc.). It takes 4 bits
• Addresses of operands → indicates addresses of operands in memory
 Various Instruction Code Formats
• Different instructions → different addresses
• Instruction divided according to addresses used
1- Zero-Address Instruction Format
• No address field
• Stack-organized computer → instructions like ADD & MUL
• instructions like PUSH & POP → need address field to specify operand (stack)
• For example: ADD instruction → used without specifying any memory address
• Instruction takes values from stack, adds them, and returns result to stack
2- One-Address Instruction Format
• Only one address field
• Uses accumulator register for all data calculations or manipulations
• However, second register is required for multiplication & division
 Various Instruction Code Formats
3- Two-Address Instruction Format
• Uses two address fields
• Each specify either a register or a memory address
• Most common format
• Examples: MOV, ADD, CMP, and BIS
4- Three-Address Instruction Format
• Uses three address fields
• Each specify either a register or a memory address
+Takes less execution time
- Binary-coded instructions require too many bits to specify three addresses
Fetch - Decode - Execute Cycle
Q.21 Explain the Fetch - Decode - Execute cycle of CPU.
 Fetch - Decode - Execute Cycle
• fetch- decode- execute cycle (FDX), instruction cycle → Process by which
• CPU fetches a program instruction from memory
• decodes instruction
• executes it
• CPU works by following FDX cycle to execute all instructions
• When program is to be executed
• Instructions & data loaded → from disk into main memory
• Address of first instruction → copied into PC register
• Control given to CPU for execution
 Fetch - Decode - Execute Cycle
1) Fetch Instruction
• CPU fetches instruction & data from memory by
• Copies memory address from PC → MAR
• Sends memory read command to main memory
• Copies data from main memory → MBR & instruction → IR (instruction register)
• Value of PC incremented (point to next instruction)
2) Decode Instruction
• CPU decodes instruction by analyzing opcode of instruction
• Also reads values of operands specified in instruction
• Actually, necessary circuits are activated that are required to execute instruction
3) Execute Instruction
• CPU executes instruction by using activated circuits
• CPU generates control signals needed for execution & sends these signals to relevant units (perform
action)
• For example:
• control unit passes data & decoded instruction to ALU
• ALU → performs mathematical or logic operations on data according to instruction code
• Results are written in registers & memory
Port
Q.22 What is a port? Explain different types of ports.
 Port
• Peripheral devices connected to system unit through a special device → Port
• Port → interface or connecting point
• Provide a standard way of communication between computer and its
peripheral devices
• Example: keyboard, mouse, printer, monitor, & modem connected with computer by
plugging their connectors into ports
• Computer or mobile device → different types of ports
• Example: desktop personal computer → different ports on its front and back
 Types of Port
i) Serial Port
• Transmits one bit at a time
• communication (COM) port
• Slow data transmission
• Data transmission rate → 115 Kbps or more
• Serial port → mouse, keyboard, and modem are connected
• do not require fast data transmission
• Not used today
 Types of Port
ii) Parallel Port
• Transmits many bits at a time
• Faster data transmission than serial port
• Data transmission rate → up to 12 Mbps or more
• Parallel port → printer and scanner connected
• Line Printer Ports (LPT)
• Not used in modern computers
• Parallel and serial ports → replaced with USB ports
 Types of Port
iii) USB Port
• USB → Universal Serial Bus
• Most popular standard port used in PCs
• Single connector → allows up to 127 peripheral devices to be connected
• Examples: keyboard, mouse, printer, scanner, digital camera, speakers, card
reader, smartphone, USB flash drives, & external hard disk
• USB ports in personal computers → typically 6 to 8 either on front or back
• Also be used as a power supply for different devices
• such as smartphones & tablets
Operating System
Q.23 What is operating system? Name some important operating systems.
 Operating System
• A set of system programs that controls & coordinates overall operations of a
computer system (or mobile device)
• Computer needs an operating system to do work
• Computer cannot operate without OS
• Without OS, computer is like a car with no fuel
• OS must be installed on computer to perform different tasks
• When computer is turned on, OS loaded into main memory from disk
• Performs various functions residing in main memory
• Tasks of OS
• Provides user-interface
• Accepts input from input devices
• Sends output to output devices
• Manages the application programs in memory
• Organizes data on storage devices
• Performs memory management tasks
• Manages and controls the I/O devices etc.
 Operating System
• Controls overall hardware to perform various operations
• Provides most common functions needed by users & programmers
• Users & programmers → request hardware through OS
• OS provides an interface to users & programmers
• Important Operating Systems
• Microsoft Windows
• UNIX
• Linux
• Mac OS
• Solaris
 Functions of Operating System
1. Booting
• OS starts computer and makes it ready to work
• Process of starting or restarting a computer → booting
2. Manage Hardware Resources
• Different applications (or programs) try to use various hardware resources at same time
• OS is responsible for allocating & managing various resources for different applications
3. Memory Management
• Data & program must be loaded into main memory for execution
• Different programs & data can be loaded at the same time
• OS manages and allocates memory to different programs
• OS carefully monitors contents of memory
• When program terminates its execution → OS de-allocates (clears) memory area and its related
data
4. Loading and Executing Programs
• Program loaded into main memory for execution
• OS provides facility for loading program into memory and for starting its execution
 Functions of Operating System
5. Data Security
• OS provides facility to protect important data against illegal access and modification
(unauthorized access).
6. Providing User-Interface
• OS provides an interface between user & computer
• User interacts with computer through OS
• User requests computer through OS to perform specific task
• Command-line User Interface
• provides a prompt line on computer screen
• User communicates → by typing commands through keyboard
• Difficult interface
• Example: MS-DOS operating system
• Graphical User Interface (GUI)
• provides graphical images on computer screen
• Images → icons or command buttons
• Example: application programs, commands, disk drives, files, etc. in form of icons
• User communicates → by clicking icons with a pointing device (such as mouse)
• GUI → easy to interact
• Example: Microsoft Windows
Programming Languages
Q.25 What are programming languages? Explain low-level and high-level
languages.
 Programming Languages
• Provides way of communication between user & computer
• Computer program written in programming language
• Various programming languages
• Example:
• programming languages → for writing business programs
• programming languages → for writing scientific programs
• Syntax → set of rules of a specific programming language to write a computer
program
• Program instructions are written according to these rules
• Types of Programming language
• Low-level languages
• High-level languages
 Types of Programming Languages
1- Low-Level Languages
• Near to machine language (0s and 1s)
• Difficult to learn and use
• because instructions are written in binary form and symbolic form
• Examples: machine language & assembly language
(i) Machine Language
• Instructions are written in binary form (in form of 1s and 0s)
• Fundamental language of computer
• Computer only understands machine language
• No need to translate
• because; already in machine code i.e. binary form
(ii) Assembly Language
• Easier to learn and use than machine language
• Instructions are written by using short names or symbols → mnemonics
• Example: ADD for addition, MUL for multiplication, and SUB for subtraction
• Symbolic language → Assembly language
 Types of Programming Languages
2- High-Level Languages
• Near to human languages
• Easy to learn and use
• Instructions written in English like words → print and input etc.
• Language has its own rules or grammar for writing program
• Computer cannot understand program written in any high-level language
• Must be translated to machine code before running on computer
• Language has its own translator program
• Examples: BASIC, FORTRAN, C & C++, Java, Pascal, Visual Basic, and COBOL.
• Source Code
• Program written in any high-level programming language or assembly
language
• Cannot be executed directly by computer
• Must be converted into machine code before running it on computer
Object Code
• Computer understands only machine code
• Source code → high-level languages and assembly language code
• Must be translated into machine code before running it on computer
• Translated program into machine code → object code
Language Translator
Q.27 What is a language translator? Explain its different types.
 Language Translator
• System software that translates source code into machine code (object code)
• language processor
• Every programming language (except machine language) has its own language
translator
• Computer only understands instructions in machine code (i.e. 0’s and 1’s)
• Difficult to write program directly in machine code
• Mostly programs are written in high-level languages
• such as C/C++, Java, and BASIC
• Must be translated into machine code before running on computer
 Language Translator
1- Compiler
• Translates source code into machine code (object code) as a whole
• Examples: C and C++ translators
• Compiler → analyzes source code & checks errors
• If no error → translates source code into object code (machine code)
• If error → specifies errors and does not translate
 Language Translator
2- Interpreter
• Translates & executes statements of a source code one by one
• Translates one statement & executes it immediately
• before translating next statement
• Process continued up to end of the program
• If error → terminates translating process at that statement
• Also displays an error message
• Example: GW-BASIC translator
+ Easier to detect & correct errors in source program
- Time-consuming process
- Does not produce object code
- Each time program run → source code translated again
- Must have a Interpreter permanently on our computer
3- Assembler
• Translates program written in assembly language into machine code
 Compiler Interpreter
• Translates as a whole • Translates statement-by-statement
• Creates an object file • Does not create an object file
• Fast program execution • Slow program execution
• Translated only once • Translated each time to run the
• Not easier to correct errors program
• Easier to correct errors
 Primary Memory Secondary Memory
• Temporary memory • Permanent memory
• Use to store during data • Use to store permanently for later
processing use
• Volatile memory • Non-volatile memory
• Smaller storage capacity than • Larger storage capacity than primary
secondary memory memory
• High data accessing speed • Slow data accessing speed
• Directly accessed by CPU • Not directly accessed by CPU
For more details, refers to

PM Series

Computer Science
ICS Part-1

by
CM Aslam, Aqsa Aslam, Mudassir Ahmad & Atif Mansoor

Publisher: Majeed Sons

22- Urdu Bazar, Lahore